/  HISTORY  OF  CLASSICAL 
SCHOLARSHIP 

FROM  THE  REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING 


i    'W;  FRANCE,  ENGLAND  AND  NETHERLANDS 


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OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


EX  LIBRIS 
ERNEST  CARROLL  MOORE 


A    HISTORY 

OF 

CLASSICAL    SCHOLARSHIP 


CAMBRIDGE   UNIVERSITY    PRESS   WAREHOUSE, 

C.   F.   CLAY,   MANAGER. 

Eontoon:    FETTER  LANE,    E.G. 

CFUmburglj:   100,   PRINCES  STREET. 


F.   A.    BROCKHAUS. 
Berlin:    A.  ASHER  AND  CO. 
#rtn  gorfe :    G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS, 
ant)  Calcutta:    MACMILLAN  AND  CO.,  LTD. 


[All  Rights  reserved.] 


FRANCESCO  PETRARCA. 

From  a  MS  of  Petrarch,  De  viris  illitslribits  (1379),  m  tlle  Bibliotheque 
Natioiiale,  Paris.  Reproduced  (by  permission)  from  M.  Pierre  de 
Nolhac's  Petrarque  et  /' ffiitnanisme,  1892  ;  ed.  i,  1907. 


^Frontispiece  to  Vol.  II. 


A    HISTORY 

OF 

CLASSICAL    SCHOLARSHIP 

VOL.   II 

FROM  THE  REVIVAL    OF  LEARNING 

TO   THE  END   OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 

(IN  ITALY,    FRANCE,    ENGLAND,   AND    THE 

NETHERLANDS} 


BY 


JOHN   EDWIN   SANDYS,   Lnr.D. 

FELLOW    OF    ST   JOHN'S   COLLEGE, 

AND    PUBLIC   ORATOR    IN    THE   UNIVERSITY   OF   CAMBRIDGE, 
HON.    LITT.D.    DUBLIN 


CAMBRIDGE 

AT   THE    UNIVERSITY    PRESS 
1908 


A  just  story  of  learning,  containing  the  antiquities  and  originals 
of  knowledges  and  their  sects,  their  inventions,  their  traditions,  their 
diverse  administrations  and  managings,  their  floiirishings,  their 
oppositions,  decays,  depressions,  oblivions,  removes,  with  the  caitses 
and  occasions  of  them,  and  all  other  events  concerning  learning, 
throughout  the  ages  of  the  world,  I  may  truly  affirm  to  be  wanting. 

BACON'S  Advancement  of  Learning,  1605,  Book  n,  i  2. 


Education 
Library 


B'l 


PREFACE. 


THE  publication  of  the  second  and  third  volumes  of  the 
present  History  of  Classical  Scholarship  brings  to  a  close 
a  work  that  was  begun  on  New  Year's  day  in  1900.  The  first 
volume,  extending  from  the  sixth  century  B.C.  to  the  end  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  had  only  recently  appeared,  in  October,  1903, 
when  I  had  the  honour  of  being  invited  to  deliver  the  Lane 
lectures  at  Harvard  in  the  spring  of  1905,  and  the  result  was 
published  in  the  same  year  under  the  title  of  Harvard  Lectures  on 
the  Revival  of  Learning.  The  kindly  reception  accorded  to  the 
first  volume  of  the  History  in  the  United  States  of  America,  as 
well  as  in  England  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  led  to  the 
publication  of  a  second  edition  in  October,  1906. 

The  volumes  now  published  begin  with  the  Revival  of  Learning 
and  end  with  the  present  day.  They  include  a  survey  of  the  lives 
and  works  of  the  leading  scholars  from  the  fourteenth  to  the 
nineteenth  century.  Each  of  the  periods  embraced  in  these 
volumes  opens  with  a  chronological  conspectus  of  the  scholars  of 
that  period,  giving  the  dates  of  their  births  and  deaths,  and,  in 
the  last  four  centuries,  grouping  them  under  the  nations  to  which 
they  belong.  In  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  the 
nations  are  arranged  in  the  following  order, — Italy,  France,  the 
Netherlands,  England,  and  Germany.  This  order  has,  however, 
been  abandoned  in  the  eighteenth,  in  which  the  influence  of 
Bentley  on  Greek  scholarship  in  Holland  makes  it  historically 
necessary  to  place  England  immediately  before  the  Netherlands. 
It  has  also,  for  still  more  obvious  reasons,  been  abandoned  in  the 
nineteenth  century  in  the  case  of  Germany.  Hence,  in  the  first 
part  of  the  third  volume,  the  history  of  the  eighteenth  century  in 
Germany  is  immediately  followed  by  that  of  the  nineteenth  in  the 
same  country.  There  is  good  precedent  for  treating  German 

882516 


VI  PREFACE. 

Switzerland  in  connexion  with  Germany,  and  French  Switzerland 
in  connexion  with  France.  Spain  and  Portugal  concern  us  mainly 
in  the  sixteenth  century ;  Belgium  and  Holland  are  treated 
separately  after  the  establishment  of  the  Belgian  kingdom  in 
1830.  Under  the  same  century,  room  has  been  found  for  a 
retrospect  of  the  history  of  classical  learning  in  Denmark,  Norway 
and  Sweden,  in  Greece  and  in  Russia,  and  also  for  a  brief  notice 
of  its  recent  fortunes  in  Hungary.  The  history  of  the  nineteenth 
century  in  England  is  immediately  followed  by  that  of  the  United 
States  in  the  last  chapter  of  the  work. 

The   bibliography   prefixed   to  the  second  volume  indicates 

most  of  the  sources  of  information  used  in  preparing  the  second 

and  third  volumes.     It  may  possibly  give  the  impression  that  the 

present  work  has  had  more  precursors  than  is  actually  the  case. 

At  Gottingen,  Ernst  Curtius  attempted  in  vain  to  induce  Sauppe, 

and,    failing   him,    Dittenberger,    to    write   a   general   history   of 

classical  philology.     Brief  and  suggestive  outlines  of  the  subject 

have   appeared  from  time  to  time,  but  the  present  is  the  sole 

attempt  to  cover  the  whole  ground  with  any  fulness  of  detail.     It 

is  only  the  first  century  of  the  Revival  of  Learning  in  Italy  that 

has    been   treated   in  the  admirable  work  of  Voigt.     Bursian's 

valuable  '  History  of  Classical  Philology  in  Germany '  is  almost 

exclusively  confined  to  that  country ;  a  handy  volume  on  classical 

learning  in  Holland  was  written  by  Lucian  Miiller ;  and  a  very 

brief  sketch  of  its  fortunes  in  Belgium  was  buried  by  Roersch  in 

a  Belgian  encyclopaedia.     In  the  case  of  all  the  other  countries 

of  Europe,  and  in  that  of  the  United  States  of  America,  there  has 

been  no  separate  history;  so  that,  in  the  present  volumes,  the 

work  has  been  done  for  the  first  time,  not  for  England  alone,  but 

also  for  Italy,  France,  Scandinavia,  Greece  and  Russia,  and  for 

the  United  States,  while  the  history  of  scholarship  in  Holland, 

Belgium,  and  Germany  has  been  studied  anew,  and  has  been 

brought  down  to  the  present  date.     The  scholars  whose  lives  and 

works  are  reviewed  in  the  present  volumes  are  almost  exclusively 

those  who  have  already  passed  away.     It  is  only  in  a  very  few 

cases,  where  complete  silence  would  have  been  unnatural,  that 

I  have  mentioned  the  names  of  living  scholars,  such  as  Weil  and 

Comparetti. 


PREFACE.  Vll 

In  endeavouring  to  sketch  the  leading  characteristics  of  a  long 
series  of  representatives  of  classical  studies  from  the  age  of 
Petrarch  to  the  present  time,  I  have  repeatedly  been  reminded  of 
a  custom  of  the  ancient  Romans,  who  placed  in  the  niches  of  the 
atrium  the  painted  masks  of  their  ancestors  and  connected  their 
portraits  by  means  of  the  lines  of  the  family  tree.  Those  portraits 
were  regarded  as  the  chief  adornment  of  the  home,  and  were 
never  removed  except  on  the  occasion  of  a  death  in  the  family, 
when  each  of  the  masks  was  assumed  by  a  living  representative, 
who  was  robed  in  the  semblance  of  the  departed,  and  took  his 
place  in  the  funeral  procession  that  ended  at  the  Rostra  in  the 
Forum.  There  the  '  ancestors '  descended  from  their  chariots, 
and  seated  themselves  in  their  curule  chairs,  while  the  next  of  kin 
arose  and  rehearsed  the  names  and  deeds  of  the  men  enthroned 
around,  and  finally  those  of  him  who  had  been  the  last  to  die1. 
To  the  scholars  of  the  present  day  these  pages  present  a  series  of 
their  own  imagines  maiorum,  each  set  apart  in  his  several  niche, 
and  grouped  in  order  of  time  and  place  according  to  the  centuries 
and  the  nations  to  which  they  belong.  They  pass  before  us  in  a 
long  procession,  and  it  is  the  author's  privilege  to  come  into  the 
mart  of  the  world  and  to  announce  the  names  and  the  achieve- 
ments of  each  to  all  who  care  to  listen. 

Portraits  of  nearly  sixty  scholars  have  been  selected  for  re- 
production in  the  present  volumes.  For  the  original  engravings 
or  lithographs  of  seventeen  of  these2  I  am  indebted  to  Professor 
Gudeman,  formerly  of  Cornell  and  now  of  Munich,  who  generously 
placed  the  whole  of  his  collection  at  my  disposal.  M.  Pierre  de 
Nolhac  has  kindly  permitted  me  to  copy  the  portrait  of  Petrarch 
which  forms  the  frontispiece  of  his  classic  work  on  '  Petrarch  and 
Humanism '.  M.  Henri  Omont  has  readily  allowed  me  to  repro- 
duce the  portrait  of  Guarino,  first  published  by  himself  from  a  MS 
in  England.  Mr  G.  F.  Hill,  of  the  British  Museum,  has  supplied 

1  Polybius,  vi  53;  Pliny,  N.  If.  xxxv  6;  Mommsen's  History  of  Koine, 
book  III,  chap,  xiii  /////. 

-  liurman,  Ernesti,  Fabricius,  Gronovius,  Ilemsterhuys,  Ileyne,  Lachmann, 
Lambimis,  Meineke,  Montfaucon,  K.  O.  Miiller,  Muretus,  Niebuhr,  Kitsclil, 
Ruhnken,  Salmasius,  Vossius.  The  sources,  from  which  these  and  all  the 
other  portraits  are  ultimately  derived,  are  indicated  in  the  List  of  Illustrations. 


Vlll  PREFACE. 

me  with  the  cast  of  the  medallion  of  Boccaccio.  M.  Salomon 
Reinach  has  been  good  enough  to  select  the  engravings  of  Robert 
Estienne,  Casaubon,  Du  Cange,  and  Mabillon,  photographed  on 
my  behalf  in  the  National  Library  of  France,  and  also  to  facilitate 
the  reproduction  of  the  portrait  of  Boissonade.  The  Rev.  E.  S. 
Roberts,  Master  of  Gonville  and  Caius  College,  now  Vice-Chan- 
cellor of  Cambridge,  has  lent  me  an  excellent  photograph  of  the 
Heidelberg  portrait  of  Janus  Gruter.  Professor  Hartman,  now 
Rector  of  the  University  of  Leyden,  has  entrusted  to  me  his 
own  lithographed  copy  of  the  presentation  portrait  of  Cobet. 
Messrs  Teubner  of  Leipzig  have  readily  permitted  the  reproduc- 
tion of  the  particular  portrait  of  Boeckh  which,  his  son  assured 
me,  was,  in  his  judgement,  the  best.  Professor  von  Wilamowitz- 
Moellendorff,  the  distinguished  son-in-law  of  Mommsen,  has  lent 
me  an  admirable  portrait  of  his  father-in-law,  drawn  by  Sir  William 
Richmond.  Mr  John  Murray  has  given  me  a  fine  engraving  of 
the  portrait  of  Grote,  now  in  his  own  possession,  and  has  allowed 
me  to  reprint  the  copy  of  that  portrait  which  is  prefixed  to  the 
Life  of  the  historian.  Messrs  Alinari  of  Florence  have  permitted 
the  reproduction  of  Ghirlandaio's  group  of  portraits  of  Ficino, 
Landino,  Politian  and  Chalcondyles ;  photographers  in  London 
have  given  similar  leave  in  the  case  of  the  portraits  of  Erasmus 
and  of  the  late  Sir  Richard  Jebb,  while  Messrs  Ryman  of  Oxford 
have  enabled  me  to  include  in  my  list  a  portrait  of  Gaisford. 
Lastly,  Professor  J.  R.  Wheeler  of  New  York  has  sent  me  the 
medallion  of  the  American  Sehool  at  Athens  for  reproduction 
at  the  close  of  the  present  work. 

Among  those  who  have  kindly  supplied  me  with  items  of 
biographical  or  bibliographical  information  I  may  mention,  in 
addition  to  M.  Salomon  Reinach,  Mr  John  Gennadios,  formerly 
Greek  Minister  in  London ;  Professor  Zielinski  of  St  Petersburg, 
who  prompted  his  colleague  Professor  Maleyn  to  write  on  my 
behalf  a  brief  memoir  on  the  native  scholarship  of  Russia ; 
Professor  Sabbadini  of  Milan ;  Professor  Gertz  of  Copenhagen  ; 
Professors  Schiick  and  Wide  of  Upsala  and  Dr  Bygden,  Librarian 
of  that  University ;  Dr  V.  van  der  Haeghen,  Librarian  of  Ghent, 
and  J.  Wits,  assistant  Librarian  of  Louvain,  who  presented  me 
with  several  memoirs  of  his  fellow-countrymen ;  Professors  J.  W. 


PREFACE.  ix 

White  and  M.  H.  Morgan  of  Harvard,  Professor  E.  G.  Sihler  of 
New  York,  Professor  Mustard  of  Baltimore,  and  the  late  Professor 
Seymour  of  Yale ;  Mr  P.  S.  Allen,  Fellow  of  Merton  College, 
Oxford ;  Dr  Karl  Hermann  Breul,  of  King's  College,  and 
Mr  Giles,  Fellow  of  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge.  In  the 
transliteration  of  Russian  names,  I  have  followed  the  advice  of 
Professor  Bury.  My  study  of  the  original  Danish,  Norwegian, 
and  Swedish  authorities  on  the  lives  of  Scandinavian  scholars  has 
been  facilitated  by  Mr  Magniisson,  of  the  University  Library, 
while,  in  revising  part  of  my  chronological  conspectus  of  editiones 
principeS)  I  have  had  the  benefit  of  some  suggestions  from 
Mr  Charles  Sayle,  M.A.,  of  St  John's  College.  Mr  W.  F.  Smith, 
Fellow  of  St  John's,  and  translator  of  Rabelais,  has  supplied  me 
with  a  notice  of  that  humanist.  I  have  not  invited  criticisms 
from  my  friends,  but,  when  Mr  Arthur  Tilley,  Fellow  of  King's, 
offered  to  glance  at  that  part  of  my  pages  which  falls  within 
the  province  of  his  Literature  of  the  French  Renaissance,  I  gladly 
accepted  his  offer.  The  few  mistakes  in  other  parts  of  the  work 
that  had  escaped  my  notice,  and  that  of  the  careful  readers  at 
the  University  Press,  have  been  recorded  in  the  Corrigenda. 
The  INDEX  at  the  end  of  each  volume  is  not  confined  to  the 
contents  of  the  volume.  In  the  case  of  the  third  volume,  in 
particular,  it  includes  references  to  selected  portions  of  the 
general  literature  of  the  subject. 

J.    E.    SANDYS. 


MERTON  HOUSE, 
CAMBRIDGE, 
July,  1908. 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS xii 

SELECT  BIBLIOGRAPHY xv 

OUTLINE  OF  PRINCIPAL  CONTENTS  OF  PP.  1—466       .        .  xxiv 

INDEX 467 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLES. 

page 
History  of  Scholarship  in  Italy,   1321 — 1527       ....  facing  p.  \ 

Edit  tones  Principes  of  Latin  Authors  .          .          .          .          .         .103 

Editiones  Principes  of  Greek  Authors  .....         104,   105 

History  of  Scholarship,    1500 — 1600    .          .          .          .          .          .          .124 

,,  ,,  1600 — 1700    .......        278 

,,  ,,  1700—1800 372 


LIST    OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


(1)  FRANCESCO  PETRARCA.     From  a  MS  of  Petrarch,  De  viris  illustribzts, 
completed  in  January,   1379,  for  Francesco  of  Carrara,    Duke  of  Padua,   to 
whom   the   volume    is    dedicated    (Bibliotheque    Nationale,    Paris,    6069   F). 
Reproduced  (by  permission)  from  the  frontispiece  of  M.  Pierre  de  Nolhac's 
Petrarque  et  I' Httmanisme,  1892.     See  M.  de  Nolhac's  Excursus  on  the  Ico- 
nography of  Petrarch,  in  vol.  ii  245 — 257,  ed.  1907          .         .         Frontispiece 

(2)  GIOVANNI   BOCCACCIO.     From  a  medallion  in  the  British  Museum, 
inscribed  IOHES  •  BOCATIVS  •  FLORE(NTINVS).     Cp.  Alois  Heiss,  Les  Medail- 
leurs  de  la  Renaissance  (1891),  i  140  ......         16 

(3)  VALERIUS  FLACCUS,  iv  307—317,  with  colophon  and  with  Poggio's 
signature.     Facsimile  from  Codex  Matritensis,  x  81,  Poggio's  autograph  copy 
of  the  MS  discovered  by  him  at  St  Gallen  in  1416.     From  a  photograph  sup- 
plied by  Mr  A.  C.  Clark,  Fellow  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford         .         .         24 

(4)  GUARINO  DA  VERONA.     Reduced    (by  permission)  from   M.   Henri 
Omont's  Portrait  de  Guarino  de  Verone  (1905),  the  frontispiece  of  which  is 
derived  from  a  photograph  of  the  portrait  painted  in  life-size  at  the  end  of  the 
MS  of  Guarino's  translation  of  Strabo  in  the  Phillipps  library  at  Cheltenham 

5* 

(5)  VITTORINO   DA   FELTRE.      From    a    medallion  by  Pisanello  in  the 
British  Museum,  inscribed  VICTORINVS  •  FELTRENSIS  •  SVMMVS  •  MATHEMATI. 

CVS  •  ET  •  OMNIS  •  HVMANITATIS  •  PATER  •  OPVS  •  PISANI  •  PICTORIS.  Repro- 
duced from  the  block  prepared  for  the  frontispiece  to  Woodward's  Vittorino 
(Cambridge,  1897);  cp.  G.  F.  Hill's  Pisanello,  pi.  54  .  .  .  .  54 

(6)  MARSILIO  FICINO,  CRISTOFORO  LANDING,  ANGELO  POUZIANO,  and 
DEMETRIUS   CHALCONDYLES.       Reproduced   (by   permission)   from   part  of 
Alinari's  photograph  of  Ghirlandaio's  fresco  on  the  south  wall  of  the  choir  in 
Santa  Maria  Novella,  Florence  (cp.  p.  64  n.  6)      .         .         .         .         •         58 

(7)  ALDUS  MANUTIUS.     From  a  contemporary  print  in  the  Library  of 
San  Marco,  Venice,  reproduced  as  frontispiece  to  Didot's  Aide  Manuce          94 

(8)  PIETRO  BEMBO.     From   Bartolozzi's  engraving  (in  the  Print  Room, 
British  Museum)  of  a  portrait  by  Titian  (1539)       .....        106 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.  Xlll 

(9)  ERASMUS   (1523).     From   the   portrait   by  Holbein   in  the  Louvre; 
reproduced  (by  permission)  from  a  photograph  by  Messrs  Mansell.   Cp.  p.  132, 
n.  i) 114 

(10)  VlCTORlUS.     From  the  portrait  by  Titian,  engraved  by  Ant.  Zaballi 
for  the  Ritratti  Toscani,  vol.  I,  no.  xxxix  (Allegrini,  Firenze,  1/66)       .        136 

(ri)     MURETUS.     From  Joannes  Imperialis,  Museum  Historicum  (Venice, 
1640),  p.  no 148 

(12)  BUDAEUS.     From  the  engraving  in  Andre  Thevet,  Portraits  et  vies 
des  homines  illnstres  (Paris,  1584),  p.  551 .164 

(13)  CONCLUSION  OF  THE  EPISTOLAE  GASPARINI,  the  first  book  printed 
in  France  (1470).     From  part  of  \\\e  facsimile  in  the  British  Museum  Guide  to 
the  King's  Library  (1901),  p.  40  .......        168 

(14)  ROBERT  ESTIENNE.     From  a  photograph  taken  in  the  Cabinet  des 
Estampes,  Bibliotheque  Nationale,   Paris,  from  one  of  Croler's  reproductions 
of  the  original  engraving  by  Leonard  Gaultier  (copied  in  Renouard's  Anna/es, 

P-  24)  J  74 

(15)  TURNEBUS.     From  no.  127  of  De  Leu's  Ponrtraictz  (c.  1600),  in  the 
Print  Room  of  the  British  Museum        .         .         .         .         .         .         .185 

(16)  DORAT.      From  no.    108  of  De  Leu's  Potirtraiclz  (c.    1600),  in  the 
Print  Room  of  the  British  Museum         .......       187 

(17)  LAMKINUS.     From    no.    2    in    the    first  row  of  the  frontispiece  to 
Part  ii  of  Adolphus  Clarmundus,    Vitae  darissitiioruiii  in  re  literaria  viromm 
(Wittenberg,  1704) 188 

(18)  JOSEPH  JUSTUS  SCALICER.     From  the  frontispiece  of  the  monograph 
by    Bernays ;    portrait    copied    from    the    oil-painting    in    the    Senate-House, 
Leyden  ;    autograph  signature  from  Appendix  ad  Cyclomelrica  in   the   Royal 
Library,  Berlin     ...........        200 

(19)  CASAUBON.     From  a  photograph  of  an  engraving  in  the  Cabinet  des 
Estampes,  Bibliothuque  Nationale,  Paris        ......        206 

(20)  LINACRE.     From  a  drawing    in    the  Cracherode   collection,   in   the 
Print  Room  of  the  British  Museum.     Cp.  p.  228  n.  3     .         .          .          .234 

(21)  BUCHANAN.       From     Boissard's     Icoius,    in    iv    -22    (Frankfurt, 
1598) 244 

(22)  MKLANCHTHON.     From  a  print  of  Albert  Diirer's  engraving  of  1*26 
in  the  Fitzwilliam  Museum,  Cambridge.     Cp.  p.  266  n.  2       .         .          .       264 

(23)  SALMASIUS.      From  the  engraving  by  Boulonnois  in   Bullart's  Aca- 
demie  (1682),  ii  226       ..........       284 

(24)  Du   CANGE.     From  a  print   in  the  Cabinet  des   Estampes,    Bililio- 
theque  Nationale,  Paris         .........       288 

(25)  MABILLON.      P>om  an  engraving  by  Simonneau  in  the  Cabinet  des 
Estampes,  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris        ......       295 

(26)  LIPSIUS.      From  the  portrait  by  Abraham  Janssens  (1605),  engraved 
for  Jan  van  der  \Vouwcr  by  Pierre  de  Jode.      Reduced  from  the  large  copy 
in  Max  Rooses,  Christophe  Plantin  (1882),  p.  342  f.     Cp.    p.    306  and  p.  304 
"•  7 302 


XIV  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

(27)  G.   J.    VossiUS.     From    Bloteling's   engraving   of  the  portrait   by 
Sandrart 308 

(28)  MEURSIUS.      From    the  engraving   in   Meursius,    Athenae   Batavae 
(1625),  p.  191 310 

(29)  DANIEL  HEINSIUS.     From  a  photograph  taken  in  the  Print  Room 
of    the    British    Museum    from    Snyderhuis'    engraving    of    the  portrait   by 
S.  Merck      .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .312 

(30)  J.  F.  GRONOVIUS.     From  an  engraving  by  J.  Munnickhuysen        32  r 
(He  is  represented  with  25  unnamed  contemporaries  in  the  frontispiece  of 

his  work  De  Sestertiis,  L.  B.  1691.) 

(31)  N.  HEINSIUS.     From  the  frontispiece  of  the  posthumous  edition  of 
his  Adversaria  (1742)  .........       324 

(32)  JANUS  GRUTER.     From  a  photograph  in  the  possession  of  the  Rev. 
E.  S.  Roberts,  Master  of  Gonville  and  Caius  College,   Cambridge,  taken  for 
Dr  A.  S.  Lea  from  the  portrait  in  the  University  Library,  Heidelberg   .       360 

(33)  FORCELLINI.     From  part  of  the  frontispiece  to  the  London  edition 
of  1825 377 

(34)  MONTFAUCON.      From  a  portrait  by  '  Paulus  Abbas  Genbacensis ' 
(1739),  engraved  by  Tardieu  fils,  and  reproduced  by  Odieuvre  in  Dreux  du 
Radier's  L? Europe  Illustre  (1777),  vol.  v 386 

(35)  RICHARD  BENTLEY.     From    Dean's   engraving   of  the  portrait  by 
Thornhill  (1710)  in  the  Master's  Lodge,  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  (frontis- 
piece of  Monk's  Life  of  Bentley,  ed.  2,  1833)          .....       400 

(36)  RICHARD  PORSON.     Reduced  from  Sharpe's  engraving  of  the  por- 
trait by  Hoppner  in  the  University  Library,  Cambridge          .         .         .       426 

(37)  PIETER  BUR  MAN  I.     From  an  engraving       ....       445 

(38)  HEMSTERHUYS.      From  an  engraving  by  Schellhorn,  published  by 
Schumann,  Zwickau    ...         ....         ...       448 

(39)  RUHNKEN.     From  a  portrait  by  H.   Pothoven  (1791)'  engraved  by 
P.    H.  Jonxis    (1792),    and    lithographed    by   Oehme   and    Mtiller    (Brunsv. 
1827)  . 458 

(40)  WYTTENBAC;I.     From  a  photograph  of  the  portrait  in  the  Aula  of 
the  University  of  Leyden      .         .         .         .         .         •         •         •         .462 


SELECT   BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


HiJBNER,  E.  Bibliographie  der  klassischen  Alterthiimswissenschaft ; 
Grundriss  zu  Vorlesungen  iiber  die  Gesckichte  und  Encyklopiidie  der  klassi- 
schen Philologie,  ed.  2,  434  pp.  8vo,  Berlin,  1889. 

HALLAM,  H.  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe,  in  centuries  xv, 
xvi,  xvii ;  chapters  ii — v  in  Part  I,  and  chapter  i  in  Parts  II,  in,  IV,  1837-9; 
ed.  4,  8vo,  London,  1854. 

WiLAMOWlTZ-MoELi.ENDORFF,  ULRICH  VON.  (i)  Gescldchte  des  Tragi- 
kertextes,  in  Euripides  Herakles,  ed.  i,  i  120 — 257,  8vo,  Berlin,  1889;  (2)  Gr. 
Unterricht,  in  Lexis,  Reform  des  hoheren  Schulivestns,  163 — 175,  large  8vo, 
Berlin,  1902. 

CARTAUI.T,  A.  A propos  du  Corpus  Tibullianntn  ;  un  siecle  de  philologie 
Latine  classique,  569  pp.  large  8vo,  Paris,  1906. 

CREUZER,  F.  Zur  Geschichte  der  classischen  Philologie,  brief  biographical 
notices,  with  lists  of  later  names,  238  pp.  in  Part  v,  vol.  ii,  of  Deutsche 
Schriften,  Frankfurt,  1854. 

FREUND,  W.  Triennium  Philologicum  ;  Geschichte  der  Philologie,  vol.  i 
pp.  20 — 112,  ed.  1874;  pp.  22 — 142,  ed.  3,  8vo  (with  379  brief  biographical 
notices,  including  no  English  scholars  born  since  1794),  Leipzig,  1905. 

REINACH,  S.  Manuel  de  Philologie  Classiqne  (1879),  vol.  i,  i  —  22  ; 
ii  i  — 14  (Objet  et  Histoire  de  la  Philologie],  ed.  2,  8vo,  1883-4;  Noi4veau 
Tirage  with  bibliography  of  1884 — 1906  on  pp.  ix — xxvi,  Paris,  1907. 

URLICHS,  C.  L.  Geschichte  der  klassischen  Altertumswissenschaft  (1886), 
in  I  wan  Miiller's  Haii'lbuch,  vol.  i  45 — 145,  ed.  2,  large  8vo,  Miinchen,  1891. 

PEZZI,  D.  Cenni  storico-critici  intorno  allo  studio  della  grecita,  pp.  3 — 80 
of  La  Lingua  Greca  Antica,  large  8vo,  Torino,  1888. 

GUDEMAN,  ALFRED.  Grundriss  tier  Geschichte  Jer  klassischen  Philologie, 
224  pp.  ;  modern  period,  pp.  150 — 219,  8vo,  Leipzig  and  Berlin,  1907. 

KROLL,  W.  Geschichte  der  klassischen  Philologie,  152  pp.  121110,  Leipzig, 
1908. 

STARK,  C.  B.  Handbuch  der  Archdologie  der  Kunst,  (i)  Systemalik  und 
Geschichte,  400  pp.  large  8vo,  Leipzig,  1880. 

MICHAELIS,  A.  Die  archiiologischen  Entdeckungen  des  xi*.  Jahrhun- 
derts,  325  pp.  8vo,  Leipzig,  1906. 

S.    II,  b 


XVI  SELECT   BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

CHABERT.  Histoire  des  etudes  d*  epi graphic  grecque  en  Europe,  Paris,  1907; 
R.  DE  LA  BI.ANCHERE,  Histoire  de  fepigraphie  romaine,  63  pp.,  Paris  1887. 

LARFELD,  W.  Geschichte  der  griechischen  Epigraphik,  in  vol.  I,  A  ii,  of 
Handbuch,  large  8vo,  Leipzig,  1908. 

BURSIAN,  C.  (i)  Jahresbericht  iiber  die  Fortschritte  der  classischen  Alter- 
thums-wissenschaft;  (2)  Bibliotheca  Philologica  Classica;  (3)  Biographisches 
Jahrbuch  ;  Berlin,  1875  f ;  now  edited  by  W.  KROLL  (Reisland),  Leipzig. 

KROI.L,  W.  Die  AltertumsT.uissensch.aft  im  letzten  Vierteljahrhunderl, 
547  pp.  8vo,  Leipzig,  1905. 

ROUSE,  W.  H.  D.  The  Year's  Work  in  Classical  Studies,  8vo,  ioo6f 
(Murray),  London. 

JOCHER,  Allgemeines  Gelehrtenlexicon,  1750  etc.;  SAXIUS,  Onotnasticon 
Litterarium,  1775 — 1803  ;  BAYLE,  Diet.  Historique,  ed.  Beuchot,  1820-24  ; 
MICHAUD,  Biographie  Universelle,  Ancienne  et  Moderne,  nouvelle  ed.,  45  vols. 
imp.  8vo,  Paris,  1843-65;  DIDOT,  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generate,  ed.  Hoefer, 
46  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1852—66;  La  Grande  Encyclopedie,  31  vols.  (Lamirault), 
Paris;  etc.;  ECKSTEIN,  F.  A.,  Nomenclator  Philologorum,  656  pp.  small  8vo, 
Leipzig,  1871  ;  POKEL,  W.,  Philologisches  Schriftsteller-Lexikon,  328  pp.  8vo, 
Leipzig,  1882. 

Portraits  of  Scholars,  etc. 

Jovius,  PAULUS  (Paolo  Giovio).  Elogia  virorum  literis  illustrium...ex 
eiusdem  Musaeo...ad  vivuni  expresses  imaginibus  exornata,  234  pp.  folio, 
Basileae,  1577. 

THEVET,  ANDRE.  Portraits  et  vies  des  hommes  illustres,  Paris,  1584. 
See  portrait  of  Budaeus,  p.  164  infra. 

BOISSARD,  J.  J.  (1528 — 1602).  Icones  virorum  illustrium  doctrina  et 
eruditione  praeslantium,  in  four  parts  with  50  portraits  in  each  part,  410, 
Francofurti,  1597-99  ;  all  the  portraits  engraved  by  Theodore  de  Bry  (1528 — 
1598);  with  letterpress,  in  parts  i,  ii,  by  Boissard  ;  and,  in  parts  iii,  iv,  by 
T.  A.  Lonicerus.  Half-a-century  later  the  series  was  continued  in  the  Biblio- 
theca Chalcographica  (1645-52), — part  v  reproducing  the  portraits  in  parts  i — iv, 
with  about  40  new  portraits;  part  vi  containing  50  portraits  by  Seb.  Furck,  and 
parts  vii,  viii,  ix,  50  each  by  Clemens  Ammonius.  See  portrait  of  Buchanan, 
p.  244  infra. 

DE  LEU  (1562 — 1620).  Pourtraictz  de  plusieurs  hommes  illustres;  broad- 
sheet containing  144  portraits,  Paris,  c.  1600.  See  portraits  of  Turnebus  and 
Dorat,  pp.  185,  187  infra. 

MEURSIUS.  Athenae  Batavae,  small  410,  Leyden,  1625.  See  portrait  of 
Meursius,  p.  310  infra. 

IOANNES  IMPERIALIS  (Giovanni  Imperiale).  Museum  Historicum,  Venice, 
1640.  See  portrait  of  Muretus,  p.  148  infra. 

BUI.LART,  ISAAC.  Academic  des  Sciences  et  des  Arts,  2  vols.  folio,  Brux- 
elles  and  Amsterdam,  1682.  See  portrait  of  Salmasius,  p.  284  infra. 


SELECT   BIBLIOGRAPHY.  XV11 

CLARMUNDUS,  ADOLPHUS  (i.e.  Johann  Christian  Ruediger).  Vitae  claris- 
simorum  in  re  literaria  virorum,  in  eleven  parts,  i2mo,  Wittenberg,  1704-14. 
Thirty  small  portraits  in  the  frontispieces  of  parts  i  and  ii,  and  20  in  those  of 
parts  iii  and  iv.  See  '  Lambinus',  p.  188  infra. 

SCHROCKH,  J.  M.  Abbildungen...beruhmter  Gelehrten,  3  vols.  i2mo, 
Leipzig,  1764-9.  See  portrait  of  Fabricius,  frontispiece  to  vol.  iii. 

ALLEGRINI,  GIUSEPPE.  Ritratti  a"  tiomini  illustri  Toscani  con  git  elogi 
istorici,  3  vols.  folio,  Firenze,  1766-70.  See  portrait  of  Victorius,  p.  136 
infra. 

DREUX  DU  RADIER.  D Europe  Illustre,  5  vols.  folio,  Paris,  1777.  See 
portrait  of  Montfaucon,  p.  386  infra. 

HOFLINGER,  L.  (photographer).  Philologen  des  (i)  xiv — xvi,  (2)  xvii — 
xviii,  (3)  xix  Jakrhunderts  :  34  +  34  +  29  small  medallion  portraits  reproduced 
on  three  plates,  Dorpat,  1871 ;  now  out  of  print ;  list  on  cover  of  Eckstein's 
Nomendator  Philologorum. 


The  Revival  of  Learning  and  the  early  History  of 
Scholarship  in  Italy. 

GALLETTT,  G.  C.  Philippi  Villani  liber  de  civitatis  Florentines  fatnosis 
civibus...ntinc  primum  cditus,  et  de  Florentinontm  Liiteratura  principes  fere 
synckroni  scripiores  [Manetti,  Cortesius  etc.],  4to,  Florence,  1847. 

VESPASIANO  DA  BISTICCI.  Vite  di  uoniini  ilhistri  del  secolo  xv,  ed.  Mai, 
1839;  ed.  Bartoli,  Firenze,  1859. 

LILIUS  GREGORIUS  GYRALDUS.  De  Poe'tis  nostrorum  temporum  (1551), 
ed.  Karl  Wotke,  104  pp.  small  8vo,  Berlin,  1894. 

Jovius,  PAULUS  (Paolo  Giovio).  Elogia  Doctorum  Virorum,  310  pp. 
small  8vo,  Basileae  (1556). 

HODY,  H.  (d.  1706).  De  Graecis  Illnslribus  Linguae  Graecae...Instaura- 
torilnis,  ed.  S.  Jebb,  326  pp.  8vo,  London,  1742. 

BOERNER,  C.  F.  De  Doctis  Plominibus  Litterarum  Graecarum  in  Italia 
Instauratoribus,  8vo,  Leipzig,  1750. 

MEHUS.  Vita  Ambrosii  Traversarii,  etc.  prefixed  to  Epp. ,  ed.  Canneto, 
folio,  Florentiae,  1759- 

TIRABOSCHI.  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;  certain  chapters  in  vols. 
vi,  vii  (1300 — 1500  A.D.)  of  ed.  2,  large  410,  Modena,  1787-94. 

MEINERS,  CHR.  Lebensbeschreibungen  beruhmter  Manner  aus  den  Zeiten 
der  Wiederherstellung  der  Wissenschaften,  3  vols.  8vo,  Zurich,  1795. 

ROSCOE,  W.  (i)  Life  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  1796  ;  ed.  9,  London,  1847; 
(2)  Life  of  Leo  the  Tenth,  1805  ;  ed.  5,  London,  1846. 

HEEREN,  A.  H.  L.  Geschichte  der  classischen  Litteralur  itn  Mittelalter 
(ed.  2  of  the  unfinished  Geschichte  des  Studitims  der  klassischen  Litteratur  seit 
dem  Wiederaufleben  der  Wissenschaftcii),  i  321 — 376  (cent,  xiv);  ii  t — 354 
(cent,  xv),  2  vols.  small  8vo,  Gottingen,  1822. 


xviii  SELECT    BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

VoiGT,  GEORG.  Die  Wiederbelebung  des  classischen  Alterthums,  oder  das 
erste  Jahrhundert  des  Humanhmus,  ed.  i  in  i  vol.  1859;  e^-  2  in  2  vols. 
1880  f;  ed.  3  (Max  Lehnerdt),  vol.  i  591  pp.,  vol.  ii  543  pp.  with  bibliography 
on  pp.  511 — 525  ;  large  8vo,  Berlin,  1893. 

BURCKHARDT,  J.  Die  Cultur  der  Renaissance  in  Italien  (1860),  ed.  3 
and  4  (L.  Geiger),  Leipzig,  1877  f  and  1885;  E.  T.  (S.  G.  C.  Middlemore) ; 
esp.  Part  III  'The  Revival  of  Antiquity',  ed.  4,  London,  1898. 

ONCKEN,  W.  Ueber  die  Wiederbelebung  der  griechischen  Literatur  in 
Italien;  pp.  71 — 83  of  Verhandlungen  der  23  Versammlung  detitschen  Philo- 
logen,  410,  Leipzig,  1865. 

GREGOROVIUS,  F.  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Rom  im  Mittelalter,  8  vols,  1859- 
72  ;  ed.  5,  1903  ;  E.  T.  by  A.  Hamilton,  1894 — 1902. 

REUMONT,  A.  VON.  Lorenzo  de1  Medici,  1874  (E.  T.  1876) ;  ed.  2,  2  vols. 
8vo,  Leipzig,  1883. 

SYMONDS,  J.  A.  The  Renaissance  in  Italy,  vol.  I,  chap,  i,  and  vol.  II, 
The  Revival  of  Learning,  1877;  ed.  2  (quoted  in  this  work),  8vo,  London, 
1882  ;  cabinet  ed. 

KORTING,  G.  Geschichte  der  Litteratur  Italiens  im  Zeitalter  der  Renais- 
sance, vol.  i  (Petrarch),  and  ii  (Boccaccio),  8vo,  Leipzig,  1878-80. 

GEIGER,  L.  (i)  Renaissance  und  Hutnanismus  in  Italien  (pp.  i — 320) 
und  Deutschland,  with  Conspectus  of  Literature  on  pp.  564 — 573,  and  list  of 
illustrations  on  pp.  581  f;  large  8vo,  Berlin,  1881-3;  (2)  Petrarca,  Leipzig, 

1874- 

GASPARY,  A.  Geschichte  der  Italienischen  Literatur,  vol.  i  403 — 460,  537 
— 545,  Petrarca;  vol.  ii  i — 69,  Boccaccio;  94  — 176,  Die  Humanisten;  218 — 
256,  Poliziano,  8vo,  Berlin,  1885-8. 

LEGRAND,  E.  Bibliographie  HelUnique,  xv,  xvi  siecles,  3  vols.  large  8vo, 
Paris,  1884-5;  (2)  Cent-dix  Lettres  Grecques  de  Francois  file/fe  etc.,  390  pp. 
large  8vO,  Paris,  1892. 

KLETTE,  T.  Beitrdge  zur  Geschichte  und  Litteratur  der  Italienischen 
Gelehrtenrenaissance,  vol.  i,  Johannes  Conversanus  u.  Johannes  Malpaghini 
von  Ravenna;  Manuel  Chrysoloras  etc.,  59  pp.,  1888;  vol.  ii,  Leonardus 
Aretinus,  Petrus  Candidus  Decembrio,  118  pp.,  1889:  vol.  iii,  Philelphus, 
Gaza,  Trapezuntius,  Argyropulos  etc.,  181  pp.,  1890;  8vo,  Greifswald, 
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MiJLLNER,  K.  Reden  und  Briefe  Italienischer  Humanisten,  305  pp.  large 
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NOLHAC,  PIERRE  DE.  (i)  Petrarque  et  rffumanisme,  large  8vo,  Paris, 
1892  ;  ed.  2  in  two  vols.,  272  +  328  pp.  large  8vo,  1907  ;  (2)  Petrarch  and  the 
ancient  World,  transl.  of  part  of  (i),  Boston,  1908  ;  (3)  La  Bibliotheque  de 
Fulvio  Orsini,  489  pp.  large  8vo,  Paris,  1887  ;  (4)  Erasme  en  Italie,  144 
pp.  small  8vo,  1898. 

HORTIS,  ATTILIO.  Sludi  sulle  opere  Latine  del  Boccaccio,  956  pp.  large 
4to,  Trieste,  1879. 

WOODWARD,  W.  H.     (i)  Vittorino  da  Feltre  and  other  Humanist  Educa- 


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tors,  256  pp.  crown  8vo,  Cambridge,  1897;  (2)  Erasmus  concerning  Educa- 
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SPINGARN,  J.  E.  History  of  Literary  Criticism  in  the  Renaissance, 
330  pp.  small  8vo,  New  York,  1899;  Ital.  transl.  Bari,  1905. 

SAINTSBURY,  G.  History  of  Criticism,  i  456 — 466;  ii  i  — 108,  Edinburgh 
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SABKADINI,  R.  (i)  Le  scoperte  dei  codici  Latini  e  Greet  ne1  secoli  xiv  e  xv, 
233  pp.  large  8vo,  Firenze,  1905;  (2)  La  Sftiola  e  gli  Studi  di  Guarino,  240 
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DIDOT,  A.  F.     Aide  Manuce  et  Vhellenisme  a   Venise,  i\~,  pp.  8vo,  Paris, 

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SANDYS,  J.  E.  Harvard  Lectures  on  the  Revival  of  Learning: — (i)  Pe- 
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GRAUX,  CH.  Essai  sur  les  origities  dit  funds  grec  de  F  Escurial ;  episode  de 
Diistoire  de  la  renaissance  des  lettres  en  Espagne  (Bil>l.  de  F Ecole  des  hautes 
etudes,  xlvi)  ;  xxxi  +  529  pp.,  Paris,  1880. 

ANTONIO,  N.  in  Bibliotheca  Hispana,  and  SUANA,  H.  Un  Esludio  critico- 
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EGGER,  E.     L1  Hellenisme  en  France,  2  vols.  960  pp.  8vo,  Paris,  1869. 

SICARD,  A.     Les  etudes  classiques  avant  la  Revolution,  Paris,  1887. 

LEFRANC,  A.     Histoire  du  College  de  France,  446  pp.  8vo,  Paris,  1 893. 

CHRISTIE,  Etienne  Dolet,  London,  1880,  ed.  2,  1899;  BERNAYS,  Scaliger, 
Berlin,  1855;  PATTISON,  Casanbon,  London,  1875,  ed.  2,  Oxford,  1892. 

TILLEY,  A.  The  Literature  of  the  French  Renaissance,  (i)  An  intro- 
ductory essay,  198  pp.  small  8vo,  Cambridge,  1885  ;  (2)  chaps,  ii  (Humanism), 
iii  i  (Translators),  and  xv  (Scholars  and  Antiquaries),  2  vols.  355  +  360  pp. 
8vo,  Cambridge,  1904. 

RIGAULT,  A.  H.  Histoire  de  la  querelle  des  an  dens  et  des  modernes,  380  pp. , 
Paris,  1856. 

OMONT,  H.  Missions  archeologiqnes  franfaises  en  Orient  aux  xvii?  el 
xviii*  siecles,  i  vols. ,  1 903 . 

RADET,  G.  V Histoire  et  I'CEuvre  de  V  Ecole  Francaise  cFAthenes,  492  pp. 
large  8vo,  Paris,  1901. 

BoissiER,  G.  L 'fnstitut  de  France,  par  G.  Boissier,  Perrot  etc.,  370  pp., 
Paris,  1907. 

Netherlands. 

MEURSIUS.  Athenae  Batavae,  Leyden,  1625.  SCHOTEL,  G.  D.  J.  De 
Academic  te  Leiden  in  de  16',  17'  en  18'  Eeuw,  410  pp.,  Haarlem,  1875. 

BURMAN,  PlETER.  Sylloge  Epistolarnm  a  viris  illustribits  scriptarum, 
5  vols.  410,  Leyden,  1727. 

BURMAN,  CASPAR.     Trajectum  Eruditum,  Utrecht,  1738. 

RUHNKEN.  Elogium  Hemsterhusii,  ed.  2,  Leyden,  1789;  WYTTENBACH, 
Vita  Ruhnkenii,  Leyden,  1799;  MAHNE,  Vita  Wyttenbachii,Ghvc&,  1823. 

PEERLKAMP.  De  vita,  doctrina  et  facilitate  Nederlandornm  qui  carmina 
Latina  composuerunt,  Haarlem,  1838. 

MULLER,  LUCIAN.  Geschichte der classischen  Philologiein  den  Niederlanden, 
249  pp.  8vo,  Leipzig,  1869. 

VAN  DER  AA.  Biographisch  Woordenboek  der  Nederlanden,  21  vols.  8vo, 
Haarlem,  1852-78. 

Southern  Netherlands. 

NEVE,  FELIX,  (r)  Memoire . . .sur  le  College  des  Trois-Langues  a  VUniver- 
sitt  de  Louvain,  vol.  28  of  Memoires  of  the  Acad.,  Bruxelles,  1856;  (2)  La 
Renaissance  et  lessor  de  I Erudition  ancienne  en  Belgiqtie,  439  pp.  large  8vo, 
Louvain,  1890. 

ROERSCH,  L.  C.  A  sketch  of  the  History  of  Philology  in  Belgium,  in 
Van  Bemmel's  Patria  Belgica,  iii  407 — 432,  1873-5;  (2)  articles  in  Biographic 
Nationale  de  Belgique  (18  vols.  A — R,  1866 — 1905). 

Biographical  notices  published  by  the  Academic  Royah  des  Sciences, 
Bruxelles. 


SELECT   BIBLIOGRAPHY.  XXI 


England,  Scotland  and  Ireland. 

ANON.  English  Scholarship;  its  Rise,  Progress,  and  Decay  (from 
Gataker  to  Dobree);  three  discursive  articles  in  the  Church  of  England 
Quarterly  Review,  iv  (1838)  91  — 125;  v  (1839)  r45 — '75>  39^ — 42^- 

HUME  BROWN,  P.  George  Buchanan,  Humanist  and  Reformer,  388  pp. 
8vo,  Edinburgh,  1890. 

CREIGHTON,  M.  The  Early  Renaissance  in  England,  Rede  Lecture, 
Cambridge,  1895. 

SANDYS,  J.  E.,  in  Traill's  Social  England,  v  53 — 70;  vi  297 — 313,  London, 
1896-7,  and  in  illustrated  ed. 

EINSTEIN,  L.  The  Italian  Renaissance  in  England,  chap,  i  (The  Scholar), 
New  York,  1902. 

MADDEN,  RT  HON.  D.  H.  Some  Passages  in  the  Early  History  of 
Classical  Learning  in  Ireland,  101  pp.  small  8vo,  Dublin,  1908. 

DICTIONARY  OF  NATIONAL  BIOGRAPHY,  66  vols.  1885—1901,  ed.  2  in 
22  vols.  1908-  ;  Index  and  Epitome,  1903.  J.  II.  MONK,  Life  of  Bentley, 
1830;  ed.  2,  London,  1833.  R.  C.  JEBB,  Bentley,  London,  1882.  J.  S. 
WATSON,  Life  of  Parson,  London,  1861.  H.  J.  NICOLI.,  Great  Scholars,  a 
popular  work  on  Bentley,  Porson,  Parr,  Ruddiman,  Sir  William  Jones, 
Alexander  Adam,  Bishop  Blomfielcl  etc.,  251  pp.  small  8vo,  London,  1880. 
A.  T.  BARTHOLOMEW  and  J.  W.  CLARK,  Bibliography  of  Bentley,  Cambridge, 
1908.  J.  E.  B.  MAYOR,  Cambridge  under  Queen  Anne,  '  Visits  to  Cambridge 
by  Francis  Burman  (1702)  and  Z.  C.  von  Uffenbach  (1710),'  with  biographical 
and  bibliographical  notes,  pp.  113 — 198,  309 — 510,  small  8vo,  unpublished. 

Cp.  F.  A.  WOLF,  Liiterarische  Analekten  (1816)  in  Kleine  Schrifteu, 
1030 — 1116;  G.  HERMANN,  Opusc.  vi  91  — 102;  and  WILAMOWITZ,  Em: 
Her.  (ed.  1880),  227 — 230,  and  in  Lexis,  Die  Reform  des  hoheren  Schulwesens, 
1902,  174. 

United  States  of  America. 

SEYMOUR,  T.  D.  The  first  Twenty  Years  of  the  American  School  of 
Classical  Studies  at  Athens  ;  Bulletin  of  the  School,  v,  69  pp.,  Norwood,  Mass., 
1902. 

SMILER,  E.  (i)  Klassische  Studien  und  Klassischer  Unterricht  in  d<n 
Vereinigten  Staaten,  three  articles  in  Neue  Jahrbiicher  fiir  das  kl.  Altertum, 
Leipzig,  1902  ;  (2)  American  Classicism,  in  the  Evttiing  Post,  New  York, 
29  Sept.  1906;  7  Sept.  1907;  Sept.  1908. 

Biographical  notices  in  American  Journal  of  Philology,  Harvard  Studies 
etc.;  biographical  dates  in  Harvard  Quinquennial  Catalogue,  1636 — 1905; 
and  articles  in  Allibone's  Dictionary,  3  vols.,  1859-71,  with  Suppl.  2  vols., 
Philadelphia,  1891  ;  and  in  the  two  Cyclopaedias  of  American  Biography: — 
the  National,  New  York,  1892 — 1906,  and  Appleton's,  ;l>.  1887-9. 


xxil  SELECT   BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


Germany  and  Austria. 

ERHARD,  Geschichte  des  Wiederaufbluhens  wissenschaftlicher  Bildung, 
3  vols.  Magdeburg,  1827-32;  HAGEN,  Deutschlands...Verhaltnisse  im  Rcfor- 
mationszeitalter,  3  vols.  Erlangen,  1843-5  \  SCHRODER,  Das  Wiederaufbliihen 
der  klassischen  Studien  in  Deutschland,  Halle,  1864;  and  esp.  JANSSEN, 
Geschichte  des  deutschen  Volkes,  1876  f;  E.  T.  1896  f. 

KAMPFSCHULTE,  Die  Universitiit  Erfurt,  2  vols.,  Trier,  1858-60. 

SCHMIDT,  CH.     Histoire  litteraire  de  F  Alsace,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1879. 

GEIGER,  L.  Renaissance  und  Humanismus  in  Italien  und  Deutschland 
(pp.  321 — -563),  with  conspectus  of  literature  (573 — 580),  large  8vo,  Berlin, 
1881-3. 

PAULSEN,  F.  Geschichte  des  gdehrten  Unterrichts  in  Deutschland,  ed.  2, 
*339  PP-  8vo>  Leipzig,  1892. 

BURSIAN,  C.  Geschichte  der  klassischen  Philologie  in  Deutschland  von  den 
Anfdngen  bis  zur  Gegemvart,  1279  PP-  ^vo,  Miinchen,  1883. 

HARNACK,  A.  Geschichte  der  preussischen  Akademie  der  IVissenschaften, 
large  8vo,  Berlin,  1900  f. 

ALLGEMEINE  DEUTSCHE  BIOGRAPHIE,  45  vols. +  7  vols.  of  Supplement, 
large  8vo,  Leipzig,  1875 — 1906. 

WURZBACH,  Biographisches  Lexikon  des  Kaiserthums  Oeslerreich,  60  vols., 
Wien,  1857-92. 

JUSTI,  Winckelmann,  3  vols.,  Berlin,  ed.  2,  1898;  KOCHLY,  Gottfried 
Hermann,  Heidelb.,  1874;  M.  HOFFMANN,  August  Boeckh,  Leipzig,  1901; 
Briefwechsel  zwischen  A.  Boeckh  und  K.  O.  Miiller,  Leipzig,  1883;  ...Dissen, 
1908 ;  C.  O.  MULLER,  Briefe  an  seine  Eltern,  mit  dem  Tagebuch  seiner 
italienisch-griechischen  Reise,  with  portrait  by  Oesterley,  Berlin,  1908;  LUD- 
WICH,  Ausgewahlte  Briefe  von  und  an  C.  A.  Lobeck  und  K.  Lehrs,  1894; 
M.  HERTZ,  Karl  Lachmann,  Berlin,  1851  ;  C.  BELGER,  Moriz  Haupt,  ib., 
1879;  O-  RIBBECK,  F.  W.  Ritschl,  2  vols.  Leipzig,  1881  ;  O.  CRUSIUS, 
Erwin  Rohde,  Tubingen,  1902  ;  E.  BOCKEL,  H.  Kochly,  Heidelberg,  1904. 

Biographical  notices  of  German  and  other  scholars  in  BURSIAN'S  Bio- 
graphisches  Jahrbtich,  Berlin  and  Leipzig,  1878  f ;  see  also  Deutscher  Nekrolog. 


Switzerland. 

WACKERNAGEL,  J.     Das  Studium  des  klassischen  Altertttms  in  der  Schweiz, 
54  pp.  8vo,  Basel,  1891. 

Scandinavia. 
Denmark. 

BRICKA.     Dansk  Biografisk  Lexikon,  1 8  vols.,  Copenhagen,  1889 — 1904; 
articles  by  M.  C.  Gertz  and  others. 


SELECT   BIBLIOGRAPHY.  XXlll 

Norway. 

HALVORSEN.  Norsk  Forf otter- Lexikon  (5  vols.  A— T),  Christiania,  1885 
— 1901. 

Sweden. 

LlNDER.  Nordisk  Familjebok,  18  vols.,  Stockholm,  1876-94.  Svenskt 
Biografiskt  Lexikon,  33  vols.  Upsala,  18351",  N.  F.  1883  f  (in  progress). 

Greece. 

LEGRANDE,  E.  Bibliographic  Heltiniqiie.  (i)  xv,  xvi  siccles,  3  vols., 
Paris,  1884-5  ;  (2)  xvii  siecle,  4  vols.  large  8vo,  1894-6. 

THEREIANOS,  D.  (i)  Adamantios  florae's,  3  vols.  Trieste,  1889-90:  (2)  /. 
N.  Oecononiides,  in  $>i\o\oyiKai  {nroTVirw<reis,  pp.  132  — 171,  Trieste,  1885. 

CARL  IKEN'S  Leukothea,  Leipzig,  1835  ;  J.  Rizo  NEROULOS,  Lift.  Grecqtte 
Moderne,  Geneve,  1827  ;  A.  N.  GOUDAS,  pioi  Trapd\\r]\oi,  vol.  ii,  Athens,  1874. 

NiCOLAl,  R.     Geschichte  der  neugriechischen  Literatur,  8vo,  Leipzig,  1876. 

RANGABK,  A.  R.  Litterature  Nco-HcHenique,  2  vols.  small  8vo,  Berlin, 
1877. 

Aei-iKov  tyKVK\oTrai5iK6v,  7  vols.,  Athens,  1889  f. 

Russia. 

FREYTAG  (1846)  in  Creuzer,  Znr  Gesch.  der  cl.  Philol.  (1854),  166 — 172. 
SCIIMID,   G.  (on  Graefe  and  Count  Uvarov).     Zur  russischen  Gelehrtcn- 
geschichte,  in  A'uss.  Revue  xxv  77 — 108,  156 — 167. 

*  ,*  For  further  bibliographical  details,  see  the  footnotes. 


OUTLINE   OF   PRINCIPAL   CONTENTS. 


BOOK  I.     THE  REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING  IN  ITALY, 

c.  1321 — c.  1527  A.D.     .         .        .  1^123 

Chronological  Table,    1321 — 1527  A.D.  .     facing  p.  i 

CHAPTER  I.  Introduction.  The  four  principal  periods  in  the  modern 
History  of  Scholarship,  (i)  Italian,  (2)  French,  (3)  English  and  Dutch, 
(4)  German.  The  Renaissance.  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio  .  i — 16 

CHAPTER  II.  The  Villa  Paradise  and  San  Spirito.  Coluccio  Salutati. 
Chrysoloras.  Giovanni  di  Conversino.  Giovanni  Malpaghini.  Gasparino 
da  Barzizza 17 — 23 

CHAPTER  III.  The  Recovery  of  the  Latin  Classics  by  Poggio,  Lan- 
driani,  Francesco  Pizzolpasso,  Enoch  of  Ascoli,  Sannazaro,  Politian,  Giorgio 
Galhiate,  Parrasio,  and  Fra  Giocondo  ;  and  of  the  Greek  Classics  by  Guarino, 
Aurispa  and  Filelfo,  Bessarion,  Constantine  and  Janus  Lascaris.  The  study 
of  classical  archaeology  by  Poggio,  Ciriaco,  Flavio  Biondo,  Andrea  Mantegna, 
Felix  Felicianus,  Giuliano  da  San  Gallo,  and  Fra  Giocondo  .  24 — 42 

CHAPTER  IV.  The  early  Medicean  age  in  Florence.  Roberto  de' 
Rossi.  Palla  Strozzi.  Cosimo  dei  Medici.  Niccolo  de'  Niccoli.  Traversari. 
Manetti.  Leonardo  Bruni.  Marsuppini.  Vergerio.  Guarino.  Vittorino. 
Filelfo 43—57 

CHAPTER  V.  The  earlier  Greek  Immigrants.  Gemistos  Plethon. 
Bessarion.  Theodorus  Gaza.  Georgius  Trapezuntius.  Joannes  Argyropulos. 
Demetrius  Chalcondyles.  Nicolas  V  and  the  translations  of  the  Greek 
Classics.  Valla,  Decembrio  and  Perotti.  Pius  II,  and  Campano  59 — 73 

CHAPTER  VI.  The  later  Greek  immigrants.  Michael  Apostolius.  An- 
dronicus  Callistus.  Constantine  Lascaris.  Janus  Lascaris.  Marcus  Musurus. 
Zacharias  Callierges  ........  74 — 80 

CHAPTER  VII.  The  Academy  of  Florence;  Landino,  Ficino,  Pico, 
Politian.  Marullus.  Savonarola.  Machiavelli.  The  Academy  of  Naples ; 
Beccadelli,  Pontano,  Sannazaro.  The  Academy  of  Rome;  Pomponius 
Laetus,  Platina  and  Sabellicus,  Betnbo  and  Sadoleto,  Paolo  Giovio  and 
Castiglione 81 — 9;, 

CHAPTER  VIII.  The  Printing  of  the  Classics  in  Italy.  Sweynheym 
and  Pannartz.  Philip  de  Lignamine.  Ulrich  Hahn.  Georg  Lauer.  John  of 
Spiies.  Bernardo  Cennini.  Aldus  and  Paul  us  Manutius :  Aldus  II  95 — 101 


OUTLINE  OF   PRINCIPAL   CONTENTS.  XXV 

Chronological  Conspectus  of  Editiones  Principes  .  .  .  102 — 105 
CHAPTER  IX.  Leo  X  and  his  patronage  of  learning  :  Janus  Lascaris 
and  Marcus  Musurus ;  Guarino  of  Favera ;  Filippo  Beroaldo  the  younger. 
The  study  of  Aristotle ;  Pietro  Pomponazzi,  Leonico  Tomeo,  Alessandro 
Achillini.  Poets  : — Bembo,  Sadoleto,  Calcagnini,  Vida,  Navagero,  Fracastoro, 
Flaminio.  Archaeologists : — Fra  Giocondo,  Francesco  Albertini,  Andrea 
Fulvio,  Fabio  Calvi  and  Raphael.  Piero  Valeriano,  Clement  VII  and  the 
Sack  of  Rome  (1527)  ........  107 — 123 

BOOK  II.  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.  T24—  276 
Chronological  Table,  1500 — 1600  A.D.  .  124 

CHAPTER  X.     Erasmus 127—132 

CHAPTER  XI.  Italy  from  1527  to  1600.  Literary  Criticism,  Vida; 
influence  of  Aristotle's  treatise  On  the  Art  of  Poetry.  Victorius.  Robortelli. 
Sigonius.  Pantagato.  Panvinio.  Nizolius.  Majoragius.  Faernus.  Muretus. 
Francesco  Patrizzi.  Fulvio  Orsini.  Archaeologists; — Marliani,  Ligorio, 
Panciroli,  Aldrovandi,  J.  B.  de  Cavaleriis,  Lafreri,  Flaminio  Vacca.  Aonio 
Paleario.  Classical  influence  in  Italian  literature  .  .  .  133  — 156 

CHAPTER  XII.  Spain.  Nugno  Gusmano,  Arias  Barbosa,  Antonio  of 
Lebrixa,  Cardinal  Ximenes,  Sepulveda,  Andrea  Laguna,  Nonius  Pincianus, 
Clenardus,  Vergara,  Sanctius,  Nunnesius,  Agostino,  Ciacconius,  Cerda. 
Madrid,  and  the  Escurial 

Portugal.     Resende,  Achilles  Statins,  Osorio,  Alvarez  .          157 — 163 

CEIAPTER  XIII.  France  from  1360  to  1600.  Bersuire,  Oresme,  Jean 
de  Montreuil.  The  printers  of  the  Sorbonne.  Teachers  of  Greek  : — Gregorio 
Tife.nas,  Ilermonymus  of  Sparta,  Aleander.  Gourmont  and  the  first  Greek 
press  in  Paris.  Budaeus.  Corderius.  Robert  and  Henri  Estienne.  The 
elder  Scaliger.  Etienne  Dolet.  The  College  de  France  ;  Danes  and  Tous- 
sain ;  Rabelais ;  Ramus,  Turnebus,  Dorat.  Translators  and  literary  critics. 
Lambinus.  Passerat.  Daniel,  Pierre  Pithou,  and  Bongars.  Jurists  : — De 
Grouchy,  Cujas,  Hotmail,  Doneau,  Brisson,  Godefroy.  Translators  : — Amyot 
and  Le  Roy.  Montaigne,  La  Boetie,  Pasquier,  Sainte  Marthe.  Scaliger. 
Casaubon.  Mercier  ........  165  —  210 

CHAPTER  XIV.  The  Netherlands  from  1400  to  the  foundation  of  the 
university  of  Leyden,  1575.  The  Schools  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life. 
Nicolaus  Cusanus  and  Johann  Wessel.  Erasmus.  Despauterius.  Busleiden. 
Printers  : — John  of  Westphalia,  Martens,  Plantin.  Vives.  Goclenius,  Nan- 
nius.  Torrentius,  Pulmannus,  Joannes  Secundus,  Hadrianus  Junius,  \V.  Canter 
(Pighius,  Modius,  Delrio,  Cruquius)  .  .  -  .  .  211 — 218 

CHAPTER  XV.  England  from  1370  to  1600.  Chaucer,  Lydgate, 
'Thomas  of  England'.  Visits  of  Poggio  and  Aeneas  Sylvius.  Adam  de 
Molyneux ;  Humphrey  duke  of  Gloucester.  John  Tiptoft,  Andrew  Holes, 
William  Grey,  John  Free,  Robert  Flemming  and  John  Gunthorpe. 


XXVI  OUTLINE   OF    PRINCIPAL   CONTENTS. 

The  Study  of  Greek.  Selling,  Linacre,  Grocyn,  W.  Latimer,  Lily, 
Colet,  More.  Greek  at  Oxford.  Greek  at  Cambridge :— Bullock,  Croke,  Sir 
Thomas  Smith,  Sir  John  Cheke.  Pronunciation  of  Greek  and  Latin.  Ascham. 
Sir  Thomas  Wilson.  Classical  metres.  Gabriel  Harvey.  Colleges  and 
Schools.  Translators.  Latin  poets  of  Italy  studied  in  England. 

Scotland  : — Buchanan,  Volusenus,  Melville,  Johnston,  Drummond. — 
Wales: — John  Owen  ........  219 — 250 

CHAPTER  XVI.  Germany  from  1350  to  1616.  Petrarch  and  Charles  IV. 
Vergerio  and  Sigismund.  Aeneas  Sylvius  in  Vienna.  Peuerbach  and  Regio- 
montanus.  Peter  Luder  and  Hartman  Schedel.  Agricola.  Hegius.  Langen. 
Wimpheling.  Brant.  Reuchlin.  Mutianus.  Celtes.  Trithemius  and  Pirk- 
heimer.  Peutinger.  Cuspinianus.  Vadianus.  Busche.  Bebel.  Eobanus 
Hessus.  The  printers  of  Basel.  Beatus  Rhenanus.  Glareanus,  Grynaeus, 
Gelenius,  Petrus  Mosellanus.  Melanchthon.  Camerarius.  Micyllus.  Sturm. 
Rivius.  F.  Fabricius.  H.  Wolf.  M.  Neander.  B.  Faber.  C.  Gesner.  M. 
Crusius.  Frischlin.  Xylander.  Sylburg.  Aem.  Portus.  Rhodomann. 
Hoesehel.  Erasmus  Schmied.  Janus  Guilielmus.  Acidalius.  Taubmann. 

Hungary  :— Aeneas  Sylvius  and  Ladislas.  Vitez  and  Janus  Paunonius. 
Matthias  Corvinus. 

Poland: — Olesnicky.     Dlugosz.     Gregor  of  Sanok        .         .         251 — 276 


BOOK  III.     THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.        277-370 
Chronological  Table,   1600 — 1700  A.D.         .  278 

CHAPTER  XVII.  Italy  in  the  Seventeenth  Century.  Archaeologists:— 
Cassiano  del  Pozzo,  Donati,  Nardini,  Doni,  Bellori  and  Bartoli,  Raphael 
Fabretti.  Composers  of  Latin  verse  : — Strada,  Ceva,  Sergardi.  Imitators  of 
Pindar  and  Horace 279 — 282 

CHAPTER  XVIII.  France  in  the  Seventeenth  Century.  Sirmond, 
Petavius,  Guyet,  Peiresc.  Salmasius.  Heraldus,  Palmerius,  Seguier,  Vigerus, 
Maussac,  Valesius  ;  C.  and  P.  Labbe.  Du  Cange.  The  Jesuits  and  Port- 
Royal.  Menage.  The  French  Academy  and  the  'Three  Unities'.  Tanaquil 
Faber,  Andre  and  Anne  Dacier.  Huet  and  the  Delphin  Classics.  Mabillon. 
Hardouin.  Spon 283 — 299 

CHAPTER  XIX.  The  Netherlands  from  the  foundation  of  the  university 
of  Leyden  (1575)  to  1700.  Janus  Dousa  and  his  sons.  Petreius  Tiara, 
Vulcanius.  Lipsius.  Andreas  Schott.  Puteanus.  Scaliger.  Wowerius.  P. 
Merula.  Baudius.  Scriverius.  G.  J.  Vossius.  Franciscus  Junius.  Salma- 
sius. Meursius.  Putschius.  Cluverius.  Daniel  Heinsius.  Grotius.  J.  F. 
Gronovius.  Isaac  Vossius.  N.  Heinsius.  Meibomius.  (Spanheim.)  Grae- 
vius.  Rycke.  J.  and  A.  Gronovius.  Broukhusius.  Francius.  Perizonius. 
Cuypers.  The  Elzeviers  ........  300 — 332 


OUTLINE   OF    PRINCIPAL   CONTENTS.  XXV11 

CHAPTER  XX.  England  in  the  Seventeenth  Century.  Savile.  Downes. 
Bacon.  Robert  Burton.  Dempster.  Barclay.  Gataker.  Selden.  Milton. 
May.  Cowley.  Duport.  Barrow.  Pearson.  Stanley.  P'alkland,  Hales, 
Jeremy  Taylor.  The  Cambridge  Platonists : — More  and  Cudworth.  Theo- 
philus  and  Thomas  Gale.  Translators  of  Lucretius : — Evelyn,  Lucy 
Hutchinson,  and  Creech.  Baxter.  Hudson.  Potter.  Dryden.  Dodwell. 
Barnes 332— 358 

CHAPTER  XXI.  Germany  in  the  Seventeenth  Century.  Gruter.  Pareiis. 
Scioppius,  Earth,  and  Reinesius.  Seber  and  Weller.  Lindenbrog ;  Hol- 
stenius  and  Kircher.  Vorst,  Jonsen,  Lambeck.  Morhof.  Gude.  Bernegger, 
Freinsheim,  Boekler,  Obrecht,  Scheffer.  Conring.  Spanheim.  Beger.  Cel- 
larius 358—369 

BOOK  IV.     THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY.         371—466 
Chronological  Table,   1700 — 1800  A.D.         .  372 

CHAPTER  XXII.  Italy  in  the  Eighteenth  Century.  Facciolati,  For- 
cellini.  Ferracci,  Lagomarsini.  Garatoni.  Rezzonico.  Corsini.  Bandini, 
Mingarelli,  Morelli.  Archaeologists : — Ficoroni,  Piranesi,  Gori.  Muratori, 
Maffei.  Paciaudi,  Morcelli,  Marini.  E.  Q.  Visconti.  Fea  .  373 — 384 

CHAPTER  XXIII.  France  in  the  Eighteenth  Century.  Montfaucon. 
Capperonnier.  Bouhier.  Sanadon.  Olivetus.  Archaeologists:  —  Banduri, 
Fourmont,  Burette,  Freret,  Comte  de  Caylus,  Patin,  Vaillant,  Pellerin, 
Mariette,  D'Anville.  Barthelemy,  Seroux  d'Agincourt,  Guys,  Choiseul- 
Gouffier,  Brotier,  Larcher.  Alsace  (Brunck,  Oberlin,  Schweighauser,  Bast) 
and  the  Editioties  Bipontinae.  Levesque,  and  Sainte-Croix.  Villoison 

385—398 

CHAPTER  XXIV.  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century.  Bentley.  Addi- 
son.  Pope.  Spence.  Maittaire.  Ruddiman.  \Vasse,  Davies,  Whiston, 
Middleton,  S.  Clarke,  Needham.  Markland,  John  Taylor,  Dawes.  Chr.  Pitt, 
Vincent  Bourne,  Gray,  Sydenham.  Heath,  Toup  and  Musgrave.  Shaw, 
Joddrell.  Tyrwhitt  and  Twining.  Parr  and  II.  Homer.  Porson.  Wakerleld, 
Home  Tooke,  Burgess.  The  Dilettanti  Society;  Sluart  and  Revett,  R. 
Wood.  Scholarly  Statesmen  : — Chatham,  Burke,  Fox,  Pitt.  Archaeolo- 
gists:— -Sir  \Vm  Hamilton,  Townley,  R.  Chandler,  Payne  Knight.  A. 
Adam.  Gibbon.  Mitford.  Sir  Wm  Jones  ....  400 — 439 
CHAPTER  XXV.  The  Netherlands  in  the  Eighteenth  Century.  Le 
Clerc.  Burman.  KiAster.  Bos.  Duker  and  Drakenborch.  Havercamp. 
Hemsterhuys.  J.  F.  Reitz.  Wesseling.  D'Orville.  Oudendorp.  Burman  II. 
Schrader.  Valckenaer.  Ruhnken.  Pierson,  Koen,  Santen,  Luzac.  Wyt- 
tenbach 441—466 


xxvill  CORRIGENDA. 


CORRIGENDA. 

P-  35  !•  3  >  f°r  Pizzopasso,  read  Pizzolpasso. 

p.  105;  Stobaeus  (1535),  add  Florilegium ;   (1575)  add  Eclogae. 

Aretaeus  (1554),  for  Andr.  read  Adr.  Turnebus. 

Polyaenus  (1589),  for  Leyden,  read  Lyon. 

p.  118  1.  8;  for  1514  (Didot's  date  for  the  editio  princeps  of  Pindar),  read 
(as  on  p.  104)  1513  (with  Christie's  Essays,  p.  243). 

p.  124;  Italy,  Pomponazzi ;  for  1462 — 1565,  read  1462 — 1525. 

p.  126;  for  salon  carre,  read  salon  carre. 

p.  1 58  n.  i ;  for  des  fonds  grecs,  read  du  fonds  grec. 


p.  161 
p.  196 

p.  2OI 

P-  243 
p.  271 
p.  285 
p.  287 

p.  301  n.  5;  for  332  f,  read  362^ 

p.  368  11.  12,  15;  for  Helmstadt,  read  Helmstadt  or  Helmstedt. 

p.  372;  England,  after  Spence  (1699 — 1768),  add  Martyn  (1699 — 1768). 

p.  378  1.  9  (inset);  for  Ferrati  (Ftrratius),  read  Ferracci. 

p.  391  1.  28;  for  Vaillant,  1655,  read  1665. 


2;  for  Constantius,  read  Constantinus. 

16;  for  Florio,  read  North. 

27;  for  Festus  (1575),  read  (with  Bernays,  Scaligcr,  275)  1576. 

28;  for  1559,  read  (with  Hume  Brown's  Buchanan,  160)  1561. 

33;  for  1608,  read  at  Leipzig  (1577)  and  at  Hanover  (1604). 

6;  for  Saville,  read  Savile. 

26;  for  Labbe  (Labbaeus),  read  Labbe. 


BOOK    I. 

THE   REVIVAL    OF  LEARNING   AND    THE 
HISTOR  Y  OF  SCHOLARSHIP  IN  ITAL  Y. 

Le  moyen  age,  si  profond,  si  original,  si  pottique  dans  I' i'lan  de 
son  enthusiasme  religieux,  rfest,  sous  le  rapport  de  la  culture  intel- 
lectuelle,  qu'un  long  tatonnement  pour  rcvenir  a  la  grande  ecole  de  la 
noble  pensce,  e'est-a-dire  a  rantiquite.  La  renaissance,  loin  d'etre, 
comme  on  I' a  dit,  un  egaretnent  de  V esprit  nwderne,  fonrvoye  apres 
un  ideal  etranger,  n'est  que  le  retour  a  la  vraie  tradition  de  r/iuma- 
nite  civilisce. 

RENAN,  Averrocs  (1852),  Pref.  p.  viii,  ed.  4,  1882. 

DaW  Italia  sol  tan  to  il  classicisnw  poteva  sperare  il  suo  rinasci- 
mento,  dall'  unica  terra  dove  il  vecchio  mondo  classico  in  rovine, 
superava  in  grandezza  e  maesta  il  giovane  media  evo. 

HORTIS,  Studi  sulle  Opere  Latine  del  Boccaccio, 
p.  210,  Trieste,  1879. 


History  of  Scholarship  in  Italy  between  1321  and  1527. 

BORN  DIED 

1304-1374  Petrarch  discovers  Cicero,  pro  Archia,  1333,  and  ad  Atticum  1345 

1313-1375  Boccaccio  discovers  Martial,  Ausonius  etc.,  and  studies  Greek  1360-63 

1330-1406  Salutati  discovers  Cicero,  ad  Familiares     1392 

1350-1415  Chrysoloras  teaches  Greek  in  Florence 1396-1400 

1356-1450  Plethon  disputes  on  Plato  and  Aristotle    '439 

'363-1437  Niccoli  leaves  800  MSS  to  Medicean  Library    '437 

1369-1444  Leonardo. Bruni  translates  Aristotle's  Ethics,  1414,  and  Politics  1437 

1370-1431  Barzizza,  Epistolarum  Liber,  printed,  Paris 1470 

1370-1459  Aurispa  brings  238  MSS  from  Constantinople    1423    . 

1374-1460  Guarino  da  Verona  teaches  at  Ferrara 1429-60 

1378-1446  Vittorino  da  Feltre  teaches  at  Mantua 1423-46 

1380-1459  Poggio  discovers  Latin  MSS  at  Cluni,  St  Gallen,  Langres  etc...  1415-17 

1385-1458  Alfonso  I,  king  of  Naples 1442-58 

1386-1439  Traversari  discovers  Cornelius  Nepos    '434 

1388-1463  Flavio  Biondo,  Italia  llhistrata    1453 

1389-1464  Cpsimo  de'  Medici  in  power  in  Florence  1434-64 

1391-1450  Ciriaco  d' Ancona,  collector  of  inscriptions     1424,  1433,  1435-47 

1395-1484  Georg.  Trapezuntiustr. A.r. Rhet., Hist.  An. ,1450;  Plato,  Lams  1451 

1396-1459  Manetti  translates  Aristotle's  Ethics  etc 1456-9 

1397-1455  Tommaso  Parentucelli,  Pope  Nicolas  V    M47~55 

1398-1481  Filelfo  brings  40  MSS  from  Constantinople    1427 

1399-1477  Decembrio  translates  Plato's  Republic 1440 

1400-1475  Theodoras  Gaza,  professor  of  philosophy  in  Rome    1451 

1403-1472  Bessarion  presents  his  Greek  MSS  to  Venice    1468 

1405-1464  Aeneas  Sylvius,  De  Lib.  Educ.  1450.  Pope  Pius  II  1458-64 

1407-1457  Laurentius  Valla,  Elegantiae  Latini  Sennonis 1440-50 

1416-1486  Argyropulos  lectures  in  Florence,  1456-71,  and  Rome 1471-86 

1417-1475  Giov.  Andrea  de'  Bussi,  Bp  of  Aleria,  8  editione s principes  ...  1469-71 

1421-1498  Vespasiano,  Vite  di  Uomini  Illustri    c.  1493 

1422-1482  Federigo  di  Montefeltro,  Duke  of  Urbino 1474-82 

1424-1504  Cristoforo  I.andino,  Quaestiones  Camaldulenses   1480 

1424-1511  Chalcondyles,  ed.  pr.  Homer,  1488;  Isocrates,  1493;  Suldas...  1499 

1425-1498  Pomponius  Laetus,  ed.  Curtius,  Virgil,  Pliny,  Sallust 1470-90 

1426-1503  Pontano  and  Marullus  (d.  1500)  correct  text  of  Lucr.,  ed.  Flor.  1512 

1427-1477  Campano  translates  Plutarch's  Lives 1470 

1430-1480  Perotti,  Rudimenta  Graininatices 1468 

1433-1499  Ficino  translates  Plato,  1482,  and  Plotinus 1492 

1434-1501  Constantine  Lascaris,  Grammatica  Graeca    '476 

1445-1535  Janus  Lascaris,  5  ediiione s  principes 1494-6 

1448-1492  Lorenzo  de' Medici  in  power  in  Florence  1469-92 

1449-1515  Aldus  Manutius,  27  Greek  editiancs  principes    1494-1515 

1453-1505  Beroaldus  edits  Propertius,  1487,  and  Plautus    1500 

1454-1494  Politian,  Sylvae,  1482-6;  Miscellanea 1489 

1458-1530  Sannazaro  discovers  Ovid,  Halieut.,  Grattius  and  Nemesianus  1501-4 

1461-1510  Paolo  Cortesi,  De  Hominibits  Doctis    1490 

1462-1525  Pomponazzi,  De  Imtnortalitate  A  nimae 1516 

1463-1494  Pico  delta  Mirandola, .Apologia,  1484;  Adv.  Astrologiani     ...  1495 

1469-1527  Machiavelli,  Discorsi  on  Livy  i-x 1516-9 

1470-1517  Muslims  edits  7  editiones principes 1498-1516 

1470-1547  Bembo,  On  Terence,  1530;  Epistolae  Leonis  X   '535 

1475-1521  Giovanni  de'  Medici,  Pope  Leo  X  1513-21 

1477-1547  Sadoleto,  Laocoon,  1506;  De  Liberis  Recte  Instituendis   1534 

1477-1558  Valeriano,  De  Literatorum  Infelicitate,  written  after 1527 

1478-1529  Baldassare  Castiglione,  //  Cortegiano   1528 

1479-1552  Lilio  Giraldi,  De  Poetis  Nostrnruin  Temporum    1551 

1483-1529  Navagero  ed.  Quint.,  Virg.,  Lucr.,  ()v.,Ter.,  Hor.,  Cic.  Speeches  1514-9 

1483-1552  Paolo  Giovio,  Elogia  Doctaruin  Virorum  1556 

1488-1522  Longolius,  Orationes  et  Epistolae,  Florence   1524 

1499-1566  Vida,  De  Arte  Poetica,  1527  ;  Christias 1535 


CHAPTER   I. 

INTRODUCTION.     PETRARCH   AND    BOCCACCIO. 

THE  History  of  Scholarship  during  the  six  centuries  that  have 
elapsed  since  the  birth  of  Petrarch  falls  into  four  principal  periods, 
which  may  be  distinguished  by  the  names  of  the  nations  that  have 
been  most  prominent  in  each: — (i)  the  Italian,  (2)  the  French, 
(3)  the  English  and  Dutch ;  and  (4)  the  German. 

The  first  is  the  age  of  the  Revival  of  Learning  in  Italy, 
including  the  two  centuries  between  the  death  of  Dante  in  1321 
and  the  death  of  Leo  X  in  1521,  and  ending  with  the  Sack  of 
Rome  in  1527.  It  begins  with  Petrarch  (1304 — 1374)  and  it 
ends  with  the  contemporaries  of  Erasmus  (1466 — 1536).  It  is 
the  age  of  the  Humanists,  and  its  principal  aim  is  the  imitation 
and  reproduction  of  classical  models  of  style  and  of  life. 

The  second,  or  French,  period  is  mainly  marked  by  a  many- 
sided  knowledge  of  the  subject-matter  of  the  Classics,  by  in- 
dustrious erudition  rather  than  by  any  special  cult  of  the  form  of 
the  classical  languages.  It  begins  with  the  foundation  of  the 
College  de  France  by  Francis  I  at  the  prompting  of  Budaeus  in 
1530,  and  it  ends  with  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
It  is  the  period  of  the  great  Polyhistors  of  France  and  of  the 
Netherlands.  Its  foremost  names  are  those  of  Scaliger  (1540 — 
1609)  and  Casaubon  (1559 — 1614),  and  Lipsius  (1547 — 1606) 
and  Salmasius  (1588 — 1653).  Of  these,  Casaubon  ended  his 
days  in  England,  while  Scaliger  passed  the  last  sixteen  years  of 
his  life  at  Leyden,  which  was  also  one  of  the  principal  scenes  of 
the  learned  labours  of  Lipsius  and  Salmasius. 

The  third,  or  English  and  Dutch,  period  begins  towards  the 
end  of  the  seventeenth  century  with  Bentley  (1662—1742).  It 
s.  II.  i 


FOUR   PERIODS   OF   SCHOLARSHIP. 


is  represented  in  Holland  by  Bentley's  younger  contemporary  and 
correspondent,  Hemsterhuys  (1685 — 1766),  and  Hemsterhuys' 
famous  pupil,  Ruhnken  (1723 — 1798).  It  is  the  age  of  historical 
and  literary,  as  well  as  verbal,  criticism.  Both  were  represented 
by  Bentley  during  the  half  century  of  his  literary  activity  from 
1691  to  1742,  while,  in  the  twenty  years  between  1782  and  1803, 
verbal  criticism  was  the  peculiar  province  of  Person  (1759 — 1808), 
who  was  born  in  the  same  year  as  Friedrich  Augustus  Wolf. 

The  fourth,  or  German,  period  begins  with  Wolf  (1759 — 1.824), 
whose  celebrated  Prolegomena  appeared,  in  1795.  Wolf  is  the 
founder  of  the  systematic  or  encyclopaedic  type  of  scholarship, 
embodied  in  the  comprehensive  term  Alterthumswissenschaft.  The 
tradition  of  Wolf  was  ably  represented  by  his  great  pupil,  Boeckh 
(1785 — 1867),  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  historical  and  antiquarian 
school,  as  contrasted  with  the  critical  and  grammatical  school  of 
Hermann  (1772 — 1848).  During  this  last  period,  while  Germany 
remains  the  most  productive  of  the  nations,  scholarship  has 
become  more  and  more  international  and  cosmopolitan  in  its 
character.  In  the  torch-race  of  the  nations,  the  light  of  learning 
has  been  transmitted  from  Italy  to  France  and  England,  to  the 
Netherlands  and  Germany,  to  Scandinavia,  and  to  the  lands  across 
the  seas. 

The  age  of  the  Renaissance  was  the  time  of  transition  from 

the  ancient  to  the  modern  world.    The  Renaissance 

The  Renais-     nag  been  described  by  one  eloquent  writer  as  '  the 

sance  * 

discovery  of  the  world  and  of  man";  by  another, 
as  producing  a  'love  of  the  things  of  the  intellect  and  the 
imagination  for  their  own  sake'2;  and  by  a  third,  as  the  move- 
ment by  which  the  nations  of  Western  Europe  passed  from  the 
mediaeval  to  modern  modes  of  thought  and  life3.  The  metaphor 
of  a  new  birth  was  first  associated  with  a  revival  of  learning  by 
an  Englishman,  Modoin,  bishop  of  Autun,  who  hailed  the  revival 
under  Charles  the  Great  in  a  line  that  recalls  the  poets  of  Rome  :— 

1  Michelet,  Histoire  de  la  France,  VII  p.  ii,  la  decouverte  du  monde,  la  de- 
couverle  de  I'homme ;  cp.  Burckhardt,  Renaissance,  part  iv. 

3  W.  Pater,  The  Renaissance,  p.  i. 

3  Cp.,  in  general,  J.  A.  Symonds,  s.v.  Renaissance  in  Enc.  Brit.  ed.  9;  and 
Renaissance  in  Italy,  i  I — 28. 


CHAP.  I.]  THE   RENAISSANCE.  3 

'aurea  Roma  iterum  renovata  renascitur  orbi'1.  The  old  Italian 
rinascita  was  probably  first  applied  to  the  arts  by  Vasari2.  The 
modern  Italian  Rinascimento  is  simply  a  translation  of  the  French 
Renaissance,  found  as  early  as  1708  in  the  French  Dictionary  of 
Furetiere3,  but  not  recognised  by  the  Academy  until  ij624. 
Among  our  own  countrymen,  William  Collins  (d.  1759)®  and 
Thomas  Warton  (d.  i8oc>)6  proposed  to  write  a  history  of  the 
'  Revival  of  Learning ',  or  of  '  Letters ',  but  the  proposal  remained 
unfulfilled.  Both  of  these  designs  owed  their  inspiration  to  the 
age  of  Leo  X.  Similarly,  in  France,  the  Abbe  Barthelemy, 
travelling  in  Italy  in  1755,  describes  the  age  of  Leo  as  la 
naissance  d'un  nouveau  genre  humain"1.  But  it  has  since  been 
recognised  that  for  the  beginning  of  the  Renaissance  we  must  go 
back  at  least  as  far  as  Petrarch,  who  died  in  1374, — a  full  century 
before  the  birth  of  Leo. 

The  Revival  of  Learning  in  Italy  was  practically  completed 
within  the  period  of  exactly  two  centuries  which  separates  the 
death  of  Dante  from  the  death  of  Leo  X.  At  the  death  of  the 
first  Pope  of  the  Medicean  house,  humanism  had  well  nigh  run 
its  course  in  Italy ;  and,  when  the  exiled  poet  of  Florence  died  at 
Ravenna,  Petrarch,  the  first  of  the  humanists,  was  still  a  young 
student  at  Montpellier.  But  he  was  already  enraptured  with  the 
style  of  Cicero  and  of  Virgil.  From  his  father, 
Pietro  or  Petracco,  a  notary  of  Florence,  he  had 
derived  the  name  of  Francesco  di  Petracco,  which  his  sense  of 
euphony,  or  his  fancy  for  a  name  of  Latin  form,  afterwards 
changed  into  Francesco  or  Franciscus  Petrarca.  Born  in  exile 
at  Arezzo,  he  was  taken  at  the  age  of  eight  to  Avignon, — the 
seat  of  the  Papacy  during  the  more  than  seventy  years  of  the 

1  Diimmler,  Poetae  Lat.  Aevi  Car.  i  385. 

2  Vite,  Parte  II,  par.  3,  rinascita  di  queste  arti. 

3  Noticed  as  used  in  a  figurative  sense  alone,  e.g.  '/#  renaissance  des  beaiix- 
arts.' 

4  e.g.  '  la  renaissance  des  letlres '. 

5  Johnson's  Lives,  iii  282. 

6  Roscoe's  Leo  X,  p.  x,  ed.  1846. 

7  A.  Holm,  II  Rinascimento  Italiano  e  la  Grecia  Antica  (Palermo,  1880), 
excursus  on  pp.  35 — 40.     Matthew  Arnold,  in  Culture  and  Anarchy  (1869), 
c.  iv,  introduced  the  form  Renascence. 

I  —  2 


4  ITALY.  [CENT.  xiv. 

'Babylonian  Captivity',  which  closely  corresponded  to  the  seventy 
years  of  his  life  (1304 — 1374).  Educated  mainly  at  Montpellier 
and  Bologna,  he  spent  sixteen  years  in  the  seclusion  of  Vaucluse. 
His  early  travels  in  France  and  Germany  were  followed  by 
repeated  visits  to  Rome,  where,  in  recognition  of  his  powers  as 
a  Latin  rather  than  as  an  Italian  poet,  he  was  crowned  with  the 
laurel  on  the  Capitol  in  1341.  While  he  was  familiar  with  Parma, 
and  Verona,  and  Vicenza,  he  hardly  ever  saw  his  ancestral  city  of 
Florence.  He  spent  eight  years  in  Milan,  stayed  for  a  time  at 
Venice  and  Padua,  and,  twelve  miles  south  of  that  place,  passed 
the  last  four  years  of  his  life  at  the  quiet  village  of  Arqua.  His 
Letter  to  Posterity  tells  us  that  he  had  a  clear  complexion, 
between  light  and  dark,  lively  eyes  and,  for  many  years,  a  keen- 
ness of  sight  that  did  not  require  the  aid  of  glasses1.  Of  his 
numerous  portraits,  probably  the  most  authentic  is  that  in  a 
Paris  manuscript  of  his  own  Lives  of  Illustrious  Men,  a  portrait 
executed  for  an  intimate  friend  in  Padua  less  than  five  years  after 
his  death2. 

Petrarch  was  fully  conscious  of  belonging  in  a  peculiar  sense 
to  a  transitional  time3.  He  gives  proof  of  his  modern  spirit  when 
he  resolves  on  making  the  ascent  of  Mont  Ventoux,  but  he  no 
sooner  reaches  the  summit  than  he  reverts  to  the  mediaeval 
mood  inspired  by  his  copy  of  the  Confessions  of  St  Augustine4. 
Yet  he  has  rightly  been  regarded  as  the  '  first  modern  man  '5.  In 
a  new  age  he  was  the  first  to  recognise  the  supreme  importance 
of  the  old  classical  literature,  to  regard  that  literature  with  a  fresh 
and  intelligent  and  critical  interest,  to  appreciate  its  value  as  a 
means  of  self-culture,  and  as  an  exercise  for  some  of  the  highest 
of  human  faculties.  In  his  Latin  style  he  is  no  slavish  imitator 
of  ancient  models.  In  prose  he  is  mainly  inspired  by  the  philo- 
sophical works  of  Cicero,  and  by  the  moral  letters  of  Seneca.  In 

1  Epp.  Fam.  i  i  f,  ed.  Fracassetti. 

2  See  Frontispiece,  and  cp.  De  Nolhac,  Pttrarque  et  V Humanisms  (1892), 
Appendix  pp.  375 — 384,  I '  iconographie  de  Petrarque. 

3  Rerum  Memorandarum,  Liber  i  2,  p.  398,  ed.  1581,  'velut  in  confinio 
duorum  populorum  constitutus,  ac  simul  ante  retroque  prospiciens '. 

4  Cp.  author's  Harvard  Lectures  on  the  Revival  of  Learning  (1905),  p.  9f. 

5  Renan,  Averroes,  p.  328,  ed.  1882. 


CHAP.  I.]  PETRARCH   AND   VIRGIL.  5 

verse  his  model  is  Virgil,  but  he  keenly  realises  the  importance  of 
catching  the  spirit  of  the  ancient  poet  without  appropriating  his 
actual  language1.  He  collects  classical  manuscripts,  as  well  as 
coins  and  inscriptions ;  he  is  inspired  with  an  interest  in  history 
and  archaeology  by  the  sight  of  the  ruins  of  Rome.  As  a  loyal 
Churchman,  he  regards  the  study  of  the  Classics  as  the  handmaid 
of  Christianity,  and  not  as  hostile  to  its  teaching. 

His  mind  was  mainly  moulded  by  the  study  of  the  Latin 
Classics,  to  which  he  was  attracted  by  their  perfection  of  form. 
Even  in  his  earliest  youth,  he  had  a  keen  ear  for  the  melodies  of 
Latin  verse  and  rhetorical  prose.  As  a  student  at  Montpellier, 
he  was  spending  on  the  perusal  of  his  favourite  Latin  authors  the 
time  that  he  was  supposed  to  be  devoting  to  the  study  of  law, 
when  his  father  suddenly  appeared  on  the  scene,  tore  his  son's 
treasures  from  their  place  of  concealment,  and  flung  them  into 
the  fire.  When  the  son  burst  into  tears  at  the  grievous  sight,  the 
father  relented  so  far  as  to  snatch  from  the  flames  two  volumes 
only ;  the  one  was  a  copy  of  Virgil ;  the  other  was  the  '  Rhetoric ' 
of  Cicero2.  Cicero  and  Virgil  became  the  principal  text-books  of 
the  Revival  of  Learning.  Petrarch  describes  them  in  one  of  his 
poems  as  the  'two  eyes'  of  his  discourse3.  Even  in  his  old  age, 
he  was  still  haunted  by  the  mediaeval  tradition  of  the  allegorical 
significance  of  the  Aeneid;  but,  unlike  the  mediaeval  admirers  of 
Virgil,  he  does  not  regard  the  Latin  poet  as  a  mysteriously  distant 
and  supernatural  being ;  he  finds  in  him  a  friend,  and  he  is  even 
candid  enough  to  criticise  him.  In  his  'Familiar  Letters'  he 
quotes  Virgil  about  120  times;  his  carefully  annotated  copy  is 
preserved  in  the  Ambrosian  Library4;  and,  under  his  influence, 
the  Aeneid  was  accepted  as  the  sole  model  for  the  epic  poetry  of 
the  succeeding  age.  It  is  the  model  of  his  own  Africa. 

In  his  appreciation  of  the  lyrics  of  Horace,  he  marks  a  distinct 
advance  on  the  mediaeval  view.  Of  the  quotations  from  Horace 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  less  than  one-fifth  are  from  the  lyrics  and 

1  Epp.  Fam.  xxiii  19  (cp.  Harvard  Lectures,  n  f). 

2  Epp.  Rerum  Seniliiim,  xv  i,  p.  947. 

3  Trionfo  della  fama,  iii  21. 

4  De  Nolhac,  118 — 135  ;  Facsimile  of  frontispiece  in  Miintz,  Gazette  Arch. 
1887,  and  Pctrarque  (1902),  opp.  p.  12. 


6  ITALY.  [CENT.  xiv. 

more  than  four-fifths  from  the  hexameter  poems1;  but  the  balance 
is  happily  redressed  by  Petrarch,  who  quotes  with  equal  interest 
from  both.  His  copy  of  Horace  is  in  the  Laurentian  Library2. 
Ovid  is  too  frivolous  for  his  taste3.  With  the  epics  of  Lucan, 
Statius,  and  Claudian  he  is  well  acquainted ;  and  the  same  is  true 
of  Persius,  Juvenal,  and  Martial,  with  parts  of  Ausonius4.  Of  the 
plays  of  Plautus  only  eight  were  then  known ;  Petrarch  quotes 
from  two  of  them5,  and  gives  an  outline  of  a  third6  as  a  proof  of 
the  poet's  skill  in  the  delineation  of  character.  He  is  familiar 
with  the  comedies  of  Terence,  and  the  tragedies  of  Seneca;  he 
rarely  refers  to  Catullus7  or  Propertius8;  it  is  apparently  only  in 
excerpts  that  he  knows  Tibullus9.  All  his  quotations  from 
Lucretius  are  clearly  derived  second-hand  from  Macrobius10. 

In  his  boyhood,  he  found  himself  impelled  to  study  Cicero, 
and,  although  he  was  only  imperfectly  conscious  of  the  sense,  he 
was  charmed  by  the  marvellous  harmonies  of  sound11.  In  his  old 
age  he  declared  that  the  'eloquence  of  this  heavenly  being  was 
absolutely  inimitable'12.  Virgil  had  been  the  favourite  author  of 
the  Middle  Ages ;  it  was  the  influence  of  Petrarch  that  restored 
Cicero  to  a  position  of  prominence  in  the  Revival  of  Learning13. 
Petrarch  was  familiar  with  all  the  philosophical  books  of  Cicero 
then  extant,  with  the  mutilated  text  of  the  principal  rhetorical 
works,  and  with  many  of  the  Speeches14. 

The  lost  writings  of  Cicero  were  the  constant  theme  of  his 
eager  quest.  Whenever,  in  his  travels  in  foreign  lands,  he  caught 

1  Moore's  Studies  in  Dante,  i  201. 

2  Foes,  in  Chatelain's  Pattographie,  pi.  87,  2;  De  Nolhac,  148 — 153. 

3  De  Vita  Sol.  ii  7,  2. 

4  De  Nolhac,  153,  160-7,  X73- 

6  Curculio  and  Cistellaria,  in  Fam.  ix  4. 

6  Casina,  in  Fam.  v  14. 

7  De  Nolhac,  138—140. 

8  iii  32,  49  f,  apparently  imitated  in  Canzoni,  xii  str.  7;  De  Nolhac,  142  f ; 
for  imitations  of  Propertius  in    Petrarch's   Africa,   see   Prof.  Phillimore   in 
R.  Ellis,   Catullus  in  the  xivth  century  (1905),  29. 

9  De  Nolhac,  145.  10  it.  134. 

11  Epp.  Rerum  Senilium,  xv  i,  p.  946.  12  ib.  p.  948. 

13  Zielinski,  Cicero  im   Wandel  der  Jahrhunderte,  1897,  p.  26;   Harvard 
Lectures,  149. 

14  De  Nolhac,  176 — 223. 


CHAP.  I.]  PETRARCH   AND   CICERO.  7 

a  distant  glimpse  of  some  secluded  monastery,  he  hastened  to  the 
spot  in  the  hope  of  finding  the  object  of  his  search1.  In  1333  he 
had  his  first  experience  of  the  joys  of  discovery,  when  he  found 
two  Speeches  of  Cicero  at  Liege.  One  of  them  was  copied 
promptly  by  his  companion,  and  the  other  by  himself2.  The 
second  of  these  was  certainly  the  Speech  pro  Archia'A.  A  far 
greater  joy  was  awaiting  him.  The  Letters  of  Cicero  had  for  ages 
been  lost  to  view;  but  at  Verona,  in  1345,  he  found  a  manuscript 
containing  all  the  Letters  to  Atticus  and  Quintus,  and  the  corre- 
spondence with  Brutus.  He  immediately  transcribed  the  whole, 
but  his  transcript  has  been  unhappily  lost.  The  copy  in  the 
Laurentian  Library  at  Florence4,  long  supposed  to  be  Petrarch's, 
was  really  transcribed,  eighteen  years  after  Petrarch's  death,  for  a 
Latin  Secretary  of  Florence,  Coluccio  Salutati,  who  was  the  first 
in  modern  times  to  possess  copies  of  both  of  the  great  collections 
of  Cicero's  Letters.  The  Epistolae  ad  Familiares  were  completely 
unknown  to  Petrarch.  No  sooner  had  he  discovered  the  manu- 
script of  the  Letters  to  Atticus  than  he  at  once  indited  a  letter  to 
Cicero  himself  apprising  him  of  the  fact5.  This  was  the  first  of 
Petrarch's  Letters  to  Dead  Authors,  the  remainder  (including  a 
second  letter  to  Cicero)  being  addressed  to  Homer,  Virgil,  and 
Horace,  and  to  Livy,  Seneca,  and  Quintilian. 

Before  discovering  Cicero's  Letters  he  had  already  formed  his 
style  on  that  of  Cicero's  philosophical  works;  after  the  discovery 
of  the  Letters,  he  makes  them  the  model  of  his  own,  and,  in  the 
preface  to  his  Epistolae  de  Rebus  Familiar  ibus*,  declares  that  he 
will  follow  Cicero  rather  than  Seneca.  Nevertheless,  in  those 
letters,  he  has  as  many  as  sixty  citations  from  Seneca,  and  this  is 
far  from  the  only  proof  of  his  familiarity  with  that  author7.  His 
favourite  Roman  historian  is  Livy ;  he  bitterly  regrets  the  loss  of 
the  books  of  the  second  decade8,  and,  writing  to  the  historian 

1  Epp.  Rerum  Senilium,  xv  i,  p.  948.  2  ibid. 

3  Fam.  xiii  6  (ll  238  Fracassetti).  4  xlix  18. 

5  Fam.  xxiv  3;    cp.  xxi   10  (n  87  Fr.)  and   Var.  25  (II   367  Fr.).     Cp. 
Viertel,  Die  Wiederattffindung  von  Ciceros  Briefen  durch  Petrarcha,  Konigsberg 
program,  1879. 

6  p.  1 1  Fr.  7  De  Nolhac,  308  f. 
8  Rer.  Mem.  \  ^. 


3  ITALY.  [CENT.  xiv. 

himself,  exclaims: — O  si  mihi  totus  contingeres^.  •  He  is  familiar 
with  Caesar,  Sallust,  Justin,  Suetonius,  Florus,  Curtius,  the 
Historia  Augusta,  Valerius  Maximus,  Vegetius,  Frontinus,  and 
Orosius ;  but  he  knows  nothing  of  Nepos  or  of  Tacitus.  He  has 
only  an  imperfect  copy  of  Quintilian2.  He  is  unhappily  un- 
acquainted with  the  Letters  of  the  younger  Pliny ;  but  he  is 
fortunate  in  possessing  the  encyclopaedia  of  Pliny  the  elder. 
His  copy  is  now  in  the  Paris  Library3,  and,  in  the  margin  of  the 
passage  describing  the  fountain  of  the  Sorgue4,  Petrarch  has 
drawn  from  memory  a  dainty  little  sketch  of  the  valley  of 
Vaucluse5. 

Under  the  influence  of  Cicero6,  Petrarch  had  been  led  to 
believe  that  the  Latin  literature  was  far  superior  to  the  Greek7; 
but  he  was  ignorant  of  the  Greek  language.  The  first  opportunity 
for  learning  it  presented  itself  in  1339,  when  Barlaam,  the 
Calabrian  monk  of  Seminara,  arrived  at  Avignon  as  an  envoy 
from  Constantinople.  He  was  sent  once  more  to  the  West  in 
1342,  and  Petrarch's  attempts  to  learn  the  language  are  best 
assigned  to  that  date8.  But  he  had  barely  learned  to  read  and 
write  the  capital  letters,  when  he  unselfishly  recommended  his 
preceptor  for  a  bishopric  in  S.  Italy.  Another  envoy,  Nicolaus 
Sigeros,  who  visited  the  West  about  1350,  sent  Petrarch  a  MS 
of  Homer  about  1354.  To  Petrarch  it  was  a  sealed  book,  but, 
as  he  gazed  on  it,  he  was  transported  with  delight.  He  even 
wrote  an  enthusiastic  letter  to  Homer  himself9,  and  also  asked 
his  friend  in  the  East  to  send  him  copies  of  Hesiod  and  Euripides10. 
Besides  possessing  a  translation  of  the  first  four  books  of  the 
Iliad11,  he  acquired  in  1369  a  transcript  of  the  rendering  of  the 
whole  of  Homer  by  a  pupil  of  Barlaam,  named  Leontius  Pilatus, 

1  Fam.  xxiv  8. 

2  Fam.  xxiv  7;  De  Nolhac,  281  f. 

3  MS  6802.  4  xviii  §  190. 

8  Reproduced  in  De  Nolhac,  395.  6  De  Fin.  i  10,  iii  f . 

7  Sen.  xii,  p.  913,  Graecos  et  ingenio  et  stilo  frequenter  vicimus  et  fre- 
quenter aequavimus,  imo,  si  quid  credimus  Ciceroni,  semper  vicimus,  ubi  ad- 
nisi  sumus  (De  Nolhac,  318). 

8  De  Nolhac,  324-6.     Cp.  G.  Mandorli,  Fra  Barlaamo  Calabrese,  1888. 

9  Fam.  xxiv  12.  10  Fam.  xviii  2. 
11  De  Nolhac,  353  f. 


CHAP.  I.]  PETRARCH   AND   HOMER.  9 

whom  he  had  entertained  in  Venice  for  three  months  in  I3631. 
Though  the  baldness  of  this  rendering  led  to  an  abatement  in  his 
enthusiasm  for  the  old  Greek  poet,  his  subsequent  writings  give 
proof  of  his  study  of  its  pages.  There  is  a  well-attested  tradition 
that  he  died  while  'illuminating'  (that  is,  annotating)  his  copy 
of  a  Latin  translation  of  Homer2.  This  copy  is  now  in  the 
National  Library  of  France,  and  the  trembling  hand  that  marks 
the  close  of  the  notes  on  the  Odyssey  confirms  the  tradition  that 
they  were  his  latest  work.  A  Latin  rendering  of  Homer's 
description  of  Bellerophon's  wanderings  on  the  Aleian  plain3, 
which  appears  in  Petrarch's  Secretum*,  has  caused  needless  per- 
plexity to  two  of  his  most  learned  exponents  in  Germany  and 
France5,  who  hazard  the  conjecture  that  the  rendering  is  due  to 
Petrarch  himself.  Had  they  been  as  familiar  as  Petrarch  with 
the  pages  of  Cicero,  they  would  have  found  it  in  the  Tusculan 
Disputations6. 

Petrarch  possessed  a  MS  of  the  Greek  text  of  sixteen  of  the 
dialogues  of  Plato,  and,  on  receiving  the  MS  of  Homer,  placed 
it  beside  his  Plato  and  wrote  to  assure  the  donor  of  his  pride 
at  having  under  his  roof  at  Milan  two  guests  of  such  distinction7. 
He  also  possessed  a  copy  of  part  of  the  translation  of  the  Timaeus 
by  Chalcidius8.  Leontius  Pilatus,  the  only  person  from  whom  he 
might  possibly  have  obtained  a  rendering  of  the  rest,  had  met 
with  a  sudden  and  singular  end.  On  his  voyage  from  Constantinople 
in  the  spring  of  1367,  he  was  struck  dead  by  a  flash  of  lightning 
while  standing  against  the  mast,  and  Petrarch  hurried  down  to 
the  quay  in  the  vain  hope  of  finding,  in  the  unhappy  man's 
possessions,  some  precious  manuscript  of  Euripides  or  of 
Sophocles9.  Petrarch  knows  of  the  Phaedo  solely  in  connexion 
with  the  story  of  the  death  of  Cato10.  He  mentions  the  otiosa 

1  The  passages  on  Leontius  Pilatus  are  quoted  in  full  by  Hody,  2 — 10;  cp. 
Gibbon,  vii  20  Bury ;  and  De  Nolhac,  339 — 349. 

2  Decembrio,  quoted  by  De  Nolhac,  348. 

3  //.  vi  20 1  f.  4  iii  p.  357. 

6  Korting,  i  477  f ;  De  Nolhac,  350  n.  i.  8  iii  63. 

7  Fam.  xviii.  2. 

8  Now  in  Paris,  Bibl.  Nat.  6280  (De  Nolhac,  43). 

9  Sen.  vi  i,  p.  807;  cp.  Gibbon,  vii  120  Bury. 

10  Fam.  iii  18,  iv  3. 


io  ITALY.  [CENT.  xiv. 

cupresseta  and  the  spatia  silvestria  that  were  the  scene  of  the 
dialogue  in  Plato's  Laws,  but  this  touch  of  local  colour  is  due 
not  to  the  original  but  to  an  allusion  in  Cicero1.  For  Aristotle, 
whom  he  only  knew  in  Latin  versions,  he  had  no  partiality.  He 
was  convinced  that  that  philosopher  had  suffered  much  at  the 
hands  of  his  translators ;  he  was  repelled  by  a  certain  harshness 
of  style,  a  complete  absence  of  eloquentia* ;  and,  so  far  from 
accepting  his  authority,  he  declared  that  Aristotle  had  undoubtedly 
erred,  not  in  small  matters  only,  but  even  in  those  of  the  highest 
moment3.  We  have  proof  of  his  having  once  possessed  the 
current  commentaries  on  Aristotle  in  a  Paris  MS  including 
Eustratius4  of  Nicaea,  Aspasius  and  Michael  of  Ephesus,  but 
there  is  little  trace  of  any  study  of  this  MS  on  the  part  of  the 
owner.  He  has  a  special  antipathy  against  the  Aristotelians  of 
Padua,  who  followed  the  teaching  of  Averroes5.  He  urges  his 
friend,  the  Augustinian  monk,  Ludovicus  Marsilius,  to  write  contra 
canem  ilium  rabidum  Averroim*.  He  wages  war  against  the 
Dialecticians  of  the  day,  who  contemn  the  old  Greek  or  Latin 
representatives  of  philosophy  or  literature7.  In  the  Trionfo  delta 
Fama*  he  denounces  the  syllogisms  of  Porphyry  as  sophisms 
which  supply  weapons  against  the  truth.  In  the  same  work  he 
vaguely  mentions  Greek  and  Latin  Classics,  and,  in  his  tenth 
Eclogue,  he  ranks  Euripides  next  to  Homer.  It  is  true  that, 
to  Petrarch,  these  Greek  authors  are  little  more  than  names. 
Nevertheless,  he  regards  the  great  writers  of  antiquity,  Greek  as 
well  as  Latin,  as  his  personal  friends ;  he  feels  that  the  Classics 

1  De  Legibus,  i  15  (cp.   Plato's  Laws,  625  B).     De  Vita  Solitaria,  i  5,  i, 
p.  242  (Tullius  et  Virgilius)  Platonem  secuti  ambo,  qui  inter  otiosa  cupresseta 
et  spatia  silvestria  de  institutis  rerum  publicarum  deque  optimis  legibus  dis- 
putat.     M.  De  Nolhac  (p.  329),  who  here  quotes  neither  Cicero  nor  Plato, 
imagines  that  the  Republic  is  meant  (as  well  as  the  Laws),  but  the  scene  of 
that  dialogue  is  quite  different. 

2  Rer.  Mem.  ii  i,  p.  415;  also  De  Ignorantia,  pp.  1037,  1051. 

3  De  Ignorantia,  p.  1042. 

4  Eustachii  (sic),  wrongly  identified  as  'Eustathius'  by   De  Nolhac,  337 
n.  3. 

5  De  Ignorantia,  1035-59.  8  Sen.  p.  734. 

7  Fain,  i  i  p.  30  Fr. ;  i  6  and  1 1 ;  Sen.  v  2  (3),  p.  795. 

8  iii  62-4. 


CHAP.  I.]      PETRARCH,   PLATO   AND   ARISTOTLE.  II 

that  have  survived  enshrine  for  him  the  memory  of  great  men  of 
old  whom  he  is  glad  to  know1.  Petrarch  prepared  the  soil  of 
Italy  for  the  reception  of  Greek  culture.  It  is  possible  that,  but 
for  his  timely  intervention,  the  Revival  of  Learning  might  have 
been  delayed  until  it  was  too  late.  Between  the  death  of  Petrarch 
in  1374,  and  the  fall  of  Constantinople  in  1453,  Italy  recovered 
the  Greek  Classics2, 

It  was  owing  to  the  influence  of  Petrarch  that  his  great  contem- 
porary, Boccaccio  (1313—1375),  began  in  early  life 

Bocc&ccio 
to  study  the  Latin  Classics3.     His  education  had 

unfortunately  been  left  unfinished ;  and  his  knowledge  of  Latin 
remained  imperfect  to  the  last.  A  legend  told  by  Filippo  Villani4 
ascribes  his  first  love  of  poetry  to  a  visit  paid  to  the  tomb  of  Virgil 
at  Naples.  A  devoted  student  of  Dante,  he  sent  his  own  transcript 
of  Dante's  immortal  poem5,  and  of  certain  works  of  Cicero  and 
Varro6,  as  a  gift  to  Petrarch,  whom  he  had  long  admired,  but 
had  never  met  until  he  saw  him  in  Florence  in  1350.  Boccaccio 

1  Fam.  Hi  18,  p.  178  Fr. 

2  Symonds,  86  f. — For  the  text  of  Petrarch  I  have  generally  referred  to  the 
second  Basel  folio  ed.  of  1581  (my  copy  bears  the  autograph  of  Thos  Campbell, 
who  used  it  in  writing  his  Life  of  Petrarch,  1841);  also  to  Fracassetti's  ed.  of 
the  Epp.  de  Rebus  Familiaribus  et   Variae,  3  vols.  8vo,  Florence,   1859-63. 
These  letters  have  been  translated  and  annotated  by  the  editor  in  five  vols. 
(1863-7),  and  the  Epp.  Seniles  in  two  (1869).      Cp.  F.  X.  Kraus,  Pelrarca  in 
s.  Briefwechsel,  'Essays',  i,  1896.     The  first  ed.  of  his  De  Viribus  Illustribtis, 
and  the  best  ed.  of  his  Africa,  were  published  at  Bologna  and  Padua  respec- 
tively in  1874  (the  sooth  anniversary  of  his  death),  which  is  also  the  date  of 
Geiger's  Petrarka  (Leipzig),  277  pp.     Cp.  Voigt,  Humanismus,  i  20 — is63; 
Kdrting,  Litteratnr  Italiens,  i   1878;    Geiger,  Renaissance  u.   Humanismus, 
22 — 44,  565  f;  De  Nolhac,  Pelrarque  et  r  Humanisme,  1892,  ed.  2,  1907,  and 
the  literature  quoted  in  these  works ;  Sabbadini,  //  primo  nncleo  della  Biblio- 
teca  del  Petrarca,  in  Rendiconti  del  R.  1st.  Lomb.  di  sc.  e  left.  (1906),  369  — 
388 ;    also    Symonds,    Renaissance,    ii    69 — 87%    and    Robinson    and    Rolfe, 
Petrarch,  The  First  Modern  Scholar  and  Man   of  Letters,   with  translations 
from  his  Correspondence  (New  York,  1898). 

3  De  casibus  illustrium  virorum,  fol.  90,  (P.),  quern  ego  ab  ineunte  juven- 
tute  mea  prae  ceteris  colueram. 

4  F.  Villani,  De   Civitatis  Florentiae  Famosis   Civibus,  ed.   Galletti,   17; 
Symonds,  Boccaccio,  21. 

6  Petrarch,  Fam.  xxi  15,  c.  1359  (the  copy  is  now  in  the  Vatican). 
6  ib.  xviii  4. 


H»  ITALY.  [CENT.  xiv. 

was  the  link  between  Petrarch  and  the  city  of  Petrarch's  ancestors. 
It  was  through  Boccaccio  that  Petrarch's  influence  first  made 
itself  felt  in  Florence,  and  it  was  at  Petrarch's  prompting  that 
Boccaccio  learnt  Greek,  and  thus  became  the  earliest  of  the 
Greek  scholars  of  the  modern  world.  Both  are  equally  eager  for 
literary  fame,  and  both  of  them  hope  to  attain  immortality  by 
their  Latin  rather  than  by  their  Italian  works.  But  Boccaccio's 
Latin  prose  lacks  the  freshness  of  that  of  Petrarch,  and  is  notably 
inferior  to  all  that  he  wrote,  whether  in  prose  or  in  verse,  in  his 
native  tongue.  While  Petrarch  is  interested  in  the  spirit  of  the 
ancient  Classics,  Boccaccio  is  absorbed  in  trivial  items  of  subject- 
matter,  and  busies  himself  in  the  collection  of  a  multitude  of 
minor  memoranda  from  their  pages1.  Petrarch's  Latin  work 
'On  Illustrious  Men'  prompted  Boccaccio  to  write  'On  Famous 
Women',  as  well  as  on  the  'Falls  of  Princes'2,  in  which  prominence 
is  given  to  Greek  legends.  His  principal  Latin  work  is  a  small 
folio  on  Mythology,  claiming  to  be  founded  on  ancient  authorities 
alone3.  It  is  the  earliest  modern  handbook  of  the  subject,  and 
its  allegorical  treatment  of  the  old  legends'  must  have  given  it  a 
peculiar  interest  in  the  eyes  of  the  author's  contemporaries4. 
His  less  important  work  on  'Mountains,  Woods  and  Waters', 
written  to  aid  the  study  of  the  Latin  poets,  is  simply  an  alphabetical 
dictionary  of  ancient  geography,  founded  on  Vibius  Sequester. 
Both  of  these  works,  however,  deserve  recognition  as  the  pre- 
cursors of  our  modern  Dictionaries  of  Ancient  Mythology  and  of 
Geography. 

Boccaccio  had  a  wide  knowledge  of  the  Latin  poets5,  and 
with  his  own  hand  he  made  himself  a  complete  copy  of  Terence, 
which  is  still  preserved  in  the  Laurentian  Library8.  He  sees 
the  importance  of  comparing  the  texts  of  ancient  MSS,  but  beyond 
that  stage  he  does  not  advance.  He  differs  from  Petrarch  in 

1  Schiick  in  Neuejahrb.  1874  (2),  467  f. 

2  The  title  of  Lydgate's  version  of  De  Casibus  Viroriim  Illustrium  (W.  P. 
Ker,  Medieval  Essays,  70).  .  u  !. 

3  1.  xv  c.  5.    Cp.  Schiick,  Zur  Charakteristik  der  italienischen  Humanisten 

(1857),    1—22. 

4  F.  Villani,  I.e.  17,  mysteria  poetarum  sensusque  allegoricos...in  medium 
...perduxit;  cp.  Hortis,  Accenni  etc.,  1877,  and  Stttdi,  229 — 256. 

6  Hortis,  Studi,  389 — 413.  6  xxxviii  17;  Hortis,  Studi,  339. 


CHAP.  I.]  BOCCACCIO. 


being  uncritical.  He  is  specially  attracted  to  the  two  Latin 
historians,  Livy  and  Tacitus.  His  appreciation  of  Livy  is  proved 
not  only  by  abundant  quotations  from  that  historian,  but  also  by 
a  manuscript  in  the  Laurentian  Library1,  which  has  on  the  fly-leaf 
some  introductory  notes  by  Boccaccio,  first  published  from  another 
source  by  Hearne  the  antiquary2,  and  not  traced  to  their  true 
author  until  many  years  later3.  Boccaccio  was  the  first  humanist 
to  quote  Varro,  and  he  may  have  obtained  from  Monte  Cassino 
the  extant  archetype  of  all  our  MSS  of  that  writer4.  He  also 
discovered  the  Ibis  of  Ovid,  besides  Martial,  Ausonius,  the 
Appendix  Vergiliana,  and  the  Priapeia,  the  earliest  copy  of  which 
is  written  in  his  own  hand5.  His  interest  in  the  preservation  of 
ancient  manuscripts  in  general,  perhaps  even  his  interest  in  Tacitus 
in  particular,  is  illustrated  by  the  story  of  his  visit  to  Monte 
Cassino,  as  told  by  his  pupil  Benvenuto  in  expounding  the  twenty- 
second  canto  of  the  Paradiso  : 

Being  eager  to  see  the  library,  which,  he  had  heard,  was  very  noble,  he 
humbly  besought  one  of  the  monks  to  do  him  the  favour  of  opening  it. 
Pointing  to  a  lofty  staircase,  the  monk  answered  stiffly:  'Go  up;  it  is  already 
open'.  Boccaccio  stepped  up  the  staircase  with  delight,  only  to  find  the 
treasure-house  of  learning  destitute  of  door  or  any  kind  of  fastening,  while  the 
grass  was  growing  on  the  window-sills  and  the  dust  reposing  on  the  books  and 
bookshelves.  Turning  over  the  manuscripts,  he  found  many  rare  and  ancient 
works,  with  whole  sheets  torn  out,  or  with  the  margins  ruthlessly  clipped.  As 
he  left  the  room,  he  burst  into  tears,  and,  on  asking  a  monk,  whom  he  met  in 
the  cloister,  to  explain  the  neglect,  was  told  that  some  of  the  inmates  of  the 
monastery,  wishing  to  gain  a  few  soldi,  had  torn  out  whole  handfuls  of  leaves 
and  made  them  into  psalters,  which  they  sold  to  boys,  and  had  cut  off  strips  of 
parchment,  which  they  turned  into  amulets,  to  sell  to  women6. 

In  connexion  with  this  story  it  has  been  suggested  that  the 

1  IxiiiS.  2  Oxford,  1708. 

"  Hortis,  Cenni  di  Giovanni  Boccaccio  intorno  a  Tito  Livio,  Trieste,  1877, 
and  Studi,  1879,  P-  3!7  f  >  and,  on  ms  study  of  Livy,  id.  416  —  424. 

4  Laur.  1  10. 

6  Laur.  xxxiii  $\.     Cp.  Sabbadini,  Scoperte,  28  —  33. 

6  Benvenuto  on  Paradiso  xxii  74  f,  ed.  Lacaita  v  301  ;  cp.  Corazzini,  xxxvf, 
and  notes  on  Longfellow's  Dante,  I.e.  (brevia  is  not,  however,  'breviaries',  but 
'charms'  or  'amulets';  see  Ducange,  s.  v.  ).  The  story,  not  unnaturally, 
meets  with  protest  from  the  learned  historian  of  Monte  Cassino,  Tosti's  Storia, 
iii  99. 


14  ITALY.  [CENT.  xiv. 

well-known  manuscript  of  the  Histories  and  the  latter  part  of  the 
Annals  of  Tacitus,  which  in  some  mysterious  manner  came  into 
the  possession  of  Niccoli  before  1427  \  and  passed  into  the 
Medicean  Library  after  his  death,  was  perhaps  originally  obtained 
by  Boccaccio  from  Monte  Cassino.  It  is  written  in  a  'Lombard' 
hand,  and  this  very  manuscript  may  have  come  from  that 
monastery.  What  is  certain  is  that  Boccaccio  possessed  a  copy 
of  Tacitus,  transcribed  by  himself,  possibly  from  the  manuscript 
which  ultimately  found  its  way  into  the  Medicean  collection2. 
He  is  undoubtedly  the  first  of  the  humanists  who  is  at  all  familiar 
with  that  historian.  In  his  commentary  on  Dante  he  quotes 
the  substance  of  the  historian's  account  of  the  death  of  Seneca; 
and,  in  his  work  'On  Famous  Women',  he  borrows  descriptions 
of  certain  notable  personages  from  the  thirteenth  to  the  sixteenth 
books  of  the  Annals,  and  from  the  second  and  third  books  of  the 
Histories3. 

After  the  date  of  his  conversion  in  1361,  the  author  of  the 
Decameron,  and  of  Fiammetta  and  the  Amorosa  Visione,  ceases 
to  be  a  poet  either  in  prose  or  verse,  but  he  never  ceases  to  be  a 
scholar4.  As  a  scholar,  he  was  content  to  remain  poor  rather 
than  sacrifice  his  independence.  Apart  from  a  few  diplomatic 
missions,  the  only  office  he  ever  held  was  that  of  being  the  first 
to  fill  the  lectureship  on  Dante,  founded  in  Florence  in  1373. 
He  left  his  MSS  to  the  Convent  of  Santo  Spirito,  where  they  were 
carefully  tended  by  Niccoli  in  his  youth.  The  catalogue  of  1451 
contains  106  MSSS.  In  the  modest  epitaph,  which  he  wrote  for 
himself,  the  only  touch  of  pride  is  in  the  final  phrase  :  —  Studium 


io,  Epp-  iii  14. 

2  He  writes  to  the  abbot  of  Montefalcone,  'quaternum  quem  asportasti 
Cornel  ii  Taciti  quaeso  saltern   mittas,  ne  laborem  meum  frustraveris  et  libro 
deformitatem  ampliorem  addideris'   (Corazzini,   p.   59,    corrected   in    Hortis, 
Siudi,  425,-  n.  4).     Cp.  Rostagno,  p.  vi  Q{  facsimile  of  Tacitus,  Laur.  Ixviii  2. 

3  Schiick  in  Neue  Jahrb.  1874  (2)>  '7°»  Hortis,  Sludi,  425  f;  De  Nolhac 
in  Melanges  d'archeol.  etc.  xii  (Rome,  1892);  and  other  literature  in  Voigt,  i 
250*  n.  i. 

4  Symonds,  Boccaccio,  63  f,  70. 

5  Goldrhann,  Centralblatt  fj'ir  Bibliothekswesen  iv  (1887),  137  —  155;  No- 
vati,  in  Giornale  star,  della  letter,  ital.  x  4191^  and  Hecker,  Boccaccio-  Funde 
(Braunschweig,  1902),  29  —  36. 


CHAP.  I.]  BOCCACCIO  AND   TACITUS.  1 5 

fuit  alma  poesis.  Like  Browning's  '  Grammarian ',  he  was  hot 
prevented,  even  by  the  trials  and  tortures  of  old  age1,  from 
remaining  a  brave  and  arduous  scholar  to  the  last ;  and,  when  he 
died,  in  the  year  following  the  death  of  Petrarch,  the  chancellor 
of  Florence  declared  that  both  of  the  luminaries  of  the  new 
eloquence  had  been  extinguished,  and  that  he  had  never  known 
a  more  loveable  being  than  Boccaccio2. 

Boccaccio  was  not  only  the  earliest  modern  student  of 
Tacitus.  He  was  also  the  first  of  modern  men  to  study  Greek  in 
Italy,  and  indeed  in  Europe.  Part  of  his  Greek  lore  he  derived 
from  king  Robert's  librarian  at  Naples,  one  Paolo  da  Perugia,  who 
had  obtained  from  the  Calabrian  monk,  Barlaam,  a  number  of 
fragmentary  details  connected  with  Greek  mythology.  When 
Barlaanrs  pupil,  another  Calabrian,  Leontius  Pilatus,  had  arrived 
in  Venice  from  the  East  about  1360,  Boccaccio  promptly  invited 
him  to  come  and  teach  Greek  in  Florence,  and  kept  him  in  his  own 
house  for  three  years  translating  Homer,  while  he  carefully  noted 
all  the  little  items  of  Greek  learning  that  fell  from  the  lips  of  his 
ignorant  and  ill-favoured  instructor3. 

He  has  a  fancy  for  giving  clumsily  compounded  Greek  names 
to  his  Italian  works.  Greek  and  Roman  mythology  obtrudes 
itself  in  his  Filocopo.  The  scene  of  his  Amelo  is  laid  in  an 
imaginary  Arcadia;  that  of  the  Teseide  at  Athens,  while  his 
Filostrato  professes  to  be  a  tale  of  Troy4.  Like  Petrarch5,  he 
declines  to  believe  that  Plato  ever  proposed  the  expulsion  of 
Homer  from  his  ideal  State ;  and,  in  defending  the  ancient  poets, 
he  takes  refuge  in  allegorical  interpretations6.  He  shows  some 
slight  knowledge  of  the  Ethics,  Politics,  and  Meteorologica  of 


1  Ep.  ad  Brossanum,  p.  378  Corazzini. 

2  Salutati,  ap.  Corazzini,  pp.  475,  477. 

3  De  Gen.  Dear,  xv  c.  6,  aspectu  horridus  homo  est,  turpi  facie,  barba  pro- 
lixa,  et   capilitio  nigro,  et   meditatione  occupatus   assiclua,-  moribus  incultus, 
nee  satis  urbanus  homo  etc.    Petrarch,  Sen.  iii  6,  calls  'Leo'  a  'magna  bellua, ' 
and  'Graius  moestissimus'  (Mortis,  Stitdi,  502). 

4  Symonds,  Boccaccio,  30,  39,  47-91  78. 

5  Contra  Mcdiciun,  iii  p.  1 104  init. 

6  De  Gen.  Dear,  xiv  c.  10,  stultum  credere  poe'tas  nil  sensisse  sub  cortice 
fabularum. 


1 6  ITALY.  [CENT.  xiv. 

Aristotle,  and,  in  a  single  passage  of  his  Commentary  on  Dante, 
mentions  the  writings  on  Logic  and  Metaphysics^. 

In  his  work  on  Greek  Mythology  he  assumes  that  he  will  be 
charged  with  ostentation  for  quoting  lines  of  Greek  from  Homer. 
In  reply,  he  glories  in  the  fact  that,  alone  of  all  the  Tuscans,  he 
has  Greek  poems  at  his  disposal,  and  proudly  claims  to  have  been 
the  first  to  offer  hospitality  to  a  teacher  of  Greek  in  Italy,  the  first 
to  introduce  the  poems  of  Homer  into  Tuscany,  the  first  of  all 
Italians  to  resume  the  reading  of  Homer2. 

1  Hortis,  Studi,  378—380. 

2  De  Gen.  Dear.  c.  7;  cp.  Manetti,  Vita  Boccaccii,  eel.  Galletti.  91,  quic- 
quid  apud  nos  Graecorum  est,  Boccaccio  nostro  feratur  acceptum. — In  study- 
ing the  Latin  works,  I  have  used  fohannis  Bocatii  irepl  yet>ea\oyias  Deorum 
libri  xv. . . ;  ejusdem  de  Moniium,  Sylvarum  etc.  nominibus  (small  folio,  Basel, 
1532),  with  Hortis,  Sludi  sulle  Of  ere  Latine  del  Boccaccio,  956  pp.,  large  410 
(Trieste,   1879),  and   Corazzini's  Lettere  edite  e  inedite  (small    8vo,   Firenze, 
1877).     Cp.  in  general  Voigt,  i   162 — 183*;    Korting,  Litteratur  /(aliens,  ii 
(1880);  Geiger,  Renaissance  und  Humanismus,  45 — 69;  Gaspary,  Italienische 
Literatur,  ii  i — 69,  636 — 645 ;  and  Feuerlein,  Petrarca  und  Boccaccio,  in  Hist. 
Zeitschr.  xxxviii  193  f;   also  Symonds,  Renaissance,  ii  87 — 98,  and  Giovanni 
Boccaccio  (1895). 


GIOVANNI  BOCCACCIO. 
From  a  medallion  in  the  British  Museum,  inscribed 

IOHES  •  BOCATIVS  •  FLORE(NTINVS). 
Cp.  Alois  Heiss,  Les  Mddailleurs  de  la  Renaissance  (1891),  i  140. 


CHAPTER  II. 

SALUTATI.     CHRYSOLORAS.     BARZIZZA. 

SHORTLY  after  the  death  of  Boccaccio,  we  have  a  glimpse  of  the 
interest  inspired  by  the  Classics  in  two  of  the  social       The   villa 
circles  of  Florence.     In  the  brilliant  company  that     Paradiso,  and 
frequented  the  Villa  Paradiso  of  the  Alberti,  the 
conversation  sometimes   turned   on    Odysseus  and  Catiline,    on 
Livy  and  Ovid,  on  the  ancient  Roman   Empire,    and   the   old 
Latin  language1.      A  more  learned  society  assembled  at  Santo 
Spirito,  where  the  centre  of  the  traditions  of  Boccaccio  and  of 
Petrarch   was   the    eminent    theologian   and    patriot,    Luigi    de' 
Marsigli    (d.    1394),   who  was    familiar  with    Cicero,   Virgil   and 
Seneca,  and  followed  St  Augustine  in  assigning  a  moral  meaning 
to  the  scene  in  the  Odyssey,  where  the  comrades  of  Odysseus  are 
transformed  into  swine  by  the  wand  of  Circe.     Among  those  who 
came  under  Marsigli's  influence  were  Coluccio  Salutati,  Roberto 
de'  Rossi,  and  Niccol6  Niccoli2. 

Salutati   (1330 — 1406),   who  was   educated   at  Bologna    and 
corresponded    with    Petrarch    in    his    youth,    held 
the  high  office  of  chancellor,  or  Latin  secretary,  of     saiuta"'0 
Florence  from   1375  to  his  death.     Like  Petrarch, 
he  was  a  great  collector  of  Latin  MSS.       He  eagerly  sought  for 
the  lost  books  of  Livy,  for  Pompeius  Trogus,  and  for  a  complete 
copy  of  Curtius  and  of  Quintilian.   He  obtained  a  transcript  (1375) 
of  the  Verona  MS  of    Catullus,   and    of    Petrarch's  Propertius, 
together  with  a  Tibullus,  which  is  still  in  existence3.     He  was  the 
first  to  possess  a  copy  of  Cato,  De  Agricultura,  the  elegies  of 
Maximianus,  the  Aratea  of  Germanicus  and  the  commentary  of 

1  Giovanni  da  Prato,  II  Paradiso  degli  Alberti,  ed.  Wesselofsky,  1867. 

2  Voigt,  i  184 — i9O:'.  3  Ed.  Baehrens,  Proleg.  pp.  vii,  x. 

S.    II.  2 


1 8  ITALY.  [CENT.  xiv. 

Pompeius  on  the  Ars  maior  of  Donatus1.  On  learning  in  1389 
that  the  two  MSS  of  Cicero's  Letters,  from  Verona  and  Vercelli, 
were  at  Milan,  he  caused  a  copy  to  be  made  from  the  Vercelli 
MS,  which  he  found,  to  his  joy,  contained  the  Letters  Ad 
Familiares,  unknown  to  Petrarch.  In  1392  he  received  from 
Milan  a  copy  of  the  Verona  MS  of  the  Letters  Ad  Atticum, 
Ad  Quintum  Fratrem  and  the  Correspondence  with  Brutus,  the 
only  MS  of  Cicero's  Letters  which  Petrarch  had  himself  discovered 
and  transcribed2.  Thus,  after  the  lapse  of  centuries,  the  two 
volumes  of  Cicero's  Letters  stood  side  by  side  at  last  in  the  two 
ancient  MSS  at  Milan,  and  in  the  two  modern  transcripts  in  the 
possession  of  Salutati  in  Florence3.  Both  of  the  latter  are  now 
in  the  Laurentian  Library4,  together  with  the  original  of  the 
Ad  Familiares,  the  MS  from  Vercelli5. 

Salutati  was  much  more  than  a  mere  collector.  We  find  him 
drawing  up  summaries  of  Cicero's  Letters,  and  collating  MSS  of 
Seneca  and  St  Augustine.  He  detects  the  spuriousness  of  the 
De  Differentiis,  formerly  ascribed  to  Cicero.  He  encourages 
younger  scholars,  and  among  those  whose  gratitude  he  thus  won, 
were  men  of  no  less  mark  than  Poggio  Bracciolini  and  Leonardo 
Bruni.  He  was  honoured  with  a  public  funeral  in  the  Cathedral. 
A  full-length  portrait  of  the  Chancellor  of  Florence,  a  gaunt  and 
grim  personage  with  a  Roman  nose,  robed  in  the  black  gown  of 
his  office,  and  bending  beneath  the  weight  of  a  vast  volume  which 
he  holds  in  his  hands,  forms  the  frontispiece  of  the  monumental 
edition  of  his  Latin  Letters6. 


1  Sabbadini,  Scoperte,  34  f.  2  P-  7  supra. 

3  Cp.  Voigt,  Ber.  d.  sacks.  Ges.  d.  Wiss.  1879,  41—65;  Viertel,  Konigs- 
berg  Progr.  1879,  anAJahrb.  fur  kl.  Phil.  1880,  231 — 247;  and  Cic.  Epp.  ed. 
Mendelssohn  (1893),  xi  f ;  also  Leighton,  in  Trans.  Ainer.  Phil.  Assoc.  xxi 
59 — 87,  and  Kirner,  in  Studi  ital.  di  filol.  d.  ix  399. 

*  xlix  7  (Ad  Familiares)  and  18  (Ad  Atticum). 

6  xlix  9. 

6  Epistolario,  ed.  Novati,  in  3  vols,  large  8vo,  Rome,  1891-6;  frontispiece 
to  vol.  i,  reproduced  in  Wiese  u.  Percopo,  Ital.  Lift.  193 ;  frontispiece  to 
vol.  iii,  an  earlier  portrait  by  Cristoforo  Allori ;  facsimiles  from  his  letters  in 
iii  621,  661.  More  than  a  quarter  of  vol.  iv  part  i  (1905)  is  occupied  with  his 
defence  of  the  ancient  poets  and  of  classical  education.  Cp.,  in  general, 
Voigt,  i  190— 21 23. 


CHAP.  II.]  SALUTATI.      CHRYSOLORAS.  19 

Salutati  was  of  signal  service  in  promoting  the  study  of  Greek 
in  Florence.     The  youthful  Guarino  of  Verona  had 

11         i        i  •    t  •  r   T.J-  i  Chrysoloras 

been  prompted  by  the  high  reputation  of  Manuel 
Chrysoloras  (c.  1350 — 1415),  as  a  teacher  of  rhetoric  and 
philosophy,  to  seek  a  place  in  his  household  at  Constantinople 
with  a  view  to  profiting  by  his  instructions1.  The  gratitude  of 
Guarino  caused  the  name  of  Chrysoloras  to  become  widely 
known  in  the  north  of  Italy ;  and  Chrysoloras  and  the  aged 
Demetrius  Cydonius  had  hardly  landed  in  Venice  as  envoys  of 
Manuel  Palaeologus  (1393),  when  two  of  the  noble  sons  of 
Florence  hastened  to  obtain  the  benefit  of  their  teaching.  One 
of  them,  Giacomo  da  Scarparia,  accompanied  the  envoys  on  their 
return  to  the  Byzantine  capital,  there  to  learn  Greek  from 
Cydonius.  The  other,  Roberto  de'  Rossi,  acquired  some  know- 
ledge of  the  language  in  Venice,  and  inspired  the  aged  Salutati 
with  an  interest  in  Greek  and  in  Chrysoloras.  Salutati  urged 
Scarparia  to  search  for  MSS  of  all  the  Greek  historians  and  poets, 
and  of  Homer  in  particular,  together  with  Plato  and  Plutarch, 
and  lexicons  of  the  Greek  language2.  In  1396  he  was  authorised 
by  influential  persons,  such  as  Palla  Strozzi  and  Niccol6  Niccoli, 
to  invite  Chrysoloras  to  leave  Constantinople  and  to  settle  in 
Florence  as  a  teacher  of  Greek.  He  accepted  the  invitation,  and 
held  that  office  for  four  years  (1396 — 1400).  Under  his  influence, 
Giacomo  da  Scarparia  translated  the  Cosmography  of  Ptolemy, 
and  Rossi  certain  of  the  works  of  Aristotle3;  Palla  Strozzi,  in 
later  life,  produced  renderings  from  the  Greek,  but  Niccoli  never 
attained  any  intimate  knowledge  of  the  language.  The  most 
enthusiastic  pupils  of  the  new  teacher  were  younger  men,  such 
as  Leonardo  Bruni,  Carlo  Marsuppini,  and  possibly  Ambrogio 
Traversari.  Bruni  had  been  engaged  for  four  years  in  the  study 
of  law,  when  the  arrival  of  Chrysoloras  prompted  him  to  learn 
a  language  that  no  Italian  had  understood  'for  the  last  seven 

1  Janus  Pannonius,  Delitiae  poetariim  Hung.  (1619),  8  f  (Legrand,  Bibl. 
Hillen.  i  xix),  famulus  colis  atria  docti  hospitis,  et  mixto  geris  auditore  minis- 
trum. 

2  Salutati,  Epp.  iii  129 — 132. 

3  Attested  in  Guarino's  dedication  of  Plutarch's  Flamininus,  ap.  Bandini, 
CataL  Cod.  Lat.  ii  738. 

2 —  2 


20  ITALY.  [CENT.  xiv. 

centuries  ' ',  a  language  that  would  unlock  for  him  the  treasures  of 
Homer,  Plato  and  Demosthenes,  and  of  all  the  poets,  philosophers 
and  orators,  of  whom  he  had  heard  such  wonders2.  Bruni  learnt 
Greek  for  two  years  under  Chrysoloras,  and  his  memorable  transla- 
tions from  the  Greek  will  be  mentioned  at  a  later  point3.  Another 
notable  pupil,  Vergerio,  left  a  distinguished  position  as  a  teacher 
at  Padua,  to  learn  Greek  in  Florence.  But  the  first  enthusiasm 
for  Greek  had  begun  to  abate  on  the  Arno,  when  Chrysoloras,  in 
obedience  to  the  bidding  of  the  emperor  Manuel  Palaeologus, 
left  Florence  in  1400  for  Milan,  where  he  was  invited  in  1402  to 
teach  Greek  at  Pavia.  It  was  there  that  he  commenced  a  literal 
rendering  of  Plato's  Republic^  afterwards  revised  by  his  favourite 
pupil  Uberto  Decembrio4,  who  transmitted  to  his  scholarly  son, 
Pier  Candido5,  a  reverence  for  the  memory  of  Chrysoloras.  The 
latter  returned  for  a  time  to  the  East,  but  between  1407  and  1410 
he  was  once  more  in  the  West  as  the  envoy  of  his  emperor,  the 
places  visited  during  these  years  including  Venice,  Florence, 
Paris,  London6,  and  finally  Rome.  He  was  afterwards  sent  to 
Constantinople  to  treat  with  the  patriarch  on  the  union  of  the 
Churches.  In  1413  he  went  to  Germany  with  two  cardinals  to 
arrange  about  the  Council  of  Constance,  and  at  Constance  he 
died  of  a  fever  in  the  spring  of  1415.  He  was  buried,  not  in  the 
church  of  the  Dominican  monastery,  but  in  a  chapel  between  the 
north  side  of  the  choir  and  the  sacristy.  The  monastery  has  been 
secularised ;  the  finely  vaulted  church  has  become  the  dining- 
room,  and  the  adjoining  chapel  the  pantry,  of  the  Insel- Hotel ';  but 

1  This  interval  of  time  (in  which  several  other  humanists  agree)  is  deemed 
too  small  by  Hody  (p.  54),  and  by  others.     But  it  closely  corresponds  to  the 
statement  in  Martin  Crusius,  Annales  Suevici  274,  that  Greek  was  extinguished 
in  Italy  in  690  A.D.  (exactly  706  years  before). 

2  Hody,  28 — 30;  cp.  Gibbon,  vii  122  Bury,  and  Symonds,  ii  uof. 

3  p.  45  f  infra. 

4  Cod.  Laur.  Lat.  Ixxxix  50. 

8  See  his  letter  in  Traversari,  Epp.  xxiv  69.  He  was  only  a  child  of  three 
when  Chrysoloras  reached  Pavia. 

6  £/>.  aijoannem  (Palaeologum  //)  imperatorem,  tv  y  fftiyKpiffis  TT?S  TroXcuas 
leal  »^as  'Pti/wys,  in  Migne,  P.  G.  clvi  343,  /^/wjj/uat  5t  rijs  iv  AovBivli?  TTJS  Bpe- 
avroa  (St  Peter  and  St  Paul)  iro/tT^j  Kal  ravriytpcus  r&v 


CHAP.  II.]  CHRYSOLORAS.  21 

on  the  ceiling  of  the  ancient  chapel  the  traveller  may  still  read  the 
simple  epitaph  composed  by  Vergerio  in  memory  of  his  master1. 

His  funeral  was  attended  by  his  Roman  pupil,  the  poet  Cenci, 
and  by  Poggio  Bracciolini.  The  catechism  of  Greek  Grammar 
known  as  his  Erotemata,  the  earliest  modern  text-book  of  the 
subject,  was  printed  in  Florence  shortly  before  1484  and  at 
Venice  in  the  February  of  that  year,  and  was  afterwards  used  by 
Linacre  at  Oxford  and  by  Erasmus  at  Cambridge.  We  also  have 
his  letter  to  Guarino  on  the  meaning  of  the  term  Theorica  in 
Demosthenes,  and  on  the  edition  of  the  Iliad  described  by 
Plutarch  as  that  of  the  narthex*.  But  he  was  unproductive  as  an 
author,  and  needlessly  diffuse  and  redundant  as  a  teacher.  In  his 
general  character,  however,  he  was  a  man  of  a  far  finer  type  than 
either  of  his  precursors,  Barlaam  and  Leontius  Pilatus.  His 
pupil  Poggio,  who,  in  his  relation  to  others,  is  only  too  apt  to  give 
proof  of  an  implacable  and  bitter  temper,  is  eloquent  in  praise  of 
his  master's  integrity,  generosity  and  kindness,  and  of  that  grave 
and  sober  earnestness,  which  was  in  itself  an  incentive  to  virtue. 
He  had  been  a  bright  example  to  others,  a  heaven-sent  messenger 
who  had  aroused  an  enthusiasm  for  the  study  of  Greek3.  His 
fame  was  cherished  by  another  celebrated  pupil,  Guarino,  who 
compared  him  to  a  ray  of  light  illuminating  the  deep  darkness  of 
Italy.  Forty  years  after  his  master's  death,  he  fondly  collected  all 
the  many  tributes  to  his  memory  and  enshrined  them  in  a  volume 
under  the  title  of  Chrysolorina*.  A  Greek  MS  that  once  belonged 
to  Chrysoloras  is  now  at  Wolfenbiittel5,  and  his  own  transcript 
of  Demosthenes  in  the  Vatican6. 

1  Ante  aram  situs  est  D.  Emanuel  Chrysoloras,... vir  doctissimus,  prudent- 
issimus,  optimus  etc.  (complete  copy  in  Legrand,  I  xxviii  f ).    An  epitaph,  which 
I  have  seen  in  the  Portinari  chapel  (1462-6)  of  the  church  of  S.  Eustorgio  in 
Milan,  strangely  confounds  Manuel  Chrysoloras,  litterarum   Graecarum  resti- 
tutor,  with  his  nephew  John,  the  father-in-law  of  Philelphus. 

2  Rosmini,  Vita  di  Guarino,  iii  181,  187 — 189. 

3  P°gg'°>  Epp'  i  4>  xiii  '• 

4  Partly  preserved  in  Harleian  MS  2580  (Sabbadini,  La  Scitola...di  Guarino, 
16).     Cp.,  in  general,  Voigt,  i  222  —  232s;   ii  H3S;  also  Hody,   12 — 54;  Le- 
grand,  Bibliographic  Hellenique,   I   xix — xxx ;    and  Klette,  Beitrage,  i  47  f- 
Portrait  in  Paulus  Jovius,  Elogia  (1575)  41,  copied  in  Legrand,  in  59. 

5  Gud.  24.  6  Gr.  1368  (De  Nolhac,  Bibl.  de  F.  Orsini,  145). 


22  ITALY.  [CENT.  XIV. 

Meanwhile,  an  interest  in  Latin  literature  was  maintained  and 
developed  in  Northern  Italy  by  the  enthusiastic  student  of 
Cicero,  Gasparino  da  Barzizza,  to  whom  we  shall  soon  return1, 
and  by  two  earlier  Latin  scholars,  both  of  them  bearing  the 
identical  name  of  'John  of  Ravenna'2.  One  of  the  two  was  a 
pupil  of  Petrarch,  a  youthful  humanist,  who  has  been  identified 
as  Giovanni  di  Conversino  da  Ravenna  (1347 — 
c^ver^no dl  c-  I4°6)-  He  was  recommended  to  Petrarch  in 
1364,  and  aided  him  in  editing  his  'Familiar 
Letters'.  His  beautiful  penmanship,  his  marvellous  memory, 
and  his  zeal  for  learning  made  his  master  desire  to  retain  him 
permanently  in  his  service.  He  left  for  Pisa  (1366)  and  soon 
returned.  After  a  while  he  was  eager  to  go  to  Constantinople 
and  learn  Greek ;  but  Petrarch  assured  him  that  Greece  was 
no  longer  a  home  of  learning3,  and  accordingly  he  started  for 
'Calabria',  with  letters  of  introduction  to  persons  in  Rome  and 
Naples.  We  afterwards  find  him  teaching  in  Florence  (1368), 
Belluno  and  Udine,  but  the  only  place  in  which  he  settled  for 
long  was  Padua,  where  he  was  a  teacher  of  rhetoric  in  1382,  and 
again  from  1394  to  1405.  Besides  serving  as  Latin  secretary  to 
the  house  of  the  Carraras,  he  lectured  on  the  Latin  poets,  and 
aroused  an  interest  in  the  study  of  Cicero.  Among  his  pupils 
were  the  foremost  teachers  of  the  next  generation,  Vittorino  da 
Feltre  and  Guarino  da  Verona4.  He  was  formerly  confounded 
with  another  '  John  of  Ravenna ',  now  finally  identified  as 
Giovanni  Malpaghini  (fl.  1397 — 1417),  who  was 
a  teacher  in  Florence  for  many  years,  counting 
among  his  pupils  the  three  future  Chancellors, 
Leonardo  Bruni,  Carlo  Marsuppini  and  Poggio  Bracciolini5. 
Early  in  the  fifteenth  century  Gasparino  of  Barzizza,  near 

1  p.  23  infra. 

2  They  were  regarded,  even  by  so  eminent  an  authority  as  Voigt,  as  one 
and  the  same  person. 

3  Epp.  Sen.  xi  9,  p.  887,  Graeciam...nunc  omnis  longe  inopem  disciplinae. 

4  Voigt,  i  2I2-0,1,  ed.  3,  revised  by  Lehnerdt.     See  esp.  the  Konigsberg 
Programm  of  the  latter  (1893),  with  Sabbadini  in  Giornale  storico  delta  lett. 
ital.  V  (1888)  156  f,  and  Klette's  Beitrcige,  i  (1888). 

8  Voigt,  i  2i93f. 


CHAP.  II.]         JOHN   OF   RAVENNA.      BARZIZZA.  23 

Bergamo  (c.  1370 — 1431)  taught  for  a  time  in  Pavia,  Venice, 
Padua  and  Ferrara,  and  in  1418  found  his  earliest 
hopes  fulfilled  by  his  final  settlement  in  Milan.  B°«i^aarino  da 
He  expounded  the  De  Oratore,  De  Senectute,  De 
Officiis,  Philippics  and  Letters  of  Cicero,  the  last  of  these  being 
his  favourite  study.  He  collected  Ciceronian  Mss1,  and  gave  a 
strong  impulse  to  the  study  of  Cicero,  and  especially  to  the 
cultivation  of  a  new  style  of  epistolary  Latin.  Henceforward, 
Latin  letters  were  neither  to  be  inspired  by  Seneca  and  the 
philosophical  works  of  Cicero,  as  those  of  Petrarch,  nor  were  they 
to  be  rich  in  rhetoric,  like  those  of  Salutati.  They  were  to  aim  at 
a  studied  carelessness,  and  to  reflect  the  grace  of  the  best  type  of 
conversation.  Gasparino's  own  style  was  sometimes  criticised  as 
marked  by  elegance  and  refinement  rather  than  force  and  vigour. 
But  his  style  is  not  uniform.  It  is  marked  by  three  main 
varieties  : — (i)  the  easy  and  familiar  style  of  his  private  corre- 
spondence, in  which,  however,  he  is  far  too  fond  of  the  mediaeval 
use  of  quod;  (2)  his  orations,  which  include  not  a  few  un- 
Ciceronian  words  and  phrases,  while  his  eulogy  of  St  Francis 
combines  classical  and  Christian  phraseology  without  any  breach 
of  good  taste  ;  and  (3)  his  formal  models  for  epistolary  Latin 
composition, — Epistolae  ad  exercitationem  accommodatae.  It  is  in 
these  last  that  he  attains  the  highest  degree  of  correctness  ;  it  is 
in  these  alone  that  he  proves  himself  'the  true  apostle  of 
Ciceronianism'2.  It  is  characteristic  of  the  French  appreciation 
of  literary  and  epistolary  style  that  his  liber  epistolarum  was  the 
first  book  printed  in  France3. 

1  Sabbadini,  Scoperte,  36. 

2  Sabbadini,  Ciceronianismo,  13 — 17. 

3  Paris,  1470;  copy  exhibited  in  British  Museum,  King's  Library,  case  vii. 
His   book   on   Orthography  was  published  about   the  same  time,  while  his 
Grammar  was  printed  at  Brescia  in  1492.     Opera,  ed.  Furietti,  Rome,  1723; 
two  of  his  Latin  lectures  in  K.  Mtillner's  Reden  utid Briefen,  56  f.     Cp.  Voigt, 
i  22o3  f,  5o63,  and  facsimile  in  Chap,  xiii  infra. 


CHAPTER   III. 

THE    RECOVERY   OF   THE    CLASSICS. 
POGGIO,   AUR1SPA,  FILELFO,  JANUS    LASCARIS. 

THE  quest  for  classical  manuscripts,  begun  by  Petrarch1  and 
continued  by  Boccaccio2  and  Salutati3,  was  extended  beyond  the 
borders  of  Italy  during  the  Council  of  Constance  (1414 — 1418). 
That  famous  Council  witnessed  not  only  the  death  of  the  first 
great  teacher  of  Greek  in  Italy,  but  also  the  discovery  of  not  a 
few  of  the  old  Latin  Classics.  Foremost  in  the  quest  was 
Poggio  Bracciolini(i38o — i45g)4.  Born  at  Terranuovo 
near  Arezzo,  and  educated  at  Florence  under  Giovanni 
Malpaghini  and  Chrysoloras,  he  had  been  a  papal  secretary  since 
1403,  and  attended  the  Council  in  that  capacity.  During  the 
vacancy  in  the  'Apostolic  See',  from  24  May  1415  to  u  November 
1417,  the  papal  secretary  had  no  official  duties  to  perform,  and  it 
was  during  this  interval  that  his  principal  discoveries  were  made. 
These  discoveries  are  connected  with  four  distinct  expeditions  : — 
(i)  to  Cluni  in  the  summer  of  1415,  (2)  to  St  Gallen  in  the 
summer  of  1416,  (3)  to  St  Gallen  and  other  monasteries  early  in 
1417,  and  (4)  to  Langres  and  other  places  in  France  and  in 
Germany  in  the  summer  of  the  same  year5. 

(i)  At  Cluni b,  north  of  Macon,  Poggio  found  an  ancient  MS 
of  Cicero's  Speeches,  including  the  pro  Cluentio,  pro  Sexto  Roscio, 
and  pro  Murena"*.  Recent  researches  have  proved  that  it  also 

1  p.  7,  sztpra.  2  p.  14  f.  3  p.  171". 

4  Cp.  Voigt,  i  235—251,  257— 26o3. 

6  These  four  expeditions  have  been  carefully  discriminated  by  Sabbadini, 
Le  Scoperte  dei  Codici  Lalini  e  Greet  ne'  secoli  xiv  e  xv  (Firenze,  1905). 

6  P°ggi°»  Epp-  ii  7>  ex  tnonaslerio  Cluniacensi. 

7  Epp.  ii  26  (to  Niccoli),   Orationes  meas  Cluniacenses   potes  mittere... 
Scribas  mihi  quae  orationes  sunt  in  eo  volumine  praeter  Cluentianam,  pro 
Roscio  et  Murena. 


26  ITALY.  [CENT.  xiv. 

included  the  pro  Milone  and  pro  Cae/io1.  Poggio  rescued  the  MS 
from  the  risk  of  destruction  and  sent  it  to  his  friends  in  Florence, 
where  Francesco  Barbaro  had  great  difficulty  in  deciphering  it2. 
The  earliest  known  copy  was  completed  in  February,  1416,  for 
Cosimo  de'  Medici  by  'Joannes  Arretinus',  doubtless  the  calli- 
grapher  of  that  name3. 

(2)  In  Poggio's  expedition  to  St  Gallen  in  the  summer  of 
1416,  his  comrades  were  Bartolomeo  da  Montepulciano,  who  soon 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  transcription  of  the  newly  discovered 
Latin  MSS  ;  Cencio  Rustici,  who  like  Poggio  and  Bartolomeo,  was 
a  pupil  of  Chrysoloras,  and  was  engaged  in  translations  from  the 
Greek ;  and  Zomino  (Sozomeno)  of  Pistoia,  whose  knowledge  of 
Greek,  combined  with  an  interest  in  Grammar  and  Rhetoric, 
prompted  him  to  collect  116  Latin  and  Greek  MSS  in  Constance 
and  elsewhere,  which  he  ultimately  bequeathed  to  his  native  city 
(d.  1458)*.  So  eager  was  the  quest  that  even  the  wretched  con- 
dition of  the  roads  did  not  prevent  Poggio  and  Bartolomeo  and 
Cencio  from  sallying  forth  from  Constance,  and  climbing  the 
steep  slopes  that  led  to  St  Gallen  some  twenty  miles  distant.  In 
that  ancient  home  of  learning  they  found  the  abbot  and  the 
monks  absolutely  uninterested  in  literature,  and  many  a  precious 
MS  lying  amid  the  dust  and  damp  and  darkness  of  one  of  the 
towers  of  the  abbey-church,  a  noisome  prison  (says  Poggio)  to 
which  even  criminals  condemned  to  death  would  never  have  been 
consigned5.  Cencio,  who  was  deeply  moved  at  the  sight,  declares 
that,  if  those  scrolls  could  have  found  a  voice,  they  would  have 
exclaimed : — '  O  ye,  who  love  the  Latin  tongue,  suffer  us  not  to 


1  A.  C.  Clark,  in  Anecdota  Oxoniensia,  x  (1905),  The  Vetus  Cluniacensis 
of  Poggio,  p.  iii.     Poggio's  MS  is  there  identified  with  no.  496  in  the  Cluni 
catalogue  of  cent,  xii,  '  Cicero  pro  Milone  et  pro  Avito  et  pro  Murena  et  pro 
quibusdatn  aliis'.     Before  Poggio's  MS  was  removed  to  Italy,  readings  from  it, 
including  the  pro  Milone  and  pro  Caelio,  had  been  copied  in  a  St  Victor  MS, 
now  in  Paris  (Lat.  14,749). 

2  Guarino  on  Rose.  §  132,  quoted  in  Clark's  Anecdoton,  iii. 

3  Sabbadini,  Scoperte,  77  n.  22.     On  other  copies,  see  Clark,  xxxix. 

4  Vespasiano,  Vite,  503-5,  a  short  life  of  'Zembino  Pistolese'.     His  uni- 
versal chronicle  is  partly  printed  in  Muratori,  Scr.  xvi  1063. 

5  Poggio,  Epp.  i  5  (to  Guarino,  15  Dec.  1416). 


CHAP.  III.]  POGGIO   AT  ST   GALLEN.  2/ 

perish  here;  release  us  from  our  prison'1.  Among  Poggio's  first 
discoveries  was  a  complete  copy  of  the  Institutio  Oratoria  of 
Quintilian2,  a  work  which  Petrarch  had  never  known  except  in  an 
imperfect  and  mutilated  form3,  and  which  Salutati  had  vainly 
hoped  to  obtain  from  France4,  while  Gasparino  da  Barzizza  had 
audaciously  undertaken  to  supply  the  missing  portions  by  means 
of  compositions  of  his  own5.  Poggio  hastened  to  send  the  good 
news  to  Niccoli  and  Bruni  in  Florence,  carried  off  the  MS  to 
Constance,  and  copied  it  himself  in  53  days6.  His  transcript  was 
apparently  still  in  the  Medicean  Library  in  1495  7»  an(^  Gasparino 
obtained  a  second  copy  direct  from  Constance8. 

At  the  same  time  Poggio  discovered  a  MS  of  the  Argonautica 
of  Valerius  Flaccus,  containing  books  i — iv  317.  He  made  a 
copy,  which  became  the  source  of  other  transcripts,  and  has  itself 
been  identified  with  a  MS  now  in  Madrid9.  Another  copy, 
probably  made  for  Bartolomeo  by  some  ignorant  German  scribe, 

1  Cencio   to    Francesco  da  Fiano  in  Rome,   in    Quirinus  (Angelo  Maria 
Querini),  Dlatriba  ad  Fr.  Barbari  Epp.  (1741),  p.  8. 

2  Epp.  i  5,  ibi  inter  confertissimam  librorum  copiam,  quos  longum  est  per- 
censere,  Quintilianum  comperimus  adhuc  salvum  et  incolumem,  plenum  tamen 
situ  et  pulvere  squalentem..  Repperimus  praeterea  libros  tres  primos  et  dimi- 
diam  partem  quarti  C.  Valeri  Flacci  Argonauticon,  et  expositiones... super 
octo  Ciceronis  orationes  Q.  Asconii  Pediani...Haec  mea  manu  transcripsi,  et 
quidem  velociter,  ut  ea  mitterem  ad  Leonardum  Arretinum  et  Nicolaum  Flo- 
rentinum ;  qui  cum  a  me  huius  thesauri  adinventionem  cognovissent,  multis  a 
me  verbis  Quintilianum  per  suas  litteras  quam  primum  ad  eos  mitti  contende- 
runt.     Cp.  Bruni,  Epp,  iv  5. 

3  p.  8  supra. 

4  Ep,  (i)  in  Thomas,  De  Johannis  de  Monsteriolo  vita  (1883)  no;  and  (2) 
in  Salutati's  Epistolario,  i  260. 

6  Blondus,  Ital.  Illustr.  346. 

6  Sede  Apostolica  vacante  says  the  transcript  of  the  colophon,  quoted  by 
Reifferscheid,  in  Rhein.  Mus.  1868,  145.     Bruni's  reply  to  Poggio's  first  an- 
nouncement of  his  discoveries  is  dated  13  Sept.  1416  (Epp.  iv  5). 

7  Archiv  Star.  Ital.,  Ser.    Ill,  xx  60.      We   have   two   transcripts   from 
Poggio's:    Vat.    Urbin.    327,    and   Ambros.   B   153  sup.    (Sabbadini,    Spogli 
Ambros.  350). 

8  Sabbadini,  Studi  di  Gasp.  Barzizza  (1886),  4. 

9  x  8 1  (facsimile  on  p.  24),  written  in  a  more  rapid  hand  than  Poggio's 
transcript  of  Jerome  and  Prosper.     For  photographs  from  both  MSS  I  am  in- 
debted to  Mr  A.  C.  Clark. 


28  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

is  in  the  library  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford1.  A  complete  MS 
found  its  way  into  Italy  at  a  later  date  (c.  i^Si)2. 

Another  of  Poggio's  finds  was  a  MS  containing  the  commentary 
of  Asconius  on  five  Speeches  of  Cicero,  and  that  of  an  unknown 
scholiast  on  a  large  part  of  the  Verrine  Orations3.  This  MS  was 
faithfully  copied  at  Constance  by  Bartolomeo4  and  by  Zominos. 
Bartolomeo's  transcript  is  now  in  the  Laurentian  Library6;  that  of 
Zomino,  at  Pistoia.  It  was  also  copied,  with  greater  freedom  in 
conjectural  emendation,  by  Poggio,  whose  transcript  is  still  pre- 
served in  Madrid,  in  the  same  volume  as  the  Valerius  Flaccus 
already  mentioned7.  A  fair  copy  of  Poggio's  hasty  transcript 
became  the  archetype  of  MSS  in  the  Laurentian  Library8  and  at 
Leyden.  Poggio's  free  recension  was  followed  in  all  editions  of 
Asconius  previous  to  that  of  Kiessling  and  Scholl,  which  is 
founded  on  the  faithful  transcripts  of  Bartolomeo  and  Zomino. 

Cencio,  after  stating  that  all  the  three  MSS  above-mentioned 
had  been  transcribed9,  notes  the  discovery  of  a  Comment  of 
Priscian  on  a  few  lines  of  Virgil10,  and  a  copy  of  Vitruvius.  The 
latter  was  not  unique,  as  we  hear  of  a  MS  at  Reichenau  (still 
nearer  to  Constance),  and  of  another  in  the  papal  library  at 
Avignon". 

(3)  A  second  expedition  to  St  Gallen  was  made  amid  the 
wintry  snows  of  January,  141 7 la.  This  expedition  was  under 
official  sanction,  and  Bartolomeo  and  Poggio  are  regarded  as 
explorers  of  equal  rank  and  authority13.  St  Gallen  was  not  the 

I  A.  C.  Clark,  in  Cl.  Rev.  xiii  119 — 130. 

*  Vat.  3277  (cent,  ix);  Thilo,  Proleg.  xl ;  cp.  A.  C.  Clark,  /.  c.,  124;  Sab- 
badini,  Scopcrte,  151. 

3  Div.  Act.  I,  II,  lib.  i  and  ii,  down  to  §  35. 

4  25  July,  1416.  B  23  July,  1417.  6  liv  5. 
7  A.  C.  Clark,  in  Cl.  Rev.  x  301-5.                                8  liv  4. 

9  Quirinus,  I.e.,  horum  quidem  omnium  librorum  exempla  habfmus. 

10  Partitions  (i.e.  'parsing')  xii  versuum  Aeneidos. 

II  Miintz,  Hist,  de  V Art  pendant  la  Renaissance,  i  238. 

18  Bartolomeo's  letter  of  21  Jan.  to  Traversari  (Epp.  p.  984);  vis  hyemis 
and  nives  mentioned  in  Barbaro's  subsequent  letter  to  Poggio  (p.  2),  6  July, 
1417. 

13  F.  Barbari,  Epp.  pp.  4,  6.  Among  the  promoters  of  this  expedition  was 
Cardinal  Branda  (Sabbadini,  Scoperte,  79,  n.  33). 


CHAP.  III.]  POGGIO   AT   ST   GALLEN,   ETC.  29 

only  monastery  visited.  Bartolomeo  alludes  to  one  as  'in  the 
heart  of  the  Alps',  probably  Einsiedeln,  and  three  others,  doubt- 
less including  the  celebrated  Benedictine  abbey  of  Reichenau, 
founded  in  724  on  an  island  in  the  Untersee,  and  the  later  abbey 
of  Weingarten  less  than  16  miles  from  the  northern  shore  of  the 
Lake  of  Constance.  At  St  Gallen  they  found  a  Vegetius  and  a 
Pompeius  Festus  (i.e.  the  compendium  by  Paulus  Diaconus),  both 
of  which  were  transcribed  by  Bartolomeo.  Vegetius  was  in  the 
library  of  Petrarch,  but  'Pompeius  Festus'  was  practically  un- 
known1. The  rest  of  the  new  finds  were  Lucretius,  Manilius, 
Silius  Italicus,  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  and  the  grammarians 
Caper,  Eutyches,  and  Probus.  The  Lucretius  was  discovered  in 
a  'distant'  monastery  where  a  copy  was  made  on  Poggio's  behalf2. 
It  was  probably  in  the  summer  of  1418  that  this  copy  was  sent  to 
Niccoli,  who  apparently  kept  it  until  I4343,  making  in  the  mean- 
time the  beautifully  written  transcript,  now  in  the  Laurentian 
Library,  which  is  the  ancestor  of  a  whole  family  of  Lucretian  MSS. 
The  Manilius  is  now  represented  by  a  transcript  at  Madrid4  con- 
taining a  number  of  readings  not  found  in  the  earliest  and  best 
MS,  that  from  Gembloux.  Of  the  Punica  of  Silius  Italicus,  a  work 
unknown  in  the  Middle  Ages,  copies  were  made  for  Bartolomeo 
and  for  Poggio5,  and  of  the  four  MSS,  on  which  the  text  now  rests, 
the  two  in  Florence6  probably  represent  the  copy  made  for 

1  Sabbadini,  80,  n.  36. 

2  Poggio  to  Barbara,  early  in  1418,  'Lucretius  mihi  nondum  redditus  est, 
cum  sit  scriptus :  locus  est  satis  longinquus,  neque  unde  aliqui  veniant '  (A-  C. 
Clark,  Cl.  Rev.  xiii  125).     Murbach  im  Elsass  has  been  proposed  by  Lehnerdt 
(Lucr.  in  der  Renaissance,  5),  who  suggests  that  Poggio  might  have  visited  it 
during  the  expedition  to  Langres. 

3  Poggio  to  Niccoli,  Epp-  ii  26  (June,  1425),  iv  2  (Dec.  1429;    Munro, 
Lucr.  p.  33;  Lehnerdt,  5). 

4  R.  Ellis,  in  Hermathena,  viii  (1893)  261 — 286,  and  Cl.  Rev.  vii  310,  356, 
406.     The  Madrid  MS  (M  31),  containing  Manilius  and  the  Silvae,  was  origi- 
nally bound  up  with  another  MS  (X  81)  containing  Asconius  and  Valerius 
Flaccus.     At  the  beginning  of  theyfrj/  are  the  contents  of  the  whole :  Afanilii 
Aslronomicon  Statii  Papinii  sylvae  et   Asconiu*    Pedianus   in    Ciceronem    et 
Valerii  Flacci  nonnulla;  for  the  end  of  the  second,  see  facsimile  on  p.  24, 
and  cp.  Clark,  Cl.  Rev.  xiii  119. 

8  Clark,  Cl.  Rev.  xiii  126-9;  xv  166. 
6  L  (Laur.  xxxvii  16)  and  F. 


3O  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

Poggio,  and  the  two  others1  that  made  for  Bartolomeo.  Fulda 
was  the  unnamed  source  of  the  MS  of  books  xiv  to  xxxi  of 
Ammianus  Marcellinus,  which  was  possibly  brought  to  Constance 
by  the  abbot  himself2.  It  ultimately  found  its  way  into  the 
Vatican  Library3.  Poggio  afterwards  essayed  in  vain  to  obtain 
another  MS  of  the  same  historian  from  Hersfeld4.  By  Probus 
(who  is  mentioned  with  the  two  other  grammarians)  is  meant  the 
Ars  minor  or  Institutio  Artium  that  bears  his  name. 

(4)  In  the  summer  of  1417  Poggio  discovered,  probably  at 
Langres  on  the  Marne,  the/w  Caectna5;  and,  in  unnamed  monas- 
teries of  France  or  Germany,  seven  other  speeches,  namely  the 
three  de  lege  agraria,  the  two  entitled  pro  Rabirio,  with  the  pro 
Rostio  Comoedo,  and  the  speech  in  Pisonem*.  At  Constance, 
early  in  1418,  Poggio  was  still  in  possession  of  his  transcript  of 
these  speeches,  but  he  afterwards  sent  it  to  Venice,  where  it  was 
kept  by  Francesco  Barbaro  until  I4367.  It  is  only  through  this 
transcript,  and  its  copies,  that  the  text  of  the  two  speeches  pro 
Rabirio  has  descended  to  posterity,  while  the  transcripts  of  the 
Cluni  MS,  discovered  by  Poggio  in  his  first  expedition,  are  the  sole 
authority  for  the  pro  Murena  and  the/n?  Sexto  Roscio, 

1  O  (Oxon.  Coll.  Regin.)  and  V  (Vat.  1652). 

2  Ziegelbauer  (ap.  Urlichs,  in  Rhein.  Mus.  xxvi  638),  lectissima  de  sua 
bibliotheca  exportari  volumina  iussit,  quae  magnam  vero  partem  deinceps  non 
sunt  restituta.     Poggio,  Epp.  ii  p.  375,  Ammianum  Marcellinum  ego  latinis 
musis  restitui  cum  ilium  eruissem  e  bibliothecis  ne  dicam  ergastulis  Germano- 
runi.     Cardinalis  de  Columna  habet  eum  codicem,  quern  portavi,  litteris  anti- 
quis,  sed  ita  mendosum,  ut  nil  corruptius  esse  possit.     Nicolaus  Nicolus  ilium 
manu  sua  transcripsit  in  chartis  papyri.     Is  est  in  bibliotheca  Cosmi.     Id.  Ep. 
printed  by  Clark,  Cl.  Rev.  xiii  125,  De  Ammiano  Marcellino  non  reperio,  qui 
symbolum  conferat  ('aid  in  the  decipherment  or  interpretation'). 

3  No.  1873,  cent,  x ;  Facs.  in  Chatelain,  Pal.  no.  195. 

4  Epp.  ii  7,  iii  12  (1423-7).     The  text  of  the  Hersfeld  MS  was  published  in 
'533.  ar>d  the  MS  lost,  with  the  exception  of  six  leaves  found  at  Marburg  in 
1876.     Cp.  Schanz,  §  809. 

8  Colophon  to  pro  Caecina;  hanc  oralionem...cum  earn... in  silvis  Lingo- 
num  adinvenisset.... 

6  Colophon  to  in  Pisonem;   has   septem...orationes...perquisitis  plurimis 
Galliae  Germaniaeque... bibliothecis  cum  latentes  comperisset  (A.  C.  Clark, 
Anted.  Oxon.  p.  n;  Sabbadini,  Scoperte,  81). 

7  Letters,  ap.  A.  C.  Clark,  Cl.  Rev.  xiii  125-6. 


CHAP.  III.]  POGGIO.      LANDRIANI.  31 

The  discovery  of  the  Silvae  of  Statius  has  been  referred  to  this 
fourth  expedition1  solely  because  it  is  not  mentioned  by  Barbaro 
in  his  letter  to  Poggio2,  in  which  Lucretius,  Manilius  and  Silius 
are  among  the  authors  named.  It  was  during  his  tour  in 
Germany  that  Poggio  (as  he  tells  us)  hired  a  local  scribe 3,  and  to 
just  such  a  scribe  the  MS  of  the  Silvae  at  Madrid,  which  is  the 
archetype  of  all  existing  MSS  of  that  work,  has  been  independently 
assigned  on  internal  evidence4.  It  was  probably  on  the  fourth 
expedition  that  he  discovered  a  copy  of  Columella,  an  author 
already  known  to  Pastrengo  of  Verona5. 

At  Rome  in  1427  Poggio  sought  in  vain  for  MSS  of  Cicero, 
rumours  of  which  had  reached  him  from  Trier  and  Utrecht,  and 
even  from  distant  Portugal.  So  closely  was  he  identified  with  the 
quest  that  he  was  even  erroneously  credited  with  the  first  discovery 
of  the  Letters  to  Atticus6,  the  De  Finibus  and  De  Legibus"1.  At 
Pistoia  in  1409  Leonardo  Bruni8  had  seen  an  ancient  MS  of 
Cicero's  Letters  to  Quintus  and  Brutus,  with  seven  books  ad 
Atticum,  which  supplied  new  evidence  as  to  the  text  and  included 
two  letters  hitherto  unknown9.  In  the  latter  half  of  i42i10  (while 
Poggio  was  in  England)  an  important  discovery  was  made  near 
Milan.  In  the  cathedral  church  of  Lodi,  the  bishop,  Gerardo 
Landriani,  was  engaged  in  searching  for  some  ancient  charters  in 
a  chest  that  had  long  remained  unopened,  when  he  lighted  on 
a  MS  of  Cicero,  written  in  old  '  Lombardic  '  characters,  including 
a  complete  copy  of  the  De  Oratore,  the  Brutus,  and  the  Orator. 
The  Brutus  was  absolutely  new,  while  the  De  Oratore  and  the 
Orator  had  hitherto  been  known  only  through  imperfect  and  mu- 
tilated MSS.  The  MS  was  sent  by  Landriani  to  Gasparino  Barzizza, 
who  appropriated  it,  and  sent  in  return  a  transcript  of  the  De 
Oratore  made  byCosimo  Raimondi  of  Cremona".  Subsequently, 
Gasparino  combined  the  newly  discovered  portions  with  those 

I  Sabbadini,  82.  2  Querini,  Epp.  Barbari,  p.  2. 

3  Epp.  i  p.  80,  conduxi  scriptorem  in  Germania. 

4  Clark,  C/.  Rev.  xiii  128.  5  Sabbadini,  Scopcrte,  16,  82. 
6  Vespasiano,  Poggio,  §2.                       7  Jovius,  Elog.  no.  10. 

8  Epp.  iii  13.  9  Viertel,  mjahrb.fiircl.  Phil.  (1880),  243. 

10  Sabbadini,  in  Studi  ital.  vii  104  f,  Scoperte,  100. 

II  Sabbadini,  Scoperte,  100,  n.  61. 


32  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

already  known,  and  his  recension  of  the  whole  was  soon  copied 
in  many  parts  of  Italy.  In  1422,  the  Brutus  was  transcribed  with 
wonderful  rapidity  by  Flavio  Biondo  of  Forli,  who  happened  to 
be  in  Milan  at  the  time1,  and  this  copy,  which  is  preserved  in 
the  Vatican2,  was  sent  successively  to  Verona  and  Venice,  and 
transcribed  in  various  parts  of  Italy.  A  readable  recension  of 
the  Brutus  was  meanwhile  produced  at  Verona  by  Guarino.  A 
transcript  of  the  Brutus  and  Orator  was  forwarded  to  Niccoli 
from  Milan  in  1422,  and  is  still  in  Florence.  Further,  a  MS  of 
the  De  Oratore  and  Orator,  revised  by  Gasparino,  found  its 
way  to  Heidelberg  and  is  now  in  the  Vatican,  together  with  a 
copy  of  all  three  treatises  transcribed  in  1422  and  corrected  from 
the  original  at  Pavia  in  April  1425.  The  original  was  lost  to  view 
after  I4283.  In  the  meantime  Poggio,  while  he  was  returning  from 
England,  where  he  failed  to  find  any  classical  MSS,  had  lighted  on 
an  imperfect  Petronius  at  Cologne  and  sent  a  copy  to  Niccoli, 
who  kept  it  for  seven  years4.  From  Paris  he  sent  Niccoli  a 
transcript  of  the  Lexicon  of  Nonius  Marcellus5.  The  rumours 
of  a  complete  Livy  in  a  Benedictine  abbey  (possibly  Cismar)  in 
the  diocese  of  Liibeck,  which  had  reached  Salutati  in  Florence, 
found  their  counterpart  in  the  statement  by  a  Dominican,  Giovanni 
da  Colonna,  that  he  had  seen  an  ancient  MS  of  the  'fourth  decade' 
in  the  archives  of  the  cathedral  at  Chartres  (c.  141 3)6,  and  the  hope 
of  finding  new  decades  was  thus  revived.  Early  in  1424  a  Dane 
at  Rome  assured  Poggio  that,  in  the  Cistercian  monastery  of 
Soroe  near  Roskilde,  he  had  seen  three  vast  volumes,  in  Lombardic, 
mixed  with  Gothic,  characters,  containing  (according  to  the  in- 
scription outside  one  of  them)  ten  decades  of  Livy,  and  that  he 
had  read  a  summary  of  their  contents.  But  no  such  MS  was 
found  either  at  this,  or  at  another  monastery  in  Denmark,  and 
a  still  later  rumour  was  dismissed  by  Poggio  as  a  mere  romance7. 
We  have  already  seen  that  the  first  of  the  humanists,  who  had 
any  knowledge  of  Tacitus,  was  Boccaccio,  who  may  possibly  have 

1  Ital.  Illustr.  346.  *  Ottob.  1592. 

3  Sabbadini,  Guarino  e  le  op.  ret.  di  Cic.  433,  and  Scuola  di  Gttarino,  102. 

4  Epp.  ii  3;  iv  2,  4.  6  Epp.  ii  22. 

6  Valentinelli,  Bibl.  MSS.  Add.  S.  Marci  Venet.  vi  53. 

7  Epp.  ii  9 ;  iv  20 ;  v  1 8. 


CHAP.  III.]        MSS   OF   CICERO   AND   TACITUS.  33 

discovered  the  MS  of  'the  Histories  and  the  later  books  of  the 
Annals  at  Monte  Cassino1.  How  and  when  that  MS  reached 
Florence  is  unknown.  It  was  in  the  possession  of  Niccoli  in  1426 
and  there  was  some  mystery  about  its  provenance.  Niccoli  sent  it 
to  Poggio,  who  solemnly  promised  to  keep  its  existence  a  secret2; 
he  also  allowed  Francesco  Barbara  to  make  a  copy,  and  this  copy 
was  afterwards  transcribed  for  Cardinal  Bessarion  (1453).  But, 
until  the  text  was  printed,  about  1470,  it  was  known  to  very 
few.  Thus  the  beginning  of  the  Histories  is  quoted  by  Bruni  in 
his  laudation  of  Florence  (1400),  and  the  contents  of  the  above 
MS  were  known  to  Valla,  Tortelli,  Decembrio,  and  Sicco  Polentone. 
Tacitus  is  also  quoted  by  Leon  Battista  Alberti  (i452)3.  The  fact 
that  Tacitus  was  so  little  quoted  prompted  an  attempt  on  the  part 
of  J.  W.  Ross  (1878)  to  prove  that  the  Annals  were  forged  by 
Poggio  in  1422-9 4,  a  fancy  refuted  by  Sir  Henry  Howorth5,  to  be 
revived  by  P.  Hochart8.  But  the  later  books  of  the  Annals  were 
known  to  Boccaccio  before  Poggio  was  born,  and  the  earlier  books 
were  not  discovered  until  49  years  after  Poggio  had  died7.  The 
MS  of  Annals  i-vi,  which  probably  came  from  Corvey,  did  not 
reach  Italy  until  shortly  before  isog8. 

The  first  to  hear  in  Germany  of  the  Agricola,  Germam'a,  and 
Dialogus  of  Tacitus  was  apparently  Bartolomeo  Capra,  an  arch- 
bishop of  Milan,  who  was  eager  in  the  quest  of  MSS9.  Poggio 
was  in  London  at  the  time  (1422)'°,  but  his  negotiations  with  a 
monk  of  Hersfeld  began  in  1425.  Ultimately,  in  1455,  Enoch  of 
Ascoli,  the  emissary  of  Leo  X,  acquired  the  Hersfeld  MS  of  the 
minor  works,  and  eight  leaves  of  this  MS  have  been  happily 

1  p.  nt supra;  cp.  H.  Keil,  in  Rhein.  Mus.  vi  (1848)  145.     On  the  reco- 
very of  Tacitus,  cp.  Voigt,  i  249 — 257*. 

2  Epp.  iii  5,  14,  15,  17  (1426-8). 

3  Hist,  ii  49,  in  Architettura,  p.  38,  ed.  1565. 

4  Bursian's  Jahresb.  xix  568. 

6  Cp.  Edinburgh  Review,  vol.  148,  pp.  437 — 468. 

6  1890.     Cp.  Riv.  di  filol.  xix  302. 

7  Clark,  Cl.  Rev.  xx  227,  n.  3. 

8  Viertel,  in  Neue  Jahrb.  1881,  423,  805;  Hiiffer,  Korveier  Studien,  1898, 
p.  14. 

9  Sabbadini,  Scoperte,  104  b. 

10  Epp.  i  21. 

S.    II.  3 


34  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

identified  in  the  MS  of  the  Agricola  found  at  Jesi  near  Ancona 
in  I9021. 

In  1427,  Lamola  found  at  Milan  a  famous  MS  of  Celsus2.  In 
1429,  Nicolaus  of  Trier,  better  known  as  Nicolaus  Cusanus,  sent 
Poggio  a  list  of  MSS,  including  not  only  a  complete  Gellius  and 
Curtius,  but  also  the  titles  of  twenty  plays  of  Plautus,  most  of 
which  were  then  unknown3.  Poggio  urged  the  Cardinal  Orsini  to 
lose  no  time  in  securing  the  Plautus,  and,  by  the  end  of  the  year, 
Nicolaus  had  arrived  in  Rome  bringing  with  him  the  MS4  of  four5 
of  the  eight  known  plays  and  of  twelve  that  were  new,  which  is 
still  one  of  the  treasures  of  the  Vatican  Library6.  In  the  recension 
of  Plautus  which  gradually  became  current  in  Italy,  Poggio  was 
aided  by  Gregorio  Corero  of  Venice7. 

It  was  known  to  Poggio  in  1425  that  at  Monte  Cassino  there 
was  a  copy  of  the  work  of  Frontinus  on  the  aqueducts  of  Rome, 
but  it  was  not  until  he  visited  the  monastery,  in  1429,  that 
the  manuscript  was  actually  found8.  It  was  carried  off  to  Rome, 
copied  and  returned,  and  it  is  still  at  Monte  Cassino9.  In  the 
quest  of  MSS  others  (such  as  Traversari),  who  had  equal  or  greater 
advantages,  were  less  successful  than  Poggio.  The  only  Classic 
discovered  by  Traversari  was  Cornelius  Nepos,  found  in  1434  in 
the  library  of  Hermolaus  Barbarus  at  Padua10. 

During  the  Council  of  Basel,  the  Sicilian  Aurispa  discovered 
at  Mainz  in  1433  l^e  Commentary  of  Donatus  on  Terence,  as 
well  as  the  Latin  Panegyric^  beginning  with  Pliny's  Panegyric  on 
Trajan11.  In  the  century  that  elapsed  between  Petrarch's  discovery 
of  Cicero  pro  Archia  (1333),  and  Aurispa's  discovery  of  Pliny's 

1  Facs.  of  one  page  in  paper  by  Ramorino,  in  Atti  del  congresso...di  sc. 
storiche,  Roma,  1905,  ii  230-2;  Sabbadini,  Scoperte,  141  f. 

2  Lanr.  Ixxiii  r.  3  Poggio,  Epp.  \  p.  266. 

4  ib.  p.  304. 

5  Amphitruo,  Asinaria,  Aulularia,  and  half  of  the  Captivi.     The  other 
four  known  plays  were,  Casitia,  Curculio,  Cistellaria  and  Epidicus.     These 
survive  in  the  Palatine  MSS  B  and  C,  and  the  Ambrosian  E. 

6  Ritschl's  D  (c.  xii).  7  Vespasiano,  Poggio,  §  2. 

8  Epp.  i  pp.  284,  304 ;  cp.  Sabbadini,  Scoperte,  85. 

9  Complete  facsimile,  ed.  C.  Herschel  (Boston,  1899). 

10  Trav.  Epp.  viii  53 ;  Sabbadini,  95. 

11  Voigt,  i  260*;  Sabbadini,  116. 


CHAP.  III.]      MSS   OF    PLAUTUS,   FRONTINUS,   ETC.  35 

Panegyric  (1433),  tne  principal  accessions  to  the  Latin  Classics 
had  been  made. 

Francesco  Pizzopasso,  archbishop  of  Milan  (d.  1443),  collected 
65  MSS,  all  of  which  are  now  in  the  Ambrosian  Library.  Among 
these  is  a  valuable  fragment  of  Donatus  on  Terence,  and  the  sole 
authority  for  the  Notae  Juris  of  Probus1.  In  1455,  Enoch  of 
Ascoli  brought  to  Rome  from  the  North,  not  only  the  minor  works 
of  Tacitus,  but  also  all  that  remains  of  Suetonius  de  grammaticis 
et  rhetoribus,  with  Apicius,  and  the  tragedy  of  Orestes,  and 
Porphyrio's  commentary  on  Horace2.  The  Consolatio  ad  Liviam 
was  discovered  by  an  unnamed  scholar  in  1470,  and  in  the  same 
century  a  large  part  of  two  of  Ovid's  Heroides  (xvi  and  xxi)  was 
recovered3.  In  France,  in  1501-4,  the  exiled  Sannazaro  dis- 
covered new  poems  of  the  Latin  Anthology,  as  well  as  the 
Halieuticon  of  Ovid,  and  the  Cynegeticon  of  Grattius  and  of 
Nemesianus4. 

Politian  was  a  keen  investigator  of  all  the  ancient  MSS  that 
came  within  his  reach  in  Florence  or  elsewhere5.  It  was  under 
the  auspices  of  his  rival  Merula  at  Milan  that  Merula's  secretary, 
Giorgio  Galbiate,  discovered  the  MSS  at  Bobbio  in  1493.  He 
probably  brought  to  Milan,  for  the  purposes  of  his  proposed 
editions,  the  treatise  of  Terentianus  Maurus  on  the  metres,  and 
that  of  Fortunatianus  on  the  Odes  of  Horace;  the  works  of 
Velius  Longus  and  Adamantius,  on  orthography,  with  the  Catholica 
of  Probus,  and  the  Eleganiiae  of  Fronto.  The  Terentianus  alone 
was  actually  published.  The  satire  of  Sulpicia,  first  printed  in 
1498,  came  from  Bobbio.  Among  the  MSS  which  Inghirami,  the 
librarian  of  the  Vatican,  removed  to  Rome  (1496),  was  that  of  the 
Auctores  Gromatici,  now  at  Wolfenbiittel.  Aulo  Giano  Parrasio 
(1470 — 1534),  one  of  the  best  scholars  of  his  time,  during  his 
stay  at  Milan  (1499—1506)  obtained  from  Bobbio  the  MS  of 
Charisius,  and  transcripts  of  the  poems  of  Uracontius,  besides 
discovering,  probably  in  one  of  the  monasteries  of  Milan,  the 
hymns  of  Sedulius  and  Prudentius". 

•  About  1500,  Fra  Giocondo  of  Verona  discovered  in  Paris  the 

1  Sabbadini,  121.  2  ib.  14 r.  3  ib.  125  f. 

4  ib.  140.  6  ib.  151  f;  p.  84  infra. 

6  Sabbadini,  156 — 160. 

3—2 


36  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

Correspondence  of  Trajan  and  the  younger  Pliny.  In  1508  the 
MS  of  Tacitus  Annals,  \ — vi,  was  brought  from  Corvey  to  the 
Medicean  Library;  in  1515,  Velleius  Paterculus  was  found  by 
Beatus  Rhenanus  at  the  abbey  of  Murbach;  and,  1527,  the 
first  five  books  of  the  fifth  decade  of  Livy  were  brought  to 
light  by  Grynaeus  from  the  abbey  of  Lorsch1. 

The  Greek  MSSZ,  which  had  found  their  way  into  Italy  before 
the  corning  of  Chrysoloras,  had  been  few  indeed : — one  or  two 
copies  of  Homer,  parts  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  and  a  few  of  the 
Greek  Fathers.  It  was  a  pupil  of  Chrysoloras,  Angeli  da 
Scarparia,  who  was  urged  by  Salutati3  to  bring  MSS  of  Homer 
and  Plato  and  Plutarch  from  Constantinople.  Another  of  his 
pupils,  Guarino,  returned  to  Italy  from  the  East  in  1408  with  more 
than  50  MSS4.  Foremost  among  the  discoverers  of 
Greek  MSS  was  the  Sicilian  Aurispa,  who  became 
for  Greek  literature  what  Poggio  was  for  Latin.  He  had  his 
ambitions  as  a  scholar,  but  he  was  more  remarkable  for  his 
singular  aptitude  for  trading  in  MSS.  In  1417  he  brought  from 
the  East  a  few  good  MSS,  a  Sophocles,  a  Euripides,  and  a  Thucy- 
dides;  this  last  he  sold  to  Niccoli  at  Pisa5.  Among  those  that 
he  possessed  in  1421,  was  the  Commentum  Aristarchi  in  Homerum, 
which  has  been  identified  as  the  celebrated  codex  A  of  the  Iliad6. 
In  1422-3  he  was  in  Constantinople,  where  he  gathered  from 
various  parts  of  the  Greek  world  a  vast  number  of  MSS.  The  aged 
emperor,  Manuel  II,  presented  him  with  the  great  historical  work 
of  Procopius,  and  with  Xenophon's  little  treatise  on  Horsemanship. 
When  he  reached  Venice,  late  in  1423,  he  brought  with  him  a 
whole  library  of  no  less  than  238  MSS,  almost  entirely  consisting 
of  the  Greek  classics.  Florence  was  the  goal  of  his  hopes,  and 
his  most  valued  correspondents  in  Florence  were  Niccoli  and 
Traversari7.  The  solitary  MS  which  he  sent  to  Niccoli  from  Con- 
stantinople was  one  of  the  tenth  century  containing  seven  plays 
of  Sophocles,  six  of  Aeschylus,  and  the  Argonautica  of  Apollonius 

1  Sabbadini,  164.  2  Voigt,  i  262-63.  s  Epp.  iii  129 — 132. 

4  List  published  by  Omont  in  Rev.  des  Bibliothtques,  ii  (1892);  cp.  Sabba- 
dini, Scoperte,  44  f. 

6  Traversari,  Epp.  vi  8.  6  Sabbadini,  46. 

7  Epp.  xxiv  38,  53,  61. 


•  CHAP.  III.]  GREEK   MSS.  37 

Rhodius,  now  famous  as  the  Laurentian  MS  of  those  authors1. 
For  his  friends  in  Florence  he  wrote  out  from  memory  a  short 
list  of  his  MSS  which  included  the  Homeric  Hymns  and  Pindar 
and  Aristophanes,  nearly  all  Demosthenes,  the  whole  of  Plato 
and  Xenophon,  with  Diodorus,  Strabo,  Arrian,  Lucian,  Athenaeus, 
Dion  Cassius,  and  Plutarch.  He  taught  Greek  for  a  short  time 
in  Bologna  and  Florence,  and  afterwards  settled  in  Ferrara.  Of 
his  many  MSS  he  made  little  use,  beyond  trading  with  them,  and, 
when  he  died  in  1459,  all  except  thirty  had  been  scattered  in 
different  directions2. 

In  1427  a  smaller  number  of  valuable  Greek  MSS  (including  at 
least  forty  authors,  such  as  Homer,  Hesiod,  Pindar, 

3  Filelfo 

Euripides  and  Theocritus,  as  well  as  Herodotus, 
Thucydides  and  Xenophon)  was  brought  to  Venice  by  Filelfo 
(1398 — 1481)  who  had  spent  seven  years  as  secretary  to  the 
Venetian  Legation  at  Constantinople3.  Among  the  principal 
collectors  of  Greek  MSS  were  Bruni  and  Niccoli4,  whose  collection 
found  its  way  into  the  Medicean  Library.  Besides  these  there 
were  Palla  Strozzi,  and  Manetti,  and  Nicolas  V.  MSS  were  also 
collected  at  Urbino  and  Milan,  at  Mantua  and  Ferrara,  at  Padua 
and  Venice5.  Of  the  Greek  immigrants  four  were  specially 
famous  as  collectors  of  MSS.  In  1468,  Bessarion,  the  discoverer 
of  Quintus  Smyrnaeus,  presented  his  collection  to  the  republic  of 
Venice6.  Andronicus  Callistus  sold  as  many  as  six  cases  of  MSS 
at  Milan  in  1476.  Constantine  Lascaris  bequeathed  76  MSS  to 
Messina,  which  are  now  in  Madrid.  Lastly,  Janus  Lascaris  paid 
two  visits  to  the  East  in  quest  of  Greek  MSS  on  behalf  of  Lorenzo 
de'  Medici,  returning  on  the  second  occasion  with  as  many  as  200 
MSS  from  Mount  Athos  (i492)7. 

The  age  of  discovery  saw  the  awakening  of  a  new  interest  in 


1  Facs.  of  Sophocles  (1885)  and  Aeschylus  (1896). 

2  Voigt,  i  263-5,  346-8,  556— s6o3;   final  list  of  his  MSS  in  Sabbadini's 
Biografihia  ;  cp.  Scoperte,  46 — 47. 

3  List  in  Traversari,  Epp,  xxiv  32,  transcribed  in  Symonds,  ii  27o'2;  cp. 
Sabbadini,  Scoperte,  48 ;  on  minor  discoverers  of  MSS,  ib.  49  f. 

4  ib.  51—55-  5  >b.  55—65- 

6  Omont,  Inventaire,  1894;  p.  61  infra. 

7  K.  K.  Miiller,  Neue  Mittheilttngen,  333—41  r.     Cp.  Sabbadini,  67  f. 


38  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

the  intelligent  study  of  classical  archaeology1.  The  ruins  of  Rome 
had  been  regarded  with  interest  by  Petrarch  and  by  his  friends, 
Rienzi  and  Dondi,  and  those  friends  had  even  recorded  some  of 
her  ancient  inscriptions.  But  a  marked  advance  was  made  by 
Poggio,  who  carried  off,  either  from  St  Gallen  or  from  Reichenau, 
the  tract  ascribed  to  a  pilgrim  of  the  ninth  century  known  as  the 
Anonytmts  Einsiedlensis'i,  and  himself  collected  inscriptions  in 
Rome3,  besides  carefully  enumerating  and  describing  the  ancient 
ruins  in  the  first  of  the  four  books  of  his  interesting  treatise  De 
Varietate  Fortunae*.  For  Nicolas  V,  whom  he  there  hails  as  a 
second  Maecenas,  he  produced  a  translation  of  Diodorus  Siculus, 
and,  after  serving  as  a  papal  secretary  for  half  a  century  (1403 — 
1453),  succeeded  Carlo  Marsuppini  as  chancellor  and,  in  the 
evening  of  his  days,  composed  his  masterpiece,  the  History  of 
Florence  from  1350  to  1455.  His  style,  which  is  apt  to  be 
diffuse,  has  remarkable  freedom  and  originality,  though  professedly 
modelled  on  that  of  Cicero5.  With  his  frivolous  Facetiae  and  with 
his  bitter  feuds  with  rival  scholars,  such  as  Filelfo  and  Valla, 
we  are  not  here  concerned,  though  Valla  has  some  interesting 
criticisms  on  Poggio's  departures  from  Ciceronian  usage6.  He 
was  buried  behind  the  choir  of  Santa  Croce,  but  the  marble 
monument,  for  which  he  left  provision  in  his  will,  was  never  erected. 
Donatello's  statue  of  an  aged  '  prophet ',  with  sarcastic  lips  and 
deeply  furrowed  face  and  with  antique  drapery,  which  formed 
part  of  the  facade  of  the  cathedral  church  until  1560,  when  it  was 
removed  to  a  niche  in  the  N.  aisle,  has  been  supposed  to  be  a 
portrait  of  Poggio7,  but  it  has  been  assigned  to  about  1422,  when 
Poggio  was  only  42.  The  portrait  by  Antonio  Pollaiuolo,  which 
his  sons  were  permitted  to  place  in  the  hall  of  the  Proconsolo, 

1  Voigt,  i  266— 286s. 

2  Mommsen  in  Ber.  d.  sacks.  Ges.  1850,  p.  287  f;  Voigt,  i  2683,  n.  4;  Sab- 
badini,  Scoperte,  82,  n.  49. 

3  Copy  discovered   by  De  Rossi;    cp.   Henzen  in   C.I.L.  vi  i   (Voigt,  i 
266-83). 

4  Cp.  Burckhardt,  Part  ill,  c.  ii,  177 — 186  E.T.,  and  Symonds,  ii  152-5. 

5  Epp.  xii  32,  quidquid  in  me  est,  hoc  totum  acceptum  refero  Ciceroni, 
quern  elegi  ad  eloquentiam  docendam.     Cp.  Sabbadini,  Cicerontanismo,  19  f. 

6  Sabbadini,  Ciceronianismo,  20 — 25;  cp.  Harvard  Lectures,  155  f. 

7  Recanati,  Vita  Poggii,  xxxiv. 


CHAP.  III.]  CIRIACO   OF   ANCONA.  39 

has  not  been  traced ;  and  we  have  to  rest  content  with  inferior 
representations  in  the  gallery  between  the  Uffizi  and  Pitti 
palaces1  and  in  the  Venice  edition  of  the  History  of  Florence 

(i?i5)2- 

The  leading  representative  of  archaeological  research  in  this 

aee  was  Ciriaco  de'  Pizzicolli  of  Ancona  (c.  1391 — 

.     '  Ciriaco 

c.  1450).  He  was  the  Schliemann  of  his  time.  A 
self-taught  student,  he  spent  all  his  life  in  travelling,  not  only  for 
the  purposes  of  trade,  but  also  for  the  collection  of  objects  of 
archaeological  interest.  The  study  of  Dante  led  him  to  that  of 
Virgil,  and  the  study  of  Virgil  to  that  of  Homer.  At  his  birth- 
place of  Ancona,  he  began  his  archaeological  career  by  making 
a  careful  copy  of  the  inscription  on  the  triumphal  arch  of  Trajan. 
He  continued  that  work  in  Rome  (1424),  where  he  first  became 
conscious  of  the  historic  value  of  the  evidence  from  inscriptions 
as  compared  with  that  derived  from  ordinary  literature3.  In  the 
next  year  he  learnt  Greek  at  Constantinople,  studied  Homer  and 
Hesiod,  purchased  a  fine  copy  of  Ptolemy  at  Adrianople,  and 
MSS  of  Homer  and  Euripides  in  Cyprus,  and  even  journeyed  as 
far  as  Damascus. 

After  returning  to  Rome  (c.  1433),  he  visited  Florence  for  the 
first  time,  viewing  with  delight  the  treasures  of  ancient  art  col- 
lected by  Cosimo  de'  Medici  and  Marsuppini,  by  Donatello  and 
Ghiberti,  and  taking  a  peculiar  pleasure  in  the  MSS  and  antiquities 
of  his  friend,  Niccoli.  Between  1435  and  1447  he  travelled  in 
many  parts  of  Greece,  including  the  islands.  In  Thasos  he 

1  No.  761,  head  bent  down  towards  left ;  grayish  hair  brushed  back  from 
right  temple ;  and  marked  depression  between  the  nostril  and  the  corner  of 
the  lips.     See  also  Boissard's  f cones,  i  xii  108  (1597). 

2  Partly  facing  to  left,  with  abundant  black  hair.     On  Poggio  in  general, 
cp.  Vespasiano,  420-7;  Life  by  Rev.  W.  Shepherd  (1802);  Voigt,  i  235 — 249, 
ii  7,  74,  251,  327,  448  etc.;  Symonds,  ii  134^  152,  218,  230 — 246.     Epistolae, 
ed.  Tonelli,  i  1832,  ii  and  iii  (very  rare)  1859-61.     Orelli,  Symbolae  nonnullae 
ad  historiam  philologiae  (Zurich,  1835),  prints  extracts  from  the  Letters  on  dis- 
coveries of  MSS,  followed  by  the  two  on  Jerome  of  Prague,  and  the  Baths  of 
Baden  near  Zurich;  and  A.  C.  Clark,  in  Cl.  Rev.  xiii  125,  publishes  an  im- 
portant letter  to  Francesco  Barbaro.     A  much-needed  ed.  of  the  Letters  is 
expected  from  Wilmanns. 

3  maiorem  longe  quam  ipsi  libri  fidem  et  notitiam  praebere  videbantur. 


40  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

bought  a  MS  of  Plutarch's  Moralial.  He  also  obtained  scholia 
on  the  Iliad,  and  MSS  of  Herodotus,  Plato,  Aristotle,  Hippocrates 
and  Galen.  The  latest  incidents  in  his  foreign  travels  were  his 
visit  to  the  ruins  at  Ephesus  (1447)  and  his  discovery  of  Homer's 
'epitaph'  in  the  island  of  Chios.  A  few  years  later  we  find  him 
at  Ferrara,  and  at  Cremona,  where  he  died  about  1450. 

His  name  is  now  known  mainly  in  connexion  with  his  col- 
lections of  inscriptions.  They  originally  formed  three  vast  volumes, 
but  only  fragmentary  portions  have  been  preserved.  He  is 
wanting  in  critical  faculty,  and  much  of  his  learning  is  ill  digested. 
His  friend  Bruni  once  told  him  that  he  would  be  much  the  better 
for  knowing  less2.  But  he  was  an  honest  man,  and  the  doubts 
once  cast  on  the  accuracy  of  his  transcripts  have  been  trium- 
phantly dispelled3.  In  his  unwearied  endeavour  to  resuscitate 
the  memorials  of  the  past,  he  was  fully  conscious  that  his  mission 
in  life  was  '  to  awake  the  dead '.  He  took  a  special  pleasure  in 
recalling  an  incident  that  once  occurred  while  he  was  looking  for 
antiques  in  a  church  at  Vercelli.  An  inquisitive  priest,  who,  on 
seeing  him  prowling  about  the  church,  ventured  to  ask  him  on 
what  business  he  was  bent,  was  completely  mystified  by  the 
solemn  reply : — '  It  is  sometimes  my  business  to  awaken  the 
dead  out  of  their  graves ;  it  is  an  art  that  I  have  learnt  from 
the  Pythian  oracle  of  Apollo'4.  His  drawings  of  ancient  sculptures 
have  vanished,  but,  before  their  disappearance,  some  of  them 
were  copied  at  Padua  by  the  Nuremberg  humanist,  Hartman 
Schedel  (c.  i466)5. 

Among  the  contemporaries  of  Ciriaco  was  Flavio  Biondo  of 

Fiavio  Forli  (1388 — 1463),  who,  in  1422,  was  the  first  to 

Biondo  make  a  copy  of  the  newly  discovered  Brutus  of 

1  Vat.  Gr.  1309.     Of  his  Strabo  in  two  vols.,  the  first  is  at  Eton  (cod.  141), 
the  second  in  Florence  (Laur.  xxviii  15).     Sabbadini,  Scoperte,  48,  69. 

2  Epp.  vi  9  Mehus. 

3  Boeckh,  C.I.  G.  I  p.  ix;  Henzen,  C.I.L.  vi  (i)  p.  xl;  Jahn,  341-3. 

4  Voigt,  i  284';  cp.  Jahn,  336. 

5  Chap,  xvi  infra;  O.  Jahn,  Aus  der  Alterthumswissenschaft,  1868,  333 — 
352.     Cp.,  in  general,  Scalamontius  in  Colucci,  Delle  anlichith  Picene,   xv 
50  f;  the  pref.  to  Kyriaci  Itinerarium,  ed.  Mehus  (1742);  Tiraboschi,  vi  179 
— 203;  C.I.L.  Ill  p.  xxii,  129  f;  Voigt,  i  269 — 2863;  Symonds,  ii  155-7;  De 
Rossi,  Inscr.  Christ,  i  356 — 387 ;  and  Ziebarth,  in  N.Jahrb.  kl.  Alt.  1902,  214  f. 


CHAP.  III.]        FLAVIO   BIONDO.       FELICIANUS.  41 

Cicero1.  He  also  deserves  a  place  among  the  founders  of 
Classical  Archaeology.  He  was  the  author  of  four  great 
works  on  the  Antiquities  and  the  History  of  Rome  and 
Italy.  His  Roma  Triumphans  gives  a  full  account  of  the 
religious,  constitutional,  and  military  Antiquities  of  Rome ;  his 
Roma  Instaurata  describes  the  city  of  Rome,  and  aims  at  the 
restoration  of  its  ancient  monuments ;  his  Italia  Illustrata  deals 
with  the  topography  and  antiquities  of  the  whole  of  Italy ;  and, 
lastly,  the  title  of  the  Historiarum  ab  Inclinatione  Romani  Imperil 
obviously  anticipates  that  of  the  History  of  the.  Decline  and  Fall 
of  the  Roman  Empire*. 

Flavio  Biondo  died  in  1463.  In  the  following  year  we  have 
an  interesting  indication  of  the  abiding  influence  of  his  contem- 
porary, Ciriaco.  On  a  pleasant  day  in  the  autumn  of  1464  a 
merry  company  from  Verona,  Padua  and  Mantua  met  among  the 
lemon-groves  of  Toscolano,  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Lago  di 
Garda.  They  crowned  themselves  with  ivy  and  with  myrtle,  and 
sallied  forth  to  visit  all  the  remains  of  Roman  antiquities  that  they 
could  find  amid  the  ruins  of  the  temple  of  Diana  and  elsewhere, 
and  to  copy  all  the  Roman  inscriptions  they  could  discover  on  or 
near  the  south-west  shore  of  the  lake.  When  they  left  the  shore 
for  the  islands,  their  barque  was  dressed  with  laurel,  and  the 
notes  of  the  lyre  floated  over  the  waters  as  they  sailed  southward 
for  Sirmione.  There  they  devoutly  entered  the  little  Church  of 
San  Pietro  to  give  thanks  for  a  happy  and  successful  day.  No 
less  than  two  and  twenty  inscriptions  had  been  copied  by  this 
joyous  and  grateful  company,  all  of  whom  were  members  of  an 
antiquarian  confraternity.  The  confraternity  had  two  officials 
bearing  the  name  of  'consuls',  one  of  whom  was  none  other  than 
the  great  antiquary  and  artist  Andrea  Mantegna,  while  the  'pro- 
curator' or  secretary  was  the  fortunate  possessor  of  a  name  of 
happy  omen,  Felix  Felicianus  of  Verona,  whose  jubilant  memorial 
of  this  antiquarian  excursion  is  one  of  the  brightest  pages  in  the 
early  history  of  classical  archaeology  in  Italy'5. 

1  p.  32  sjtpra. 

2  See  further  in  A.  Masius,  Flavio  Biondo,  sein  Leben  und  seine  Werke ; 
Voigt,  ii  34-6,  85-83;  cp.  Symonds,  ii  220-2,  Creighton,  ii  374,  iii  174;  and 
Harvard  Lectures,  46. 

3  Complete  text  first  published  in  Kristeller's  Andrea  Mantegna,  ed.  1901, 


42  ITALY.  [CENT,  xv  f 

Ciriaco's  example  was  thus  happily  followed  by  the  versatile 
and  accomplished  Felix  Felicianus,  whose  collection  of  inscriptions 
was  appropriately  dedicated  to  the  most  antiquarian  of  artists, 
Mantegna.  The  influence  of  Ciriaco  may  also  be  traced  in  the 
sketchbooks  of  Giuliano  da  San  Gallo,  and  in  the  manuscript 
collections  of  Fra  Giovanni  del  Giocondo  of  Verona.  The  villas 
of  the  ancients  were  elucidated  in  his  edition  of  Pliny's  Letters 
(1508),  the  first  modern  plan  of  a  Roman  house  appeared  in  his 
Vitruvius  (1511),  and  the  earliest  of  modern  drawings  of  Caesar's 
bridge  across  the  Rhine  in  his  Caesar  (1513)'. 

p.  523.     Only  the  beginning  of  the  Jubilatio  is  printed  in  Corp.  Inscr.  Lat.  v  i 
p.  427  a. 

1  On  the  successors  of  Ciriaco,  cp.  E.  Zieharth,  in  Neue  Jahrb.fiir  das  kl. 
Altertum,  xi  (1903),  480 — 493;  and  Harvard  Lectures,  48 — 54. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

THE    EARLY    MEDICEAN    AGE    IN    FLORENCE. 

UNDER  the  rule  of  the  Ottimati,  or  the  leading  members  of 
the  greater  Guilds  (1382 — 1434),  not  a  few  men  of  mark  in 
Florence  gave  proof  of  their  interest  in  classical  learning.  Roberto 
de'  Rossi,  the  first  of  the  Florentine  pupils  of  Chrysoloras,  took 
delight  in  translating  Aristotle,  and  in  making  beautiful  copies 
of  the  works  of  ancient  authors,  which  he  bequeathed  to  his 
pupils,  one  of  whom  was  Cosimo  de'  Medici1.  The  noble  and 
generous  Palla  Strozzi,  who  had  invited  Chrysoloras  to  Florence, 
might  have  surpassed  his  rival  Cosimo  as  a  patron  of  learning, 
had  he  not  been  sent  into  exile  in  1434.  He  spent  the  twenty- 
eight  years  of  his  banishment  in  studying  philosophy  and  in 
translating  Greek  authors  at  Padua.  Meanwhile,  Cosimo  was 
for  thirty  years  (1434-64)  the  great  patron  of  copyists  and 
scholars  of  every  grade,  the  inspirer  of  an  important  translation 
of  Plato,  and  the  founder  of  the  Library  of  San  Marco.  The 
circle  of  Cosimo  included  Niccol6  de'  Niccoli 

Niccoli 

(1363—1437),  the  copyist  whose  800  MSS  finally 
found  a  home  in  the  Medicean  Library.  The  most  important 
of  those  copied  by  himself  were  his  Lucretius  and  his  Plautus2. 
He  was  much  more  than  a  copyist.  He  collated  MSS,  revised 
and  corrected  the  text,  divided  it  into  paragraphs,  added  head- 
lines, and  laid  the  foundations  of  textual  criticism.  He  visited 
Verona  and  Venice  in  quest  of  MSS,  directed  the  agents  of  the 
Medici  in  acquiring  MSS  in  foreign  lands,  was  the  valued  corre- 
spondent of  the  most  eager  scholars  in  Italy,  and  the  centre  of 

1  Vespasiano,  Cosimo,  246. 

2  On  MSS  acquired  by  him,  cp.  Sabbadini,  Scoperte,  54. 


44  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

an  enthusiastic  literary  circle  in  Florence.  Though  he  was  an 
excellent  Latin  scholar,  Italian  was  the  language  of  his  letters 
and  his  conversation,  and  even  of  his  only  work,  a  short  treatise 
on  Latin  orthography.  Leonardo  Bruni  confessed  that,  as  a 
student,  he  owed  everything  to  Niccoli.  He  had  attained  the 
age  of  73  when  he  died  in  the  arms  of  his  devoted  friend 
Traversari1. 

Ambrogio  Traversari  (1386 — 1439)  entered  at  an   early  age 
the   Camaldolese   convent   of   Santa   Maria    degli 

Traversari 

Angioh  in  Florence.  He  had  taught  himself  Greek 
with  the  aid  of  Chrysoloras,  and  found  his  chief  delight  in  the 
study  of  Chrysostom2.  On  his  appointment  as  General  of  his 
Order  in  1431,  he  visited  the  Camaldolese  convents  in  many 
parts  of  Italy,  but  was  far  less  fortunate  than  Poggio  in  the 
discovery  of  ancient  MSS3.  At  Cosimo's  request  he  executed, 
amid  many  misgivings,  a  Latin  translation  of  Diogenes  Laertius4. 
When  he  writes  to  his  scholarly  friend,  Niccoli,  his  conscience 
does  not  allow  him  to  quote  a  tempting  passage  from  Naevius  5; 
and,  in  the  vast  series  of  his  letters,  his  only  citation  of  a  pagan 
poet  is  from  Virgil's  Eclogues*.  He  was  painfully  conscious  of 
the  conflicting  claims  of  literature  and  of  religion;  but,  in  later 
examples  of  monks  who  were  also  humanists,  there  is  less  of  the 
anxious  scrupulosity  of  Traversari  as  to  which  of  the  two  masters 
should  be  served7. 

1  Vespasiano,  Nicolao  Niccoli,  473 — 482  ;   Poggio's  Funeral  Oration  and 
Letter  to  Marsuppini  in  Opera,  -270,  342;  Tiraboschi,  vi  129 — 137;  Voigt,  i 
296 — 3o63;  Symonds,  ii  178 — 182. 

2  Francesco  da  Castiglione's  letter  to  Lorenzo  (1469),  ed.  Miillner,  216, 
makes  Cosimo  say  : — '  quam  suavis  est  Chrysostomus,  quam  solus  Ambrosius 
'in  vertendo',  where  solus  is  doubtless  a  mistake  for  scitus. 

3  Epp.  viii  45—52,  p.  34  supra. 

4  Epp.  vi  23,  25,  27  ;  vii  2  ;  viii  8  ;  xxiii  10. 

5  Epp.  viii  9.  6  Epp.  iii  59. 

7  Vespasiano,  Frate  Ambrogio,  240-5 ;  Menus,  Vita,  compiled  from  the 
Letters  and  the  Hodoeporicon  (ed.  Mehus,  1680),  on  pp.  364 — 436  of  the 
preface  to  Canneto's  ed.  of  the  Letters  in  two  folio  vols.  (1759) ;  the  rest  of  the 
so-called  Vita  is  a  chaotic  mass  of  materials  for  the  literary  history  of  Florence; 
Tiraboschi,  vi  157,  808  f;  Meiners,  vol.  ii  (1796);  Cortesius,  p.  227,  ed. 
Galletti ;  and  esp.  Voigt,  i  314 — 3223;  cp.  Symonds,  ii  i932f.  A  portrait, 
copied  from  the  'bust  in  the  cloister  of  S.  Maria  degli  Angioli',  represents  him 


CHAP.  IV.]      TRAVERSARI.      MANETTI.      BRUNI.  45 

Among  his  pupils  in  Greek  and  Latin  was  Giannozzo  Manetti 
(1306 — 14^0).     A   merchant   and    diplomatist,  he 

x    oy  Manetti 

was  also  a  student  of  theology,  and  was  perfectly 
familiar  with  the  languages  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
besides  being  a  fluent  (in  fact  prolix)  Latin  orator.  The  official 
oration  delivered  by  Marsuppini,  as  chancellor  of  Florence,  in 
congratulation  of  the  emperor  Frederic  III,  was  considered  far 
inferior  to  the  extemporaneous  speech  delivered  by  Manetti  in 
prompt  and  effective  reply  to  certain  points  then  raised  by  Aeneas 
Sylvius  on  the  emperor's  behalf.  Driven  into  exile  by  the  jealousy 
of  the  Medici  in  1453,  he  withdrew  to  the  court  of  Nicolas  V 
in  Rome,  and  subsequently  to  that  of  Alfonso  in  Naples.  His 
Latin  translations  include  the  Greek  Testament1,  and  the  Nico- 
machean  and  Eudemian  Ethics  of  Aristotle,  together  with  the 
Magna  Moralia.  His  failure  to  attain  the  permanent  reputation 
that  he  fully  deserved  has  been  ascribed  to  the  tediousness  of  his 
Latin  style,  and  to  the  fact  that  he  was  'deficient  in  all  that 
elevates  mere  learning  to  the  rank  of  art'2. 

From  the  name  of  one  who  so  little  merited  banishment  from 
the  city  which  he  adorned  with  his  learning,  we 

Bruni 

turn  to  two  of  her  Latin  secretaries  who  served  her 
to  the  end  of  their  lives.  Leonardo  Bruni  (1369 — 1444)  was  born 
at  Arezzo,  the  birthplace  of  Petrarch,  and  the  daily  sight  of  the 
portrait  of  his  distinguished  fellow-countryman  inspired  him  with 
the  ambition  of  following  in  his  steps3.  He  learnt  Greek  at 
Florence  under  Chrysoloras,  and  his  fame  as  a  Latinist  led  to 
his  being  a  papal  secretary  from  1405 — 1415,  and  chancellor  of 
Florence  from  1427  to  his  death.  His  reputation  rests  on  his 
translations  from  the  Greek.  Beginning  with  the  work  of  Basil 
on  the  profit  to  be  derived  from  pagan  literature  (1405),  he 

as  a  gracious  personage  with  parted  lips  and  upward-lifted  eyes,  and  with  a 
bunch  of  hair  falling  over  his  forehead  (Rittratti...Toscani,  1766,  iii  16). 

1  Naldus,  Vita  Manetti,  in  Muratori,  xx  529. 

2  Symonds,   ii    193-.     Cp.  Vespasiano,    Vite,   444 — 472,  and    Comentario 
(ed.   1862) ;   Voigt,  i  322-6*  etc.     He  was  a  small  man  with  a  large  head  ; 
in  the  portrait  in  Kittratti...  Toscani  (1766),  ii  16,  we  see  his  keen  glance  and 
his  grave  and  eager  face.    A  resolute  determination  is  the  leading  characteristic 
of  the  likeness  in  the  gallery  between  the  Uffizi  and  Pitti  (no.  574). 

8  Commentarius  in  Muratori,  Scr.  xix  917. 


46  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

subsequently  translated  the  Speech  of  Demosthenes  On  the 
Chersonesus  (1406),  that  of  Aeschines  Against  Ctesiphon  and 
Demosthenes  De  Corona,  with  the  Third  Ofynthiac;  a  selection 
from  Plutarch's  Lives,  with  Xenophon's  Hieron,  These  were 
followed  by  renderings  of  the  Phaedo,  Gorgias,  Crito,  Apology, 
Phaedrus  (1423)  and  Letters  of  Plato,  which  were  less  highly 
appreciated  than  his  translations  of  the  Oeconomics,  Ethics1  and 
Politics  of  Aristotle.  The  translation  of  the  Politics  was  prompted 
by  the  admiration  for  his  Ethics  expressed  by  Humphrey,  duke 
of  Gloucester;  and  the  autograph  copy  dedicated  to  the  duke 
was  sent  to  England,  but,  owing  to  some  delay  in  the  acknowledge- 
ment, its  dedication  was  transferred  (with  satisfactory  results)  to 
Pope  Eugenius  IV  (i437)2.  For  this  work  he  used  a  MS  of  the 
Politics  obtained  from  Constantinople  by  Palla  Strozzi3,  probably 
comparing  therewith  the  MS  in  possession  of  his  friend  Filelfo4. 
It  has  even  been  suggested  that  Palla  Strozzi's  copy  had  also  been 
brought  from  the  East  by  Filelfo  in  I4295.  Bruni's  rendering 
is  now  regarded  as  far  too  free  and  arbitrary;  it  is  often  impossible 
to  infer  with  any  certainty  the  reading  of  his  Greek  text;  and 
many  peculiarities  of  his  translation  must  accordingly  be  '  passed 
over  or  regarded  as  merely  his  own  conjectures  '6.  But  'not  a  few 
good  readings'  are  due  to  this  source7.  Bruni  describes  the 
original  as  an  opus  magnificum  ac plane  regium8,  and  he  had  good 
reason  to  be  proud  of  a  free  and  flowing  version  that  made  the 
Greek  masterpiece  intelligible  to  the  Latin  scholars  of  Europe. 
His  other  works  included  similar  versions  of  Xenophon's  Hellenica, 
Polybius  and  Procopius.  He  even  wrote  a  Latin  history  of  the 
First  Punic  War  to  make  up  for  the  loss  of  the  second  decade 
of  Livy.  He  also  composed  a  Greek  treatise  on  the  origin  and 

1  Cp.  Klette,  Beitrage,  ii  17. 

2  Vespasiano,  436  f,  where  duca  di  Worcestri  must  be  a  mistake  for  Glocestri. 
Cf.  MS  at  New  Coll.   Oxford  (c.    1450)  and  in  Bodleian,  Canon.  Lat.   195 
(Newman's  Politics,  II  58).     Printed  1492  etc. 

3  Vespasiano,  Palla  Strozzi,  272. 
*•  Bruni,  Epp.  vi  n. 

8  Oncken,  Staatslehre  des  Ar.  i  78  f ;  Susemihl,  ed.  1872,  p.  xv. 

6  Susemihl-Hicks  (1894),  p.  i ;  cp.  ed.  1872,  xxviiif. 

7  Newman's  Politics  t  in  p.  xxif. 

8  Epp.  viii  i  (Voigt,  i  169*  f). 


CHAP.  IV.]  BRUNI.      MARSUPPINI.  47 

constitution  of  Florence,  a  Latin  dialogue  criticising  the  works 
of  Dante,  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio1,  and  a  Latin  encomium  on 
Florence  modelled  on  the  encomium  on  Athens  by  the  Greek 
rhetorician  Aristides2.  His  Letters  were  famed  for  their  excellent 
Latinity3;  but  the  chief  work  of  his  life  was  his  Latin  History 
of  the  Florentine  Republic,  of  which  twelve  books  had  been 
completed  at  his  death.  His  funeral  oration  was  pronounced  by 
Manetti,  who  placed  a  crown  of  laurel  on  the  historian's  brow. 
His  body  rests  in  Santa  Croce,  where  his  marble  effigy,  with  his 
History  laid  upon  his  breast,  reclines  beneath  a  canopied  tomb, 
which  is  a  masterpiece  of  Bernardo  Rossellino.  The  epitaph, 
modelled  partly  on  that  of  Plautus,  was  composed  by  his  successor 
Marsuppini : — 

'  Postquam  Leonardus  e  vita  migravit,  Historia  luget,  Eloquentia  muta  est, 
ferturque  Musas  turn  Graecas  turn  Latinas  lacrimas  tenere  non  potuisse'4. 

Carlo  Marsuppini  (c.  1399 — J453)  was,  like  Bruni,  a  native  of 
Arezzo.     Like  Bruni,  he  found  his  way  to  Florence; 

,    .         ,       .    „  -  -,.         ,.  .  ,  ,  Marsuppini 

and,  by  the  influence  of  Niccoli,  was  introduced  to 
the  Medicean  family,  and,  in  1431,  appointed  teacher  of  Latin 
rhetoric  and  of  the  Greek  language  in  the  local  university.  In 
his  inaugural  lecture  he  gave  proof  of  his  marvellous  memory  by 
surpassing  all  his  predecessors  in  the  multitude  of  passages  cited 
from  the  Greek  and  Latin  authors.  So  signal  was  his  success 
that  he  was  permitted  to  lecture,  even  after  his  promotion  in  1444 
to  the  important  office  of  chancellor.  He  was  considered  nearly 
equal  to  Bruni  in  his  mastery  of  Latin  prose,  and  superior  to  him 
in  verse.  It  was  in  verse  that  he  produced  his  rendering  of  the 
Batrachomyomachia,  and  of  the  first  book  of  the  Iliad5.  By  his 

1  Klette,  Beiirdge,  ii  37—83. 

2  Extracts  in  Klette,  ii  84—105.  3  Epp.  ed.  Mehus,  1741. 

4  Vespasiano,  Lionardo  d?  Arezzo,  427 — 439;  Voigt,  i  306 — 312,  ii  163 — 
I733;   cp.  Symonds,  ii  282-6.     His  tractate  De  Stitdiis  et  Literis  (c.   1405), 
translated  in  Woodward's   Vittorino,   119 — 133;  cp.   Harvard  Lectures,  61  — 
64.     Portrait  in  profile,  with  aquiline  nose,  in  Boissard's  f cones,  part  i  (1597), 
no.  xvi,  p.  124. 

5  Extract  in  Bandini,  Bibl.  Leap.  Laurent,  ii  439,  beginning  '  Nunc  iram 
Aeacidae  tristem  misefamque  futuram  Diva,  cane,  et  quantos  Graiis  dedit  ille 
dolores '.     The  rendering  was  warmly  welcomed  by  Nicolas  V  in  two  Letters 
preserved  by  Vespasiano,  441. 


48  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

contemporaries  he  was  regarded  as  a  man  of  no  religion ;  never- 
theless, he  was  one  of  the  papal  secretaries,  and,  when  he  died  in 
1453,  his  head  was  crowned  with  laurel  by  his  pupil,  the  mystical 
poet,  Matteo  Palmieri1,  and  he  was  buried  in  Santa  Croce.  His 
tomb,  in  the  southern  aisle,  faces  that  of  Bruni.  The  reclining 
form,  with  the  hands  clasped  over  the  book,  is  less  calm  in  its 
repose,  and  the  design,  as  a  whole,  less  severely  simple,  richer  and 
more  florid,  but  without  loss  of  refinement.  It  is  the  masterpiece 
of  Desiderio  da  Settignano,  and  is  indeed  one  of  the  finest  monu- 
ments of  the  Renaissance2. 

Niccoli,  Traversari,  Manetti,  Bruni  and  Marsuppini  were  the 
foremost  of  the  humanists  of  Florence  in  the  age  of  Cosimo  de' 
Medici.  All  of  them,  in  their  various  ways,  were  actively  engaged 
in  promoting  the  Revival  of  Learning,  when  the  study  of  Greek, 
and  of  Plato  in  particular,  incidentally  received  a  new  impulse 
during  the  conference  between  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches  at 
the  Council  of  Florence  (1439).  Before  we  trace  the  fortunes  of 
the  Greek  immigrants  who  flocked  to  Italy  between  the  date  of 
that  Council  and  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  we  may  glance  at  a 
few  of  the  Italian  humanists  who  have  points  of  contact  with 
Florence,  though  their  main  activity  belongs  to  other  cities  in 
Northern  Italy. 

We  have  already  noticed  the  name  of  Gasparino  Barzizza3,  the 
eminent  Ciceronian  scholar,  who  closed  his  varied  career  at  Milan 
in  1431,  after  professing  Rhetoric  at  several  other  places,  the 
most  important  of  which  was  Padua  (1407).  Padua  is  also 
associated  with  a  less  eminent  but  not  uninteresting  humanist, 
Pietro  Paolo  Vergerio(^.  1370 — c.  1445),  who  produced 

Vcrijcrio 

the  first  modern  introduction  to  the  study  of  Quin- 
tilian4,  and,  in  1392,  addressed  to  a  prince  of  the  house  of  Carrara 
the  first  treatise  in  which  the  claims  of  Latin  learning  are  methodi- 

1  1406 — 1475;    author   of   treatise   Delia    Vita    Civile   (cp.    Woodward's 
Renaissance  Education,  65 — 78). 

2  Cp.  C.  C.  Perkins,  Italian  Sculpture,  119,   121  ;    and  cuts  in  Geiger's 
Renaissance,  91,  93.     On  Marsuppini,  cp.  Vespasiano,  Carlo  cT  Arezzo,  439 — 
441  ;  Voigt,  i  312-4,  ii  194*  f;  Symonds,  ii  i86f. 

3  p.  23,  supra. 

4  Combi,  Epistole  di  Vergerio,  p.  xxi. 


CHAP.  IV.]  VERGERIO.      GUARINO.  49 

cally  maintained  as  an  essential  part  of  a  liberal  education1.  In 
the  latter  he  exults  in  Cicero's  praises  of  literature,  and  himself 
declares  that  'without  style'  even  worthy  thoughts  would  not  be 
likely  to  attract  much  notice  or  secure  a  sure  survival2.  His 
interesting  references  to  Plato  and  Aristotle3  must  have  been 
derived  from  Latin  translations.  He  had  not  yet  learnt  Greek, 
when,  in  connexion  with  Roman  history,  we  find  him  writing  as 
follows : — 

It  is  hard  that  no  slight  portion  of  the  history  of  Rome  is  only  to  be  known 
through  the  labours  of  one  writing  in  the  Greek  language  (i.e.  Polybius).  It  is 
still  worse  that  this  same  noble  tongue,  once  well-nigh  the  only  speech  of  our 
race,  as  familiar  as  the  Latin  language  itself,  is  on  the  point  of  perishing  even 
among  its  own  sons,  and  to  us  Italians  is  already  utterly  lost,  unless  we  except 
one  or  two  who  in  our  own  time  are  tardily  endeavouring  to  rescue  something — 
if  it  be  only  an  echo  of  it — from  oblivion4. 

About  1400,  at  the  age  of  more  than  thirty,  he  went  to  Florence 
to  learn  Greek  from  Chrysoloras5.  He  was  a  papal  secretary, 
when  he  had  the  honour  of  writing  the  Latin  epitaph  at  Constance 
in  memory  of  the  restorer  of  Greek  learning  in  Italy6.  From 
Constance  he  followed  the  emperor  Sigismund  into  Hungary, 
where  his  latest  work  was  a  studiously  simple  Latin  rendering  of 
the  Anabasis  of  Arrian7. 

While  Vergerio  had  learnt  Greek  from  Chrysoloras  in  Florence, 
Guarino  of  Verona  (1^74 — 1460)  followed  that 

Guarino 

teacher  to  Constantinople  and  learnt  the  language 
by  spending  five  years  in  his  household  (1403-8).  On  his 
return  he  landed  in  Venice  with  about  fifty  Greek  Mss8.  He 
afterwards  lectured  for  a  few  years  in  Florence  (1410-4).  His 
subsequent  success  as  a  lecturer  in  Venice  (1414-9)  led  to  his 
return  to  his  native  city  of  Verona  (1419-29).  Ultimately  he 
was  called  to  Ferrara,  where  after  devoting  five  years  to  the 
education  of  Lionello,  the  eldest  son  of  Niccol6  d'  Este,  marquis 
of  Ferrara,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Rhetoric  in  the  local 

1  Woodward's  Vittorino,  14,  93 — 118;  Harvard  Lectures,  58 — 61. 

2  Woodward,  105.  3  ib.  98,  101,  no. 

4  ib.  106.  B  Voigt,  i  4$i3.  6  p.  21,  supra. 

7  Voigt,   ii    272".      Cp.   Combi's   Epistole    di...  Vergerio,    Venice,     1887; 
K.  A.  Kopp,  in  His/.  Jahrb.  der  Gorresgesellschaft,  1897,  274 — 310,  533 — 571. 

8  p.  36,  supra. 

S.     II.  4 


50  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

university  (1436).  The  last  thirty  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in 
teaching  at  Ferrara,  where  his  proficiency  in  Greek  and  Latin  led 
to  his  acting  as  interpreter  between  the  representatives  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  Churches  at  the  Council  of  1438.  In  addition 
to  an  elementary  Latin  Grammar,  he  produced  a  widely  popular 
Latin  version  of  the  Catechism  of  Greek  Grammar  by  Chrysoloras. 
His  translations  included  three  of  the  minor  works  of  Lucian,  the 
Evagoras  and  Nicocles  of  Isocrates,  the  whole  of  Strabo,  and  some 
fifteen  of  Plutarch's  Lives.  The  singularly  fine  copy  of  his  version 
of  Plutarch's  Lysander  and  Sulla,  now  in  the  Laurentian  Library, 
was  his  wedding  present  to  his  pupil  Lionello  (I435)1.  Guarino 
was  an  eager  collector  of  Latin  MSS.  At  Venice  in  1419  he 
discovered  a  MS  of  Pliny's  Epistles  containing  about  124  Letters 
in  addition  to  the  100  already  known,  and  several  copies  of  this 
MS  were  made  before  it  was  lost.  When  the  complete  text  of  the 
De  Oratore,  Brutus  and  Orator  of  Cicero  was  discovered  at  Lodi 
(1422),  he  promptly  obtained  a  transcript  of  all  three  treatises. 
A  MS  of  Celsus  reached  him  at  Bologna  in  1426,  and  another  was 
discovered  by  his  friend  Lamola  at  Milan  in  the  following  year. 
At  Ferrara  in  1432  he  made  himself  an  amended  copy  of  the 
famous  codex  Ursinianus  of  Plautus.  As  a  native  of  Verona,  he 
is  fond  of  quoting  Catullus,  and  his  interest  in  the  text  descended 
to  his  son.  He  was  himself  concerned  in  the  recension  of  Cicero's 
Speeches,  and  of  Caesar,  as  well  as  both  the  Plinies,  and  Gellius 
and  Servius.  In  his  Letters  he  owes  much  of  his  inspiration  to 
Cicero  and  the  younger  Pliny,  and  Pliny's  account  of  his  Tuscan 
villa  is  closely  followed  in  Guarino's  description  of  his  own  villa 
near  Ferrara.  Similarly  his  pupil,  Angelo  Decembrio,  imitates 
the  Noctes  Atticae  of  Gellius  in  describing  the  literary  discussions, 
whose  scene  he  places  at  Ferrara,  either  in  the  apartments  of 
Lionello,  or  in  the  suburban  palace  of  Belfiore,  or  at  the  castle 
of  Bellosguardo.  The  long  life  of  Guarino  began  with  no 
precociously  early  promise ;  it  was  marked  by  a  steady  and 
continuous  growth.  Unlike  certain  other  humanists,  he  showed 
no  antagonism  to  the  authority  of  the  Church,  no  feeling  of  re- 
sentment against  the  spirit  of  the  Middle  Ages ;  but  he  was  true 
to  the  humanist  type  in  a  certain  love  of  personal  fame.  He  left 
1  Jxv  27  ;  Harvard  Lectures,  76. 


CHAP.  IV.]  GUARINO.  51 

behind  him  many  occasional  speeches  and  some  600  letters,  an 
elaborate  edition  of  which,  prepared  by  the  devotion  of  a 
Sabbadini  and  deposited  in  1892  in  the  library  of  the  Lincei  at 
the  Palazzo  Corsini  in  Rome,  is  still  awaiting  publication.  His 
school  and  his  method  were  eulogised  in  more  than  1000  hexa- 
meters by  Janus  Pannonius1,  and  he  deserves  to  be  remembered 
with  respect  as  a  humanist  whose  moral  character  was  very  nearly 
equal  to  his  learning. 

The  method  of  instruction  pursued  by  Guarino  may  be 
gathered  from  the  treatise  De  Ordine  Docendi  written  in  1459  by 
his  son  Battista  (1434 — 1513)-  It  is  the  earliest  treatise  in  which 
the  claim  to  be  considered  an  educated  gentleman  is  reserved  for 
one  who  is  familiar  with  Greek  as  well  as  Latin : — 

I  have  said  that  ability  to  write  Latin  verse  is  one  of  the  essential  marks  of 
an  educated  person.  I  wish  now  to  indicate  a  second,  which  is  of  at  least 
equal  importance,  namely,  familiarity  with  the  language  and  literature  of 
Greece.  The  time  has  come  when  we  must  speak  with  no  uncertain  voice 
upon  this  vital  requirement  of  scholarship2. 

Among  the  numerous  pupils  of  Guarino  we  note  the  names  of 
four  Englishmen,  Robert  Fleming,  dean  of  Lincoln,  John  Free, 
bishop  of  Bath,  John  Gunthorp,  dean  of  Wells3,  and  William 
Gray,  bishop  of  Ely4.  The  Italian  pupils  included  a  precocious 

1  Silva  Panegyrica  ad  Guarinum,  1457  ;  Delitiae  Poetarnm  Hung.  (1619), 
pp.  3 — 34.     Cp.,  in  general,  Rosmini,  Vita  e  Disciplina  di  Guarino  Veronese, 
Brescia,    3  vols.,   1805-6,   with  copy  of  a  miniature  portrait  in  the  Trivulzi 
collection  at  Milan,  representing  Guarino  in  a  conical  Greek  cap  and  with  a 
closely  shaven  face  and  an  intelligent  expression  ;   medallion  by  Matteo  de' 
Pasti  in  G.  F.  Hill's  Pisanello  opp.  p.  230;  portrait  in  Guarino's  Strabo  (MS 
Phillipps  6645)  published  by  Omont  (1905),  and  reproduced   on  p.   52.     See 
also  Voigt,  i  344  f,  547  f3  etc. ;  Symonds,  ii  297 — 301  ;  and  Sabbadini,  G.  V.  e 
le opere  retoriche  di  Cicerone  (1885);  Index  to  his  Epistolario,  with  Vita  (1885); 
G.  V.  e  gli  archetipi  di  Celso  e  Plauto  (1886) ;  Codici  Latini  posseduti,  scoperti, 
illustrati  da  G.    V.,  in  Mus.  Ital.  di  Ant.  Class,  ii  (1887),   374—456;   Vita 
(1891),  and  esp.  La  Scuolae gli  Studi  di  G.  V.  240  pp.  (1896).    Mr  Woodward, 
in  Olia  Mersdana  (Liverpool,    1903),    i — 3,   describes   the   contents   of  the 
Balliol  MS  (cxxxv)  containing  Letters  and  Orations  of  Guarino,  presented  to 
his  College  by  Guarino's  pupil,  William  Gray,  bishop  of  Ely.     Four  of  his 
letters  on   educational  subjects  are   printed   in  Milliner's  Keden  und  Briefe, 
213 — 238.     See  also  Woodward's  Renaissance  Education  (1906),  26 — 47. 

2  p.  1 66  of  Woodward's  Vittorino,  where  the  whole  is  translated,  159 — 178. 
Cp.  Harvard  Lectures,  78  f. 

3  Rosmini,  iii  117—121.  4  Vespasiano,  214. 

4—2 


52  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

translator  from  the  Greek,  Francesco  Barbaro  (1398 — 1454),  who 
collected,  collated,  and  emended  Greek  MSS,  obtaining  an  Iliad 
from  Crete,  as  well  as  an  Odyssey  and  the  Batrachomyomachia. 
Guarino  shares  with  Vergerio  the  honour  of  having  transmitted 
the  Greek  teaching  of  Chrysoloras  to  one  who  is  so  eminent  in  the 
history  of  education  as  Vittorino  da  Feltre. 


GUARINO  DA  VERONA. 

Reduced  from  H.  Omont's  Portrait  de  Guarino  de  Verone  (1905),  the  frontis- 
piece of  which  is  derived  from  a  photograph  of  the  portrait  painted  in  life- 
size  at  the  end  of  Guarino's  Strabo  in  the  Phillipps  library  at  Cheltenham. 


CHAP.  IV.]  VITTORINO.  53 

Vittorino  dei  Ramboldini  (1378 — 1446)  was  born  at  Feltre, 
among  the  hills  between  Venice  and  the  Eastern 

Vittorino 

Alps.  For  nearly  twenty  years  he  went  on  learning 
and  teaching  in  Padua  and  then  left  for  Venice,  where  he  learnt 
Greek  under  Guarino.  After  a  second  stay  at  Padua,  he  returned 
to  Venice,  where  the  turning-point  of  his  life  came  to  him  at  the 
age  of  forty-six,  when  Gianfrancesco  Gonzaga,  lord  of  Mantua, 
invited  him  to  undertake  the  education  of  his  sons.  Mantua 
thus  became  the  home  of  Vittorino  for  the  remaining  twenty-two 
years  of  his  life.  He  there  established  '  the  first  great  school  of 
the  Renaissance',  'the  great  typical  school  of  the  Humanities". 
The  impetus  given  to  the  enthusiasm  and  to  the  educational 
method  of  the  humanists  by  the  production  of  Guarino's  rendering 
of  'Plutarch's'  treatise  On  Education  in  1411,  and  by  the 
discovery  of  the  complete  Quintilian  in  I4i62,  and  the  De 
Oratore,  Brutus  and  Orator  in  14.22,  was  fully  felt  by  Vittorino, 
in  whom  a  familiarity  with  the  '  educational  apparatus  of  classical 
literature'  was  combined  with  'the  spirit  of  the  Christian  life'  and 
'the  Greek  passion  for  bodily  culture'3.  The  'Pleasant  House' 
amid  the  playing-fields  on  the  slopes  above  the  Mincio  was  a 
palace  of  delight,  where  all  the  sixty  or  seventy  scholars,  of  what- 
ever rank,  were  under  the  selfsame  discipline.  Among  the  Latin 
authors  studied  in  his  school  were  Virgil  and  Lucan,  with  selec- 
tions from  Horace,  Ovid,  and  Juvenal,  besides  Cicero  and  Quin- 
tilian, Sallust  and  Curtius,  Caesar  and  Livy.  The  Greek  authors 
were  Homer,  Hesiod,  Pindar,  and  the  Dramatists,  with  Herodotus, 
Xenophon  and  Plato,  Isocrates  and  Demosthenes,  Plutarch  and 
Arrian4.  In  the  teaching  of  Greek  he  was  aided  by  Georgius 

1  Woodward's  Vittorino,  24. 

2  p.  27,  supra;   cp.  A.  Messer,  Q.  als  Didaktiker  und  sein  Einfluss  auf 
die  didaktisch-pddagogische  Theorie  des  ffumanismus,  in  Fleckeis.  Jahrb.   156 
(1897),  161,  273,  321,  361,  409,  457.     An  epitome  of  the  complete  Quintilian 
was   drawn  up  by   Francesco  Patrizi   of  Siena,  bp   of  Gae'ta   1460-94;  cp. 
Fierville,  Quint,  i,  1890,  p.  xxxv ;  Peterson,  in  Cl.  Rev.  v  54  ;  Bassi,  Turin, 
1894;  Meister,  in  Berl.  Phil.  Woch.  1892  (nos.  39  f),  1894  (no.  50),  and  1906 
(nos.  27-9,  31).     See  also  Woodward's  Education  in  the  Age  of  the  Renais- 
sance (1906),  8— 10. 

3  Woodward's  Vittorino,  25 — 27. 

4  On  Vittorino's  Greek  MSS,  cp.  Sabbadini,  Scoperte,  60. 


54 


ITALY. 


[CENT.  xv. 


Trapezuntius  and  Theodoras  Gaza,  both  of  whom  learnt  their 
Latin  from  Vittorino.  His  famous  pupils  included  Federigo,  the 
soldier  and  scholar,  who  founded  the  celebrated  library  in  his 
ducal  palace  at  Urbino ;  a  papal  legate,  Perotti,  the  author  of  the 
first  large  Latin  Grammar  ;  Ognibene  da  Lonigo  (Leonicenus],  an 
able  teacher  at  Vicenza,  whose  smaller  Grammar  was  widely  used1; 
and  Giovanni  Andrea  de'  Bussi,  the  future  bishop  of  Aleria,  who 
had  the  unique  distinction  of  having  been,  in  1465  to  1471,  the 
editor  of  the  first  printed  editions  of  as  many  as  eight  works  of 
the  Latin  Classics : — Caesar,  Gellius,  Livy,  Lucan,  Virgil,  Silius, 
and  the  Letters  and  Speeches  of  Cicero.  In  his  splendid  edition 
of  Livy,  he  pays  a  special  tribute  of  gratitude  to  his  master 
Vittorino.  Vittorino  was  a  man  of  keen  and  eager  temperament, 
of  small  stature  and  of  wiry  frame,  with  a  ruddy  complexion  and 

1  His  lecture  on  Val.  Maximus,  in  Milliner's  Reden,  142. 


VITTORINO  DA  FELTRE. 
From  a  Medallion  by  Pisanello  in  the  'British  Museum,  inscribed  VICTORINVS  • 

FELTRENSIS  •  SVMMVS  •  MATHEMATICVS  •  ET  •  OMNIS  •  HVMANITATIS  •  PATER  • 

OPVS  •  PISANI  •  PICTORIS  •     The  latter  part  is  on  the  reverse,  which  repre- 
sents a  pelican  feeding  her  young. 


CHAP.  IV.]  FILELFO.  55 

sharp  features,  and  a  frank  and  genial  expression.  The  medallion, 
on  which  his  scholarly  face  has  been  immortalised  by  Pisanello1, 
shows  that  he  had  the  'ornament  of  a  meek  and  quiet' 
countenance2. 

One,    if  not  both,  of  the   Greek   instructors   in   the  school 
of  Mantua  had  been  recommended  by  Francesco 

'  Filelfo 

Filelfo  (1398 — 1481),  a  humanist  whose  character 
stands  in  sharp  contrast  to  that  of  Vittorino.  Filelfo  had  studied 
Latin  at  Padua  under  Barzizza,  and  had  taught  at  Padua  and 
Venice,  where  he  saw  much  of  Vittorino,  as  well  as  of  Guarino.  He 
learnt  Greek  at  Constantinople  (1422-7)  in  the  household  of  the 
nephew  of  Manuel  Chrysoloras,  and  he  married  that  nephew's 
daughter.  He  was  particularly  proud  of  the  purity  of  the  Greek 
that  he  had  acquired  from  his  wife3.  On  his  return  to  Italy  he 
taught  at  Venice  and  Bologna,  and  (in  1429-34)  at  Florence, 
where  he  lectured  with  great  eclat  to  audiences  of  four  hundred, 
including  the  two  future  Popes,  Nicolas  V  and  Pius  II.  He 
gave  four  lectures  daily,  taking  Cicero,  and  Livy  or  Homer,  in 
the  forenoon,  and,  in  the  afternoon,  Terence,  and  Xenophon  or 
Thucydides.  Faults  of  character,  however,  led  to  his  falling  out 
of  favour  with  Cosimo  and  the  foremost  scholars  of  Florence. 
From  1440  to  the  end  of  his  life  he  lived  mainly  at  Milan. 
At  the  age  of  77,  he  was  invited  to  lecture  in  Rome,  and,  at 
that  of  83,  in  Florence,  where  he  died  soon  after  his  return.  His 
translations  included  Xenophon's  Cyropaedia,  Agesilaus,  and  Lace- 
daemoniorum  Respublica,  two  speeches  of  Lysias,  the  Rhetoric  of 
Aristotle,  and  four  of  Plutarch's  Lives*.  Among  his  original  works 

1  Complete  copy  in  Woodward's  Frontispiece,  and  G.  F.  Hill's  Pisanello, 
Pi-  54- 

2  Cp.  Woodward's  Vittorino,  xi,  i — 92,  and  the  literature  there  quoted; 
also  Creighton's  Historical  Essays  and  Reviews,  107 — 134,  'A  School-master 
of  the  Renaissance  '  (Macmillatt's  Magazine,  1875);  and  Woodward's  Renais- 
sance Education,  10 — -25. 

3  He  says  of  the  Greek  women,  ob  solitudinem  observabant  antiquitatem 
incorrupti  sermonis.     The  same  had  been  said  of  the  Roman  matrons   by 
Cicero,  De  Or.  iii  45.     In  Sept.  1451  Poggio  states  the  aim  of  his  sojourn  at 
Constantinople,  quo  Graeca  sapientia  factus  doctior,  maiorivel  ttsuivel  ornamento 
Latinae  ftiturus  essem. 

*  Cp.  Ep.  30,  Sept.  1444. 


56  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

were  Satires  and  Odes,  and  an  epic  poem  of  6400  lines  on 
Francesco  Sforza  of  Milan.  The  Laurentian  Library  has  an 
autograph  volume  of  46  sets  of  Greek  verses,  written  alternately 
in  elegiac  and  in  Sapphic  metre,  in  which  the  principal  interest 
lies  in  the  persons  to  whom  the  several  poems  are  addressed,  the 
list  including  Palla  Strozzi,  Bessarion,  Argyropulos,  Theodorus 
Gaza  and  Mahomet  IP,  who  are  among  his  correspondents  in  the 
no  Greek  letters  which  have  deserved  the  honour  of  publication2 
far  better  than  the  poems. 

His  Latin  letters  throw  much  light  on  his  studies,  and  on  his  attitude  as  a 
humanist.  He  had  learnt  Greek  in  the  hope  of  adding  a  new  grace  to  his 
Latin  lore3.  During  his  studies  at  Constantinople  he  had  recognised  the 
Aeolic  element  in  Homer4,  but  he  had  searched  in  vain  for  a  copy  of  Apollonius 
(Dyscolus)  or  of  Herodian.  Yet  Greek  would  be  better  learnt  there  than  in 
the  Peloponnesus,  which  had  produced  no  scholar  except  Gemislus  Plethon5. 
The  most  learned  Greek  of  the  day  was  Theodorus  Gaza6,  who  had  copied  for 
Filelfo  the  whole  of  the  Iliad7.  He  himself  had  MSS  of  Diodorus  and  Pollux8, 
and  was  ready  to  lend  a  friend  his  'Varro'9.  He  was  careful  in  comparing 
manuscripts,  and  in  studying  Servius'  commentary  on  Virgil10.  As  a  strict 
purist  he  writes  Quinctilis  instead  of  Julius,  and  Deus  (and  even  Christus) 
Optimus  Afaximus11.  He  criticises  the '  Spanish '  style  of  Quintilian's  Declama- 
tions12. He  exhorts  a  youth  of  high  promise  to  devote  himself  to  the  study  of 
eloquentia  and  humanitas™.  He  has  no  doubt  as  to  his  own  eminence,  and  he 
assures  his  distinguished  correspondents  that,  by  the  magic  of  his  style,  he  can 
make  them  immortal14. 

He  combined  the  accomplishments  of  a  scholar  with  the  in- 
sidiousness  and  the  brutality  of  a  brigand.  As  one  of  the  least 

1  Laur.  Iviii  15.     After  I  had  noted  the  contents  of  this  MS,  I  observed 
that  14  of  the  poems  had  been  printed  by  Legrand  (Cent-dix  Leltres  Grecques  de 
Francois  Filelfe,  1892,  195 — 219)  from  copies  supplied  by  other  scholars,  who 
apparently  did  not  inform  him  of  Filelfo's  express  request  that  they  should  not 
be  published  (neque  ex  hisce  quisquam  exscribat  rogd),  as  he  had  not  revised 
them. 

2  Klette,  Beitrdge,  iii  (1890),  98 — 174;  and  Legrand,  /.  c.  (1892),  i — 194. 

3  Sept.  1451.                         4  13  Apr.  1441.  °  9  June,  1441. 
6  28  Feb.  1446.                     7  23  Jan.  1448.  8  3  Aug.  1437. 
9  30  Dec.  1442.  10  1 8  Dec.  1439.  n  x  Aug.  1428. 
12  31  Jan.  1440.  18  8  Dec.  1440. 

14  (To  Cosimo)  May  1433  ;  cp.  23  Jan.  1451.  (The  above  references  have 
been  contributed  by  Prof.  Sihler  of  New  York,  but  the  grouping  and  arrange- 
ment are  my  own.) 


CHAP.  IV.]  FILELFO.  57 

humane  of  all  the  humanists,  he  is  a  discreditable  exception  to 
the  Ovidian  rule, 

'  ingenuas  didicisse  fideliter  artes 

emollit  mores,  nee  sinit  esse  feros'. 

His  bitter  feuds  may  however  be  forgotten,  while  we  remember 
that  in  1427  he  brought  from  Constantinople  the  works  of  at  least 
forty  Greek  authors1,  and  that,  on  the  death  of  Nicolas  V,  he 
exultantly  wrote,  with  reference  to  that  Pope's  collection  of  MSS, 
and  to  the  translations  from  the  Greek  that  had  been  executed 
under  the  papal  patronage  : — 

'  Greece  has  not  perished,  but  has  migrated  to  Italy,  the  land  that  was 
known  of  old  as  Magna  Graecia ' 2. 

1  P-  37>  supra. 

z  Epp.  xiii  i  (ed.  1502,  Venice,  the  only  complete  ed.).  Cp.,  in  general, 
Vespasiano,  488 — 491  ;  Rosmini,  Vita,  3  vols.  Milan,  1808,  with  frontispiece 
from  portrait  by  Mantegna ;  Voigt,  i  348 — 366,  512  f,  524  f3;  Symonds,  ii  267 — 
288;  also  Klette's  Beitrage,  iii  1890;  and  Legrand's  Cent-dix  Leltres 
Grecques,  1892.  Five  of  his  lectures  at  Florence  (1429-34)  printed  in 
Mullner's  Reden,  146 — 162.  Portrait  (in  profile,  with  upward  gaze,  and 
laurel  crown,  and  cap)  in  Jovius,  Elogia,  p.  30,  copied  in  Wiese  and  Percopo, 
207. 


<  It, 

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CHAPTER  V. 

THE  EARLIER  GREEK  IMMIGRANTS. 

WHILE  the  Council  of  Constance  is  associated  with  the  death 
of  the  first  important  teacher  of  Greek  in  Italy  (1415),  the 
Council  held  at  Ferrara  in  1438,  and  at  Florence  in  1439,  gave  a 
definite  impulse  to  the  further  study  of  that  language  in  connexion 
with  the  Platonic  philosophy  and  with  the  controversies  as  to  the 
relative  merits  of  Plato  and  Aristotle.  The  Council  failed  in  its 
avowed  purpose  of  uniting  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches,  but  it 
succeeded  in  the  unintended  result  of  drawing  the  scholars  of  the 
East  and  the  West  nearer  to  one  another.  At  Ferrara  the  leading 
representatives  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches  were  hospitably 
entertained  by  the  able  physician  and  dialectician,  Ugo  Benzi  of 
Siena,  who,  after  setting  forth  the  differences  between  Plato  and 
Aristotle,  is  said  to  have  triumphantly  refuted  the  Greeks  in  their 
preference  for  Plato1.  On  the  transfer  of  the  Council  to  Florence, 
the  city  on  the  Arno  became  the  meeting-place  of  the  languages 
of  the  West  and  the  East,  and  of  the  two  types  of  civilisation 
prevailing  in  the  Italian  and  the  Hellenic  world.  When  one  of 
the  younger  scholars  of  Florence  first  saw  the  long  beards  and 
the  shaggy  hair  of  the  Greeks,  he  recalled  the  stories  of  the 
ancient  Spartans,  and  strove  in  vain  to  repress  his  laughter ;  but 
he  admitted  that  some  of  those  Greeks  were  fully  worthy  of  their 
ancestors,  and  were  still  true  to  the  traditions  of  the  Lyceum  and 
of  the  Old  Academy2. 

1  Aeneas  Sylvius,  Europa,  c.  52.     Cp.  Tiraboschi,  vi  461  ;  Voigt,  ii  12 13. 

2  Lapo  da  Castiglionchio,  quoted  by  Hody,  De  Graecis  Ilhistrilms,  31,  136. 
Cp.  Vespasiano,   Wfe,   14  f.     Two  of  Lapo's  lectures  at  Bologna  (c.   1435)  in 
Milliner's  Reden,  129. 


60  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

Petrarch  and  Boccaccio  had  been  vaguely  interested  in  Plato  ; 
and  Bruni,  the  pupil  of  Chrysoloras,  had  translated  several  of  the 
dialogues.  The  attention  of  the  leading  spirits  in  Florence 
was  now  called  to  a  certain  form  of  Neo-Platonism  by  the  singular 
personality  of  an  aged  representative  of  the  Greeks, 
'piet'hon8  Georgios  Gemistos,  a  native  of  Constantinople 
(c.  1356 — 1450).  Estranged  from  Christianity  in 
his  youth,  he  had  spent  a  large  part  of  his  life  near  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Sparta,  where  he  elaborated  a  singular  philosophic 
system  of  a  Neo-Platonic  type.  He  had  already  attained  the  age 
of  eighty-three,  when,  in  spite  of  his  pagan  proclivities,  he  found 
himself  in  the  peculiar  position  of  having  been  selected,  on 
patriotic  grounds,  as  one  of  the  six  champions  of  the  Greek 
Church  at  the  Council  of  Florence.  But  '  instead  of  attending 
the  Council,  he  poured  forth  his  Platonic  lore,  and  uttered  dark 
sentences  to  a  circle  of  eager  Florentines.  Cosimo  de'  Medici 
was  delighted  with  him,  and  hailed  him  as  a  second  Plato. 
Gemistos  modestly  refused  the  title,  but  playfully  added  to  his 
name,  Gemistos,  the  equivalent,  Plethon,  which  approached  more 
nearly  to  his  master's  name'1.  'The  lively  style  of  Plethon 
inspired  Cosimo  with  such  enthusiasm  that  his  lofty  mind  im- 
mediately conceived  the  thought  of  forming  an  Academy,  as  soon 
as  a  favourable  moment  should  be  found'.  Such  is  the  language 
used  many  years  later  by  Marsilio  Ficino2,  who  was  only  six  years 
of  age  when  he  was  selected  by  Cosimo  to  be  the  future  translator 
and  expounder  of  Plato.  Before  leaving  Florence,  Plethon 
produced  a  treatise  on  the  points  of  difference  between  Plato 
and  Aristotle3,  and  thus  stimulated  the  Italian  humanists  to  a 
closer  study  of  both.  The  general  result  was  an  increased  ap- 
preciation of  the  importance  of  Plato,  and  a  material  diminution 
of  the  authority  of  Aristotle,  which  had  remained  unchallenged  in 
Western  Europe  throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  By  1441  Plethon 
had  returned  to  the  site  of  Sparta.  His  life  extended  over  nearly 
the  whole  century  that  preceded  the  fall  of  Constantinople.  Even 

1  Creighton's  History  of  the  Papacy,  iv  41  f,  ed.  1901. 

2  Preface  to  Plotinus  (1492). 

3  wepi  uv  ' ApiffTOTtXrjs   irpbs   HXdrwva   Siafaperai,    Basel,    1574  '>    Migne, 
P.  G.  clx  882  f.     Cp.  F.  Schultze,  Plethon,  19,  70—91. 


CHAP.  V.]       GEMISTOS   PLETHON.      BESSARION.  6 1 

after  his  death  in  1450,  his  Neo-Platonic  and  pagan  opinions 
were  repeatedly  attacked  by  the  patriarch  Gennadios1.  But, 
while  his  memory  was  assailed  in  the  East,  it  was  honoured  in  the 
West,  and,  sixteen  years  later,  when  Sigismondo  Malatesta,  the 
victorious  general  of  the  Venetian  forces,  had  rescued  the  site  of 
Sparta  from  the  Turks2,  his  '  love  for  men  of  learning '  led  him  to 
remove  the  bones  of  the  Neo-Platonist  to  the  splendid  semi- 
pagan  temple  lately  built  by  Leon  Alberti  of  Florence  for  the  lord 
of  Rimini3. 

Among  the  Greeks  assembled  at  the  Council  was  Plethon's 
former  pupil,  Bessarion  (1395  or  1403 — 1472),  the' 
archbishop  of  Nicaea,  whose  services  in  the  papal 
cause  led  to  his  being  made  a  Cardinal.  He  afterwards  translated 
into  Latin  the  Memorabilia  of  Xenophon,  and  the  Metaphysics 
of  Aristotle,  and  (in  1468)  gave  to  Venice  a  large  number  of 
Greek  MSS,  which  formed  the  foundation  of  the  famous  library  of 
St  Mark's4.  As  a  Cardinal  resident  in  Rome,  and  surrounded  by 
a  crowd  of  Greek  and  Latin  scholars,  who  escorted  him  every 
morning  to  the  Vatican  from  his  Palace  on  the  Quirinal,  he  was 
conspicuous  as  the  great  patron  of  all  the  learned  Greeks,  who 
flocked  to  Italy,  both  before  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  and  after 
that  event5. 

1  W.    Gass,    Gennadios  und  Plethon,   Arislotelismus  und  Platonismns  in 
der griechischen  Kirche  (1844).     Cp.  frontispiece  to  Legrand,  III. 

2  Schutze,  109. 

3  Cut  in  Geiger's  Renaissance,  211.    Cp.  F.  Schultze,  Gesch.  der  Philosophie 
der  Renaissance,  (i)  Georgios  Gemistos  Plcthon,  1874;  Voigt,  ii  ii93f;  Symonds, 
i  157  f,  ii  198 — 210,  and  Sketches  in  Italy  and  Greece,  236  ;  and  H.  F.  Tozer 
in  J.  H.  S.  vii  353 — 380,  with  Creighton's  History  of  the  Papacy,  iv  41-6, 
ed.  1901.     Works  in  Migne,  P.  G.  clx;  Alexandre,  Traite  des  Lois  (1858); 
and  Plethon's  Denkschriften  in  Elissen's  Analekten,  IV  ii  (1860).     Portrait  in 
Boissard's  /cones,  I  xix  136. 

4  Omont,  Inventaire  (1894) ;  Sabbadini,  Scoperte,  67  f;  p.  37  supra. 

5  Vespasiano,  145  f;  Hody,   136  — 177;  cp.  Voigt,  ii  123 — 1323  (with  the 
literature   there   quoted) ;    Symonds,   ii   246-8 ;    and   R.  Rocholl,  Bessarion, 
Studie  zur  Gesch.  der  Renaissance,  Leipzig,  1904.     Portrait  in  Paulus  Jovius, 
Elogia,  43,  copied  in  Legrand,  ill  3;  another  in  Boissard's  Icones,  I  xix  136. 
Autograph  and  portrait  by  Cordegliaghi,   with  illuminated  first  page  of  the 
Act  of  Donation  of  his  MSS,  in  La  Biblioteca  Marciana  nella  sua  nuava  sede, 
Venice,  1906. 


62  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

Of  the  Greeks  who  arrived  before  its  fall,  the  foremost  (apart 
from  Bessarion)  were  Theodorus  Gaza,  Georgius  Trapezuntius, 

Joannes  Argyropulos,  and  Demetrius  Chalcondyles. 
ThGadz°arUS  The  first  of  these>  Theodorus  Gaza  (c.  1 400— 1475), 

fled  from  his  native  city  of  Thessalonica  before  its 
capture  by  the  Turks  in  1430.  He  ranged  himself  on  the  side  of 
Aristotle  in  the  controversy  raised  by  Plethon  during  the  Council 
of  Florence.  He  became  the  first  professor  of  Greek  at  Ferrara, 
where  he  lectured  on  Demosthenes  in  1448,  counting  among  his 
pupils  the  German  humanist,  Rudolphus  Agricola.  In  1451  he 
was  invited  by  Nicolas  V  to  fill  the  chair  of  philosophy  in  Rome, 
and  to  take  part  in  the  papal  scheme  for  translating  the  principal 
Greek  Classics.  His  numerous  translations  included  the  Mechanical 
Problems1  and  JDe  Animalibus  of  Aristotle2,  and  the  De  Plantis 
of  Theophrastus3.  He  also  produced  a  Greek  rendering  of  Cicero 
De  Amicitia  and  De  Senectute.  On  the  death  of  the  Pope  in 
1455,  he  went  to  Naples,  where  he  translated  Aelian's  Tactics  for 
king  Alfonso.  On  the  death  of  the  latter  (1458),  he  withdrew 
to  a  monastery  on  the  Lucanian  coast,  was  recalled  to  Rome  by 
Paul  II  in  1464,  and  took  part  in  the  editio  princeps  of  Gellius 
(1469).  On  the  death  of  Bessarion  (1472)  he  finally  retired  to 
Lucania,  where  he  died  in  1475.  Of  his  two  transcripts  of  the 
Iliad,  one  is  preserved  in  Florence4,  and  the  other  in  Venice5. 
In  the  preface  to  an  Aldine  edition  of  his  translation  of  the 
Problems  (1504),  he  is  described  by  Manutius  as  facile  princeps 
among  the  Latin  and  Greek  scholars  of  his  age,  and  he  is 
eulogised  by  Scaliger  as  magnus  vir  et  doctus,  though  he  makes 
mistakes  in  the  Historia  Animalium6.  His  Greek  Grammar7,  the 
first  of  modern  manuals  to  include  Syntax,  was  used  as  a  text- 

1  Printed  at  Rome,  1475.     His  translation  of  the  Problems  of  Alexander 
Aphrod.  first  printed  by  Aldus,  1504. 

2  Venice,  1476.  3  Tarvisii,  1483. 

4  Laur.  xxxii  i,  including  the  Batrachomyomachia.    The  text  of  the  whole 
published  at  Florence  in  1811  by  a  Cypriote,  Nic.  Theseus. 

5  At  St  Mark's.     His  copy  of  Aristotle's  Politics  is  assigned  by  Hody, 
p.  58,  to  another  Venetian  library. 

6  Scaligerana  prinia,  102. 

7  ypa.p-na.Tucr>  tlffaywy-fj,  ed.  pr.   Aid.    1495  ;    often  reprinted  with  Latin 
trans,  down  to  1803. 


CHAP.  V.]  THEODORUS.  TRAPEZUNTIUS.  ARGYROPULOS.  63 

book  by  Budaeus  in  Paris,  and  by  Erasmus  in  Cambridge.  In  a 
fine  MS  of  this  Grammar  in  the  Laurentian  Library,  a  portrait 
bright  with  gold  and  various  colours  represents  the  author  in  a 
Greek  garb,  holding  a  book  in  his  hand1.  A  less  pretentious 
portrait,  in  the  Elogia  of  Paulus  Jovius,  gives  the  impression  of  an 
honest  and  intelligent  scholar2. 

The  second  of  the  early  immigrants,  Georgius  Trapezuntius 
(1395 — 1484),  a  native  of  Crete,  who  finally  reached 
Venice  about  1430,  became  one  of  the  papal  secre-     Trapezuntius 
taries,  and  died  at  the  age  of  nearly  ninety.    Like 
Theodorus  Gaza,  he  took  the  side  of  Aristotle  in  the  controversy 
raised   by   Plethon.      His    numerous    translations   included   the 
Rhetoric  and  Problems  of  Aristotle,  and  the  Laws  and  Parmenides 
of  Plato,  but  they  are  more  verbose  and  less  felicitous  than  those 
of  Theodorus  Gaza3. 

The  third,  Argyropulos  of  Constantinople  (1416 — 1486),  was 
in  Padua  as  early  as  1441,  aiding  the  distinguished 
exile,    Palla  Strozzi,   in  the   study   of   Greek.     At      Argyropulos 
Florence  he  taught  Greek  under  the  patronage  of 
the  Medici  for  fifteen  years4,  leaving  in  1471  for  Rome,  where  he 
died  in  1486.    He  was  highly  esteemed  as  a  translator  of  Aristotle, 
and  his  versions  of  the  Ethics,  Politics,    Oeconomics,  De  Anima 
and  De  Caelo  have  all  been  printed.     At  Florence,  his  Greek 
lectures  were  attended  by  Politian,  and  an  earl  of  Worcester  went 
to  one  of  them  incognito5.     At  Rome,  in   1482,  his  lectures  on 
Thucydides  were  heard  by  Reuchlin,  afterwards  eminent  among 
the  humanists  of  Germany.     The  lecturer  invited   Reuchlin  to 

1  Law.  lv  15  ;  Bandini,  Cod.  Gr.  ii  279 ;  Legrand,  i  xli  n. 

2  p.  48,  copied  in  Boissard's  Scones,   I  xx  140,  and  in  Legrand,   in   187. 
Cp.,   in  general,    Hody,    55 — 101,  Voigt,    ii    143-6"';    and   esp.    Legrand,    I 
xxxi — xlix. 

3  Ludovicus  Vives,  De  tradendis  disciplinis,  iii  (Hody,  231).     In  his  Laws, 
Bessarion  found  259  mistakes.     Cp.,  in  general,  Hody,   102 — 135,  Boemer, 
105 — 120;  Voigt,  ii  45,   137 — 143*.     His  portrait,  in  Paulus  Jovius,  E/ogia, 
46,  copied  by  Legrand,  in  119,  represents  him  as  having  an  honest  and  stupid 
face,  with  an  open  book  in  his  right  hand.     Cp.  Boissard,  I  xviii  132. 

4  Six  of  his  introductory  lectures  on  Aristotle  (1456-62)   are  printed  in 
K.  Milliner's  Reden  und  Brief e  (1899),  3 — 56. 

5  John  Tiptoft ;  Vespasiano,  403. 


64  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

read  and  translate  a  passage  from  one  of  the  speeches,  and  was  so 
struck  by  the  excellence  of  his  pronunciation  and  his  reading, 
that  he  exclaimed  with  a  sigh  : — '  Lo  !  through  our  exile,  Greece 
has  flown  across  the  Alps'1. 

Lastly,    Demetrius    Chalcondyles    of    Athens    (1424 — 1511) 

reached  Rome  in  1447,  and  taught  Greek  at  Perugia, 
cha'cwidyies  Padua,  Florence,  and  Milan.  In  1450,  as  a  youthful 

lecturer  at  Perugia,  he  made  an  immediate  conquest 
of  his  Italian  audience.  One  of  his  enthusiastic  pupils  says  : — 
'  I  listen  to  his  lectures  with  rapture,  firstly  because  he  is  a  Greek, 
secondly  because  he  is  an  Athenian,  and,  thirdly,  because  he  is 
Demetrius.  He  looks  like  another  Plato  '2.  At  Padua  (1463-71) 
he  was  the  first  teacher  of  Greek  who  received  a  fixed  stipend 
in  any  of  the  universities  of  Europe3.  In  1466  he  finished  his 
transcript  of  a  Greek  Anthology  now  in  Florence4.  The  most 
important  event  of  his  life  as  lecturer  for  twenty  years  in  Florence 
(1471-91)  was  his  preparation  of  the  editio  princeps  of  Homer, 
printed  at  Florence  in  1488  for  Bernardo  and  Neri  Nerli,  the  first 
great  work  that  was  printed  in  Greek5.  There  are  some  vague 
and  probably  unfounded  rumours  of  a  feud  with  Politian.  This 
can  hardly  have  been  serious,  for  a  fresco  in  Santa  Maria  Novella 
painted  by  Ghirlandaio  (d.  1498)  represents  an  apparently  friendly 
group  of  scholars  who  have  been  identified  as  Ficino,  Landino, 
Politian  and  Demetrius6.  Ficino  thanks  the  last  three  scholars 

1  Melanchthon,  Declam.  (1533  and  1552)  in  Corpus  Reformaiortim,  xi  238, 
1005,  '  Ecce,  Graecia  nostro  exsilio  transvolavit  Alpes'.   Cp.  Hody,  187 — 210; 
Voigt,  i  367-9".     In  his  portrait  in  Jovius,   50,  reproduced  in  Legrand,  in 
155,  he  wears  a  large  flat  cap,  and  has  a  keen  and  resolute  expression. 

2  Campanus,  Epp.  ii  9,  p.  72,  ed.  1707;  trans,  by  Symonds,  ii  249;  cp. 
Tiraboschi,  vi  820 ;  Legrand,  I  xciv  f. 

3  Voigt,  i  439s.  4  Laur.  xxxi  28. 

5  Legrand,  I  qf. 

6  Cp.  Vasari,  ii  212  (E.  T.  1876)  (Bottari  supposes  that  the  fourth  figure 
is  Gentile  de'  Becchi,  bp  of  Arezzo).     Reproduced  on  p.  58.     This  is  clearly 
the  original  followed  by  a  German  artist  of  cent,  xvi,  who,  in  a  picture  on  a 
wooden  panel,  now  in  the  Bibl.  Albertina  at  Leipzig,  has  painted  a  church 
and  some  timbered  houses  of  a  German  style  beyond  a  piece  of  water,  as  the 
background  to  a  copy  of  the  portraits  of  these  four  scholars,  whose  names  are 
given  in  German  characters  on  the  lower  part  of  the  frame.     I  am  indebted  to 
Prof.  Zarncke  of  Leipzig  for  facilitating  the  taking  of  a  photograph  of  the 


CHAP.  V.]  DEMETRIUS.      NICOLAS   V.  65 

for  their  aid  in  the  revision  of  his  translation  of  Plato;  and 
Demetrius  was  Politian's  colleague  as  preceptor  to  the  sons  of 
Lorenzo.  A  Greek  epigram  by  Politian  describes  the  Muses  as 
dwelling  in  the  breast  of  Chalcondyles1,  while  a  few  lines  of  lyric 
verse  by  Marullus  tell  us  that  the  bees  of  Attica  were  attracted  by 
the  sweetness  of  his  honeyed  lips2.  After  the  death  of  Lorenzo 
in  1492,  Demetrius  withdrew  to  Milan  for  the  last  nineteen  years 
of  his  life.  It  was  there  that,  about  1493,  he  printed  his  Erotemata, 
a  catechism  of  grammar  aiming  at  a  greater  simplicity  than  that  of 
Theodorus,  which  is,  however,  preferred  by  Erasmus3.  It  was 
there  also  that  he  produced  the  editio  princeps  of  Isocrates  (1493), 
and  of  Sui'das  (i499)4.  He  gave  proof  of  much  insight  (not 
unmixt  with  caprice)  in  the  emendation  of  Greek  texts.  In 
integrity  of  character  and  in  gentleness  of  disposition  he  stands 
higher  than  the  ordinary  Greeks  of  his  time5. 

Of  the  five  Greeks  already  mentioned,  three,  namely  Georgius 
Trapezuntius.  Theodorus  Gaza,  and  Bessarion,  took 

.  Nicolas  V 

part  in  the  great  scheme  of  Pope  Nicolas  V  for  the 
translation  of  the  principal  Greek  prose  authors  into  Latin.  The 
future  Pope,  Tommaso  Parentucelli  of  Sarzana  (1397 — 1455)1  who 
was  born  at  Pisa,  was  a  student  at  Bologna,  and,  in  the  literary 
circle  that  surrounded  Cosimo  de'  Medici  in  Florence,  distinguished 
himself  by  his  skill  as  a  copyist,  and  by  his  wide  knowledge  of 
MSS.  As  Pope  from  1447  to  :455>  ne  did  much  for  the  archi- 
tectural adornment  of  Rome,  and  for  the  encouragement  of 
learning.  He  gathered  MSS  from  all  lands,  and  became  famous  for 
ever  as  the  founder  of  the  collection  of  classical  MSS  now  preserved 

Leipzig  panel.  The  latter  is  the  source  of  the  portrait  of  Demetrius  in  Boerner. 
Mr  R.  C.  Christie's  copy  of  the  four  portraits,  now  in  the  Library  of  Owens 
Coll.,  Manchester,  is  attributed  to  Vasari ;  it  is  clearly  copied  from  the  original, 
and  is  better  than  the  German  version. 

1  Politian,  ed.  1887,  192. 

2  Hymni  etc.,  ed.  1497,  P-  8  of  signature  d  iii. 

3  Demetrio...viro  turn  probo,  turn  erudito,  sed  cujus  mediocritas  exactum 
illiul  ac  sublime  Theodori  judicium  haudquaquam  assequi  potuerit  (Hody,  221). 

4  Legrand,  I  16,  63. 

5  Jovius,  with  portrait,  56  (reproduced  by  Legrand,  Bibl.  Hellen.  I  xciv) 
similar  to  that  in  Ghirlandaio's  fresco.     Cp.  Hody,  211 — 226;  Tiraboschi,  vi 
819 — 822;  Boerner,  181 — 191;  Legrand,  I  xciv — ci. 

S.    II.  5 


66  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

in  the  Vatican  Library.  In  his  scheme  for  translating  the  Greek 
Classics  into  Latin,  the  author  entrusted  to  the  Greeks  was 
Aristotle.  The  Rhetoric  and  De  Animalibus  were  translated  by 
Georgius  Trapezuntius,  who  also  undertook  the  Laws  of  Plato. 
An  improved  version  of  the  De  Animalibus  was  produced  by 
Theodorus  Gaza,  who  also  rendered  the  Mechanical  Problems,  while 
the  Metaphysics  was  assigned  to  Bessarion.  The  Nicomachean 
and  Eudemian  Ethics  were  undertaken  by  Gregorio  of  Cittk  di 
Castello1,  and  Theophrastus,  De  Plantis,  by  Gaza. 

Turning  to  the  Italian  translators,  we  find  Thucydides  and 
nearly  the  whole  of  Herodotus  rendered  by  Valla,  Xenophon's 
Oeconomics  by  Lapo  da  Castiglionchio,  the  five  extant  books  of 
Polybius  (with  Epictetus)  by  Perotti,  the  first  five  books  of  Diodorus 
Siculus  by  Poggio,  the  whole  of  Strabo  by  Guarino,  and  Appian  by 
Piero  Candido  Decembrio.  The  translation  of  the  Iliad  into  Latin 
verse  was  assigned  to  Marsuppini,  who  finished  the  first  book  only. 
The  scheme,  as  a  whole,  was  concerned  with  writers  of  prose  alone. 
All  the  above  translators  were  liberally  rewarded  by  Nicolas  V, 
who,  on  his  deathbed,  was  able  to  say  with  perfect  truth : — '  In  all 
things  I  was  liberal,  in  building,  in  the  purchase  of  books,  in  the 
constant  transcription  of  Greek  and  Latin  manuscripts,  and  in 
the  rewarding  of  learned  men'2.  Most  of  the  scholars,  who  were 
thus  remunerated,  are  mentioned  elsewhere,  but  three  of  them, 
Valla,  Decembrio,  and  Perotti,  may  be  appropriately  noticed  at 
the  present  point.  The  first  of  these  was  the  only  one  of  the 
translators  who  was  born  and  died  in  Rome;  the  second  was  one 
of  the  papal  secretaries;  and  the  third  was  associated  with  Bologna 
and  Rome  more  than  with  any  other  seat  of  learning. 

Laurentius  Valla  (1407 — 1457)  learnt  his  Greek  from  Aurispa 

and  from  the  papal  secretary,  Rinucci,  while  he  owed 

his  proficiency  in  Latin  prose  to  Leonardo  Bruni. 

Leaving  Rome  at  the  age  of  24,  he  visited  various  places  in  the 

north  of  Italy,  and  subsequently  entered  the  service  of  Alfonso, 

king  of  Aragon  and  Sicily,  first  at  Gae'ta  (1435),  an(^  afterwards 

at   Naples   (1442).      Valla's   denunciation   of  the   'Donation   of 

Constantine'  in   1440   served   the   interests  of  Alfonso   by  dis- 

1  Tifernas.     Two  of  his  lectures  in  Milliner's  Reden,  173 — 190. 
a  Manetti,  Vita,  955-6. 


CHAP.  V.]  NICOLAS   V.      VALLA.  67 

crediting  the  papal  claim  to  temporal  power,  whether  at  Naples 
or  elsewhere.  Ultimately  Valla  made  his  peace  with  Eugenius  IV, 
but  it  was  reserved  for  that  Pope's  successor,  Nicolas  V,  to 
appoint  him  a  papal  scriptor,  and  to  obtain  his  aid  in  .the  great 
scheme  of  translations.  In  1450  he  became  professor  of  Rhetoric 
in  Rome.  He  survived  Nicolas,  and  became  a  papal  secretary 
under  his  successor.  In  1457  he  died  in  Rome  at  the  age  of  fifty. 
In  early  life  Valla  had  been  attracted  to  the  study  of  Quintilian, 
whom  he  deliberately  preferred  to  Cicero,  and  certain  of  Valla's 
notes  on  the  first  two  books  of  the  Institutio  Oratorio,  were  long 
afterwards  included  in  the  Venice  edition  of  1494.  In  his  earliest 
extant  work,  the  dialogue  De  Voluptate,  written  at  Pavia  (1431), 
he  shows  a  more  than  merely  dramatic  interest  in  Epicurean 
opinions1.  His  career  at  Pavia  was  brought  to  an  end  by  his 
bold  attack  on  the  superstitious  respect  paid  to  modern  jurists 
by  the  local  lawyers2.  Similarly,  in  his  treatise  on  Dialectic,  he 
denounces  the  mediaeval  Aristotelians,  Avicenna  and  Averroes, 
and  attacks  the  philosophers  of  his  time  for  their  belief  in  the 
infallibility  of  Aristotle3.  He  is  also  one  of  the  founders  of 
historical  criticism.  His  investigation  of  the  sources  of  Canon 
Law  had  drawn  his  attention  to  the  'decree  of  Gratian',  and  in 
particular  to  the  interpolated  passage  alleging  that  the  emperor 
Constantine  had  presented  Pope  Sylvester  I  with  his  own  diadem, 
and  had  assigned  to  the  Pope  and  his  successors,  not  only  the 
Lateran  palace,  but  also  Rome  itself  and  all  the  provinces  of  Italy 
and  of  the  West.  Valla  attacks  this  decree  on  legal,  linguistic, 
political,  and  historical  grounds,  showing  inter  alia  that  its  style 
and  contents  are  inconsistent  with  the  date  to  which  it  purports  to 
belong,  and  that  the  ancient  MSS  of  the  legend  of  St  Sylvester,  on 
which  the  decree  professes  to  rely,  say  nothing  of  the  alleged 
'Donation'4.  Thus  it  was  that,  'in  the  revival  of  letters  and 
liberty,  this  fictitious  deed  was  transpierced  by  the  pen  of 

1  Opera,   896 — 1010.     The   short   dialogues,  De   liberp  arbitrio,   and  De 
projessione  religiosornm  (Vahlen,    Opnscula   tria,    155),  belong  to   the   same 
group. 

2  Opera,  633—643. 

3  Opera,  643 — 761,  esp.  644.     Cp.  Vahlen's  Vortrag,  10— 152. 

4  Text  of  decree  reprinted  by  M.  von  Wolff,  Lorenzo  Valla,  85 — 88. 

5—2 


68  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

Laurentius  Valla,  the  pen  of  an  eloquent  critic  and  a  Roman 
patriot'1.  Valla's  declamation  naturally  attracted  the  notice  of  the 
German  reformers,  and  it  was  first  printed  by  Ulrich  von  Hutten 
in  i5i72.  The  'Donation  of  Constantine'  has  since  disappeared 
from  the  Roman  Breviary. 

In  the  domain  of  pure  scholarship  Valla's  reputation  mainly 
rests  on  his  widely  diffused  work,  '  On  the  Elegancies  of  the  Latin 
language',  the  result  of  many  years  of  labour3.  He  here  attacks 
the  barbarous  Latin  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  of  his  own  times.  He 
declares  that  for  centuries  no  one  has  really  written  Latin,  yet  he 
has  a  profound  belief  in  the  immortality  of  that  language,  which 
he  deems  as  eternal  as  the  Eternal  City4.  He  tries  its  modern 
use  by  the  standard  of  Cicero  and  Quintilian.  He  repeatedly 
shows  a  refined  taste  in  the  discrimination  of  synonyms5.  From 
observations  on  points  of  grammar  and  style,  which  occupy  the 
first  five  books,  he  passes  on  to  criticism,  •  the  last  book  being 
mainly  devoted  to  correcting  the  views  of  the  ancient  scholars  or 
grammarians,  such  as  Gellius,  Nonius,  Donatus,  and  Servius.  Of 
the  mediaeval  grammarians,  Isidore,  Papias,  and  Hugutio,  he 
has  a  far  lower  opinion,  and  his  disrespect  for  these  traditional 
authorities  and  even  for  Priscian,  that  '  Sun  of  Grammar,  which 
sometimes  suffers  eclipse',  was  one  of  the  grounds  alleged  for 
regarding  him  as  a  heretic6.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  last  book  he 
examines  the  meanings  given  to  certain  legal  terms,  and  appeals 
from  the  modern  jurists  to  the  ancient  authorities  on  Roman  law. 
He  thus  became  one  of  the  founders  of  the  exact  study  of  juris- 
prudence, and  his  influence  was  felt  in  France  by  Budaeus7.  In 
its  first  form  (with  an  appendix  on  sui  and  suns)  the  work  was 
dedicated  to  Tortellius,  the  first  librarian  of  the  Vatican.  It  was 
printed  at  Venice  in  1471,  passed  through  59  editions  between 

1  Gibbon,  c.  49  (v  273-5  and  538  Bury);  cp.  Milman's  Lat,  Chr.  i  72  n; 
Bellinger's  Pabstfabeln  des  MAs,  61  f,  and  Vahlen's  Vortrag,  25 — 33*. 

2  Also  in  Valla's  Opera  (1540),  761 — 795. 
*  Cp.  lib.  v  init. 

4  Opera,  ^f. 

5  e.g.  iv  j6  (Of era,  142)  on  sylva,  Incus,  sallus,  nennis. 

6  Apologia  in  Opera,  799 ;  cp.  M.  von  Wolff,  69. 

7  Cp.  Valla,  Eleg.  lib.  iii  praef. ;  Budaeus,  Annot.  in  Pandectas,  p.  9  g, 
ed.  1536,  and  Vahlen's  Vortrag  2i2. 


CHAP.  V.]  VALLA.  69 

that  year  and  1536,  and,  even  at  the  present  day,  the  greater  part 
of  its  contents  is  by  no  means  out  of  date1. 

As  a  textual  critic  Valla  is  represented  partly  by  certain  passages 
of  his  Elegantiae,  and  still  more  by  the  emendations  that  arose 
out  of  the  readings  in  Livy  at  the  court  of  Alfonso.  It  was  Valla 
who  explained  to  that  inquisitive  king  the  exact  meaning  ofpedibtts 
ire  in  sententiam*.  Many  of  his  emendations  on  the  first  six  books 
of  Livy's  Second  Punic  War  now  form  part  of  the  current  text3. 
He  also  criticises  the  Vulgate  version  of  the  New  Testament  in 
relation  to  the  original  Greek  (1444),  and  his  criticisms4  were  first 
published  by  Erasmus  in  1505. 

Before  returning  to  Rome,  Valla  translated  Aesop  at  Gae'ta 
(1440)  and  sixteen  books  of  the  Iliad  at  Naples  (1442— 4) 5.  It 
may  be  doubted  whether  he,  or  indeed  any  Italian  of  that  age, 
was  equal  to  the  difficult  task  of  translating  Thucydides.  However, 
in  little  more  than  two  years,  the  work  was  finished  (1452):  the 
Pope  was  pleased,  and  asked  Valla  to  translate  Herodotus.  The 
latter  was  still  unfinished  when  the  Pope  died  in  1455,  and  the 
uncompleted  rendering  was  accordingly  dedicated  to  Valla's  earlier 
patron,  the  king  of  Naples.  His  translation  of  Demosthenes, 
De  Corona,  shows  greater  freedom  and  idiomatic  force  than  the 
somewhat  bald  version  by  Bruni6.  Valla  ended  his  days  at  peace 
with  Rome.  In  a  lecture  delivered  two  years  before  his  death  he 
declares  that,  on  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  Latin  language 
had  been  preserved  from  extinction  by  the  beneficence  of  the 
Christian  religion  and  the  apostolic  see.  The  denouncer  of  the 
Constantinian  donation  of  the  Lateran  Palace  died  as  a  Canon  of 
the  Lateran  Church,  and  was  buried  within  its  walls.  The  epitaph 

1  The  criticisms  by  Velletri  (1452 — 1505)  are  reprinted  by  Vagetius,  De 
Stylo  Latino  (1613),  143 — 191  f,  with  animadversions  of  his  own,  60  f;  also  by 
Sanctius  (1523 — 1601)  in  his  Minerva,  II  c.  10  and  c.  12,  who  in  c.  10  says  of 
Valla's  treatment  of  the  comparative,  '  egregie  ineptus  est  Valla,  cujus  studium 
fuit  Latinam  linguam  compedibus  cpnstringere '.    Valla's  work  was  praised, 
and  epitomised,  by  Erasmus  (P.  S.  Allen's  Erasmi  Epp.  i  99,  108,  no). 

2  Liv.  xxvii  34  ;  Opera,  594. 

3  Opera,  603 — 620.     On  Lucius  and  Aruns,  cp.  438  f,  448. 

4  Opera,  801—895. 

5  Vahlen,  Opuscula  Tria,  74 — 104. 

6  Vahlen,  Opuscula  Tria,  9 — 12,  128 — 148;  specimens  in  194 — 205. 


70  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

on  this  pioneer  of  historical  criticism  was  ultimately  preserved 
from  destruction  by  Niebuhr1. 

The  translation  of  Appian  had  been  entrusted  to  Pier  Candido 
Decembrio  (1399 — 1477)>  who  in  1419-47  had  been 

Decembrio  .        -,-,.,.  •»«-      •      -,T-  •  11-  • 

secretary  to  rihppo  Maria  Visconti,  and  lived  in 
Rome  and  Naples  in  1450-60,  and  for  the  rest  of  his  life  at 
Ferrara  and  Naples.  His  father,  Uberto  (1370 — 1427),  had 
studied  Greek  under  Chrysoloras,  who  had  begun  a  Latin  render- 
ing of  Plato's  Republic.  This  rendering  was  revised  by  Uberto, 
and  continued  by  his  son,  who  sent  his  translation  of  the  fifth 
book  to  Humphrey,  duke  of  Gloucester,  in  1439,  and  completed 
the  work  in  the  following  year.  The  presentation  copy,  which 
arrived  in  England  about  1443,  was  accompanied  by  a  letter,  the 
last  words  of  which,  vale,  immortalis  princeps,  intimate  that 
Decembrio's  dedication  of  Plato's  immortal  masterpiece  would 
render  the  duke  himself  immortal2.  Decembrio  had  already 
prepared,  for  the  duke  of  Milan,  Italian  renderings  of  the  Lives 
of  Alexander  and  of  Caesar  (i438)3.  In  1440  he  presented 
John  II  of  Castile  with  a  literal  translation  of  Iliad  i — iv,  x4.  In 
1453  several  books  of  his  translation  of  Appian  were  ready  for 
Nicolas  V,  while  the  History  of  the  Civil  War  was  finished  after  the 
death  of  the  Pope,  and  was  dedicated  to  Alfonso,  king  of  Naples5. 
Decembrio's  portrait  has  been  preserved  in  a  fine  medallion 
produced  before  1450  by  Pisanello,  in  which  he  is  described  as 
studiorum  humanitatis  decus,  one  of  the  earliest  examples  of  the 


1  Vortrdge  uber  rom.  Alter th.   1858,  p.  u.     On  Valla,  cp.  Opera,  Basel, 
1540   and  1543,  folio;    Poggiali,   Memorie,  1790;    Tiraboschi,   vi   1057-72; 
C.  G.  Zumpt,  in  Schmidt's  Zeitschrift  f.   Gesch.   1845,  397 — 434;  and  esp. 
Vahlen,  Lorenzo  Valla,  ein  Vortrag,  1864',  1870",  and  L.  V.  Opuscula  Tria, 
205  pp.,  1869;  also  Voigt,  i  460 — 476,  ii  148 — 15O3;  Symonds,  ii  258 — 263; 
Mancini,    Vita,   1891  ;    Sabbadini,  Ciceronianismo,   25 — 32,   and    Cronologia, 
1891  ;  M.  von  Wolff,  L.  V.,  134  pp.,  1893;  and  W.  Schwahn,  L.  V.,  6r  pp., 
1896;  also  Harvard  Lectures;  136-8,  156. 

2  Voigt,  ii  256*;  Einstein,  Italian  Renaissance  in  England,  5 — 7;  Mario 
Borsa,  in  Eng.  Hist.  Rev.   1904,  509 — 576,  and  W.  L.  Newman,  ib.   1905, 

483—497- 

8  From  Curtius  and  (probably)  Suetonius  respectively;  Voigt,  i  5t23. 
*  ib.  ii  192*. 
8  tf-.ii  1 86V 


CHAP.  V.]  DECEMBRIO.      PEROTTI.  ?I. 

application  of  the  term  humanitas  to  the  Classical  studies  of  the 
Renaissance1. 

The  free  and  flowing,  though  far  from  faithful  rendering  of 
Polybius,  executed  by  Perotti  (1430 — 1480),  was 

.  .  .  Perotti 

highly  appreciated  by  Nicolas.  Perotti  had  been 
educated  at  Mantua  under  Vittorino.  He  had  lived  at  Verona 
with  William  Gray,  the  future  bishop  of  Ely,  and  at  Bologna  with 
Cardinal  Bessarion,  in  whose  household  he  had  diligently  studied 
Greek.  At  Bologna  he  produced,  in  his  Metrica,  the  first  modern 
treatise  on  Latin  Prosody  (1453).  His  Rudimenta  Gramntatices, 
the  first  modern  Latin  Grammar  (1468),  printed  as  a  magnificent 
folio  in  1473,  is  described  by  Erasmus  as  'the  most  complete 
manual  extant  in  his  day'2.  In  1458  he  was  made  bishop  of 
Manfredonia,  but,  except  when  travelling  on  ecclesiastical  business 
in  Umbria,  he  usually  resided  among  his  literary  friends  in  Rome, 
where  his  recension  of  the  elder  Pliny  was  printed  in  1473.  ^e 
spent  his  later  years  in  a  charming  villa  at  Sassoferrato,  the  place 
of  his  birth.  He  there  prepared  a  remarkably  learned  and  dis- 
cursive commentary  on  the  Spectacula  and  the  first  book  of 
Martial,  published  by  his  nephew  nine  years  after  the  bishop's 
death3.  The  same  volume  includes  his  commentary  on  Pliny's 
preface,  and  (in  the  later  issues  of  1513-26)  his  editions  of 
Varro,  Sextus  Pompeius  and  Nonius  Marcellus.  As  a  Greek 
scholar  and  a  pupil  of  Bessarion,  Perotti  took  the  side  of  Plato  in 
one  of  the  latest  phases  of  the  long  controversy  respecting  Plato 
and  Aristotle. 

Nicolas  V  had  been  a  great  patron  of  learning.  On  his  death, 
it  was  for  a  short  time  thought  possible  that  his  successor  would 
be  the  Greek  Cardinal  Bessarion.  His  actual  successor,  Callixtus  III 
(1455-8),  did  little  for  the  Greeks  beyond  proclaiming  war 
against  the  Turks,  and,  to  obtain  funds  for  this  purpose,  he  sold 
the  works  of  art  which  Nicolas  had  lavished  on  the  churches  of 
Rome,  and  stripped  the  splendid  bindings  off  the  MSS,  which 

1  Geiger,  Renaissance,  159;  G.  F.  Hill's  Pisanello,  pi.  56. 

2  i  521  c  (Woodward's  Vittorino,  87,  and  Erasmus,  163). 

3  Corn ucop iae  sive  Latinac  linguae  coinmenlarionim  opus,  folio,  1396  pp., 
Ven.  1489,  and  at  least  five  later  edd.     The  commentary  on  Martial  fills  1000 
folio  pages,  but  is  not  named  in  the  title.     On  1'erotti,  cp.  Voigt,  ii  I33-/3- 


J2  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

Nicolas  had  stored  in  the  Vatican1.  The  next  Pope,  Pius  II 
(1458-64),  disappointed  the  hopes  of  the  humanists,  though  he 
was  eminent  not  only  as  a  statesman  but  also  as  a  man  of  letters. 
As  Aeneas  Sylvius  Piccolomini,  he  had  learnt  some  Greek  from 
Filelfo  in  Florence,  had  studied  and  taught  at  Siena,  had  written 
Ovidian  poems  and  Horatian  epistles,  and  had  made  his  mark  by 
a  Latin  oration  at  the  Council  of  Basel.  He  had  sent  a  long 
letter  to  young  Sigismund,  count  of  Tyrol,  in  praise  of  learning 
(1443),  and  an  elaborate  treatise  on  education  to  Ladislas,  the 
youthful  king  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary  (1450).  In  that  treatise, 
he  had  recommended  the  study  of  the  Historians  of  Rome,  and 
the  moral  writings  of  Cicero,  Seneca  and  Boethius,  together  with 
Plautus  and  Terence,  Virgil  and  Horace,  Lucan  and  Statius,  the 
Metamorphoses  of  Ovid,  as  well  as  Valerius  Flaccus  and  Claudian, 
and  Persius,  with  selections  from  Juvenal  and  Martial,  neatly 
saying  of  the  latter  that  '  in  handling  Martial  we  cannot  gather  the 
roses  for  the  thorns',  and  dexterously  parrying  the  'shallow 
Churchman's '  objection  to  the  perusal  of  pagan  poets  by  the 
remark  that,  '  happily,  there  were  in  Hungary  not  a  few  to  whom 
the  poets  of  antiquity  were  a  precious  possession'*.  He  had  also 
composed  Ciceronian  dialogues  in  which  he  had  relieved  the 
dulness  of  scholastic  arguments  by  discussions  on  classical 
archaeology,  literature  and  history ;  not  to  mention  a  History  of 
Bohemia  in  the  style  of  Livy,  a  Latin  comedy  in  that  of  Terence, 
and  a  Latin  novel  after  the  manner  of  Boccaccio.  After  he  had 
become  Pope,  he  frankly  regretted  some  of  his  earlier  poems,  and 
spent  much  of  his  time  on  writing  the  history  of  his  pontificate, 
but  he  was  too  critical  to  be  really  popular  with  the  humanists, 
and  his  want  of  appreciation  was  never  forgiven  by  the  ever  self- 
assertive  Filelfo. 

Of  his  immediate  circle  the  one  who  did  most  for  the  study  of 
the   Classics  was  Campano    (c.   1427 — 1477),    the 

Campano 

Campanian  shepherd  boy,  who  became  a  pupil  of 
Valla  in  Naples.  But  it  was  not  until  after  the  death  of  Pius  II 
that,  in  or  about  the  year  1470,  he  printed  a  series  of  seven  folio 

1  Creighton,  History  of  the  Papacy,  Hi  184. 

2  De  Liberorum  Educatione,  translated  in  Woodward's  Vittorino,  134 — 158. 
Cp.  Harvard  Lectures,  67 — 69. 


CHAP.  V.]  PIUS   If.      CAMPANO.  73 

volumes,  including  the  whole  of  Livy,  Quintilian  and  Suetonius, 
with  the  Philippics  of  Cicero,  and  a  Latin  translation  of  all  the 
Lives  of  Plutarch. 

The  name  of  Pius  II  is  commemorated  in  the  Piccolomini 
palace  and  other  buildings  of  Pienza,  and  also  in  the  exquisitely 
beautiful  Piccolomini  library  at  Siena.  In  his  private  library  he 
once  possessed  a  MS  of  Prosper,  which  has  since  proved  to  be 
a  palimpsest  of  the  Verrine  Speeches  of  Cicero,  and,  after  many 
vicissitudes,  has  found  a  permanent  home  in  the  Vatican1.  He 
died  at  Ancona  amid  the  final  preparations  for  his  crusade  against 
the  Turks,  and  among  the  Cardinals  who  stood  by  his  dying  bed 
was  Bessarion.  In  comparison  with  that  Cardinal,  he  knew  little 
of  Greek,  but  when,  only  eleven  years  earlier,  the  news  of  the  fall 
of  Constantinople  broke  like  a  thunder-bolt  on  Italy,  Aeneas 
Sylvius  was  fully  conscious  of  the  blow  that  had  befallen  the  cause 
of  Greek  literature.  In  a  letter  to  Nicolas,  the  papal  patron  of  the 
Classics  who  had  raised  him  to  the  purple,  we  find  him  exclaiming  : 

How  many  names  of  mighty  men  will  perish  !  It  is  a  second  death  to 
Homer  and  to  Plato.  The  fount  of  the  Muses  is  dried  up  for  evermore  2. 


1  E.  Piccolomini,  in  Bolletino  Storico  Senese  (1899),  fasc.  iii  (Class.  J?ev. 
xvii  460). 

2  Ep.  162,  12  July  1453  (Hocly,  191  f).    On  Aeneas  Sylvius  (Pope  Pius  II) 
cp.  Creighton's  History  of  the  Papacy,  Book  iv  cc.  i  and  ix,  and  Historical 
Essays  and  Reviews;  also  Voigt,  passim,  and  the  monograph  by  the  latter  in 
3    vols.,    1856-63.      Portrait    in    Phil.    Galleus,   Effigies,    i   (1572)    A3,    and 
Boissard's  /cones,    in    ii   p.    10    (1598),   reproduced   in   Miss  J.   M.   Stone's 
Reformation  and  Renaissance. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

THE    LATER   GREEK    IMMIGRANTS. 

THE  fall  of  Constantinople  was  once  regarded  as  the  cause  of 
the  Revival  of  Greek  Learning  in  Italy.  But,  exactly  a  century 
before  that  event,  Petrarch  possessed  a  MS  of  Homer  and  of 
Plato  ;  the  whole  of  Homer  was  translated  into  Latin  for  the  use 
of  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio ;  and  Boccaccio  learnt  Greek.  Half  a 
century  before  the  fall,  Greek  was  being  taught  in  Florence  by 
Chrysoloras ;  and  the  principal  Greek  prose  authors  had  been 
translated,  and  at  least  five  of  the  foremost  of  the  Greek  refugees 
had  reached  Italy,  before  the  overthrow  of  the  doomed  city. 

The  most  prominent  of  the  Greeks,  who  found  their  way  to 
Italy  after  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  were  Michael  Apostolius, 
Andronicus  Callistus,  Constantine  and  Janus  Lascaris,  Marcus 
Musurus,  and  Zacharias  Callierges. 

The  Greeks  in  Rome  continued  the  controversy  as  to  the 

respective  merits  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  which  had 

Aristotle^         been   waged    at    Florence    by    Plethon   in    1439. 

Plethon  and  Plato  were  attacked  without  bitterness 

by  Theodorus  Gaza1,  and  defended  with  good  temper  by  Bessarion2 

between    1455    and   1459.     Bessarion  wrote  a  second   treatise3, 

which  was  answered  by  Gaza4  (c.   1459).     Gaza's  preference  for 

Aristotle  brought  down  upon  him  an  ill-mannered  and  ill-tempered 

1  tfn  T]  <f>6<ris  /3ov\fvtT<u. 

2  De  Natura  et  Arte,  printed  later  as  book  vi  of  Adv.   Calumniatorem 
Platonis. 

3  irpbs  T&  IIXTjflwi'os  Tr/adj  ' A.pLffTOTl\t)v  iTepl  ovcrias. 

a  vwep  '  Ap 


CHAP.  VI.]  APOSTOLIUS.      CALLISTUS.  75 

attack  on  the  part  of  one  of  Bessarion's  proteges,  Michael 
Apostolius,  who  hoped  to  retain  Bessarion's  favour  by  defending 
Plato1  (1460-1).  But  Bessarion,  who  thoroughly  disapproved  of 
his  protege's  controversial  methods,  protested  that  he  himself  had 
a  profound  respect  for  Aristotle,  as  well  as  for  Plato2,  and  even 
gave  a  cordial  welcome  to  a  short  treatise,  in  which  Aristotle  was 
defended,  and  Apostolius  refuted,  in  a  sensible  and  moderate 
manner  by  a  Greek  of  better  breeding  named  Andronicus 
Callistus3  (1462).  Bessarion  was  afterwards  attacked  in  a  petu- 
lant spirit  by  Georgius  Trapezuntius  (i464)4,  who  in  his  turn  was 
answered  by  Bessarion  (i469)5.  Simply  for  approving  this  answer, 
Argyropulos  was  denounced  by  Theodorus  Gaza.,  who,  so  far  as 
the  Greeks  were  concerned,  had  the  last  word  in  this  long  debate 
(c.  i47o)6.  Bessarion,  however,  had  the  support  of  Italians  such 
as  Filelfo  and  Ficino,  and  his  own  pupil  Perotti,  who  wrote  a 
treatise  against  Trapezuntius7.  Throughout  all  the  tangles  of 
this  complicated  controversy,  a  thread  of  gold  is  inwoven  by 
the  serene  and  imperturbable  temper  of  Bessarion.  Among  the 
Aristotelians  who  joined  in  the  fray,  Theodorus  Gaza  shines  by 
contrast  with  Georgius  Trapezuntius,  while  Andronicus  Callistus 
is  far  more  attractive  than  the  selfish  and  interested  Platonist, 
Apostolius8. 

1  Apostolios,  Trov-/i/j.aTa  rpia,  Smyrna,  1876;  also  MS  in  Bodleian,  mentioned 
by  Hody,  78. 

2  tfj.e    dt    <t>i\ouvTa   /j.ev    tvOi    IlXdrwca,    <f>i\ovi>Ta    5'   'Apur-rorAij    Kal    a>s 
<ro0wTaTw  fftfio/j-evov  (Kartpw.     Text  of  Bessarion's  Letter  in  Migne,  P.   G. 
clxi  685 — 692,;  cp.  Legrand,  I  Ixii  f. 

3  MS  in  Escurial;  Miller,  Catal.  des  MSS  Grecs,  p.  177. 

4  Coviparatio  inter  Aristotelian  et  Plalonetit  (printed  Ven.  1523). 

5  Adversus  Calumniatorem  Platonis  (printed  in  Rome,  1469). 

6  'AvTippyTiKoi'.     Cp.  Bandini,  Catal.  MSS  Gr.  ii  275  f. 

7  Valentinelli,  Bill.  nis.  ad  S.  Marci,  Venet.  iv  7,  9. 

8  The  earliest  account   of  this  controversy  is  that   of  Boivin  le   Cadet, 
Querdle  des  Philosophes  du  quinzieme  siede,    first   printed   in   the  Mhnoires 
de    Littcrature    of   the    French    Academy,    ii    (1717)    775 — 791,    where   the 
correspondence  about  Apostolius  and  Andronicus  (1462)  is  translated  for  the 
first  time.     Cp.   Tiraboschi,  vi  c.  2  §  18,  pp.  368 — 370;  Buhle,   Gesch.  der 
neitern  Philos.  ii,  1800;  Legrand,  I  xxxvi  f ;  Gaspary  (on  the  chronology  of  the 
controversy),  in  Arc hiv  fur  Geschichte  der  Philosophic,  iii  (1890)  50 — 53;  and 
Voigt,  ii  1 55s. 


76  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

Michael  Apostolius  (c.  1422 — 1480),  who  had  been  a  pupil  of 
Argyropulos  at  Constantinople,  fled  to  Rome  in 
1454.  He  subsequently  settled  in  Crete,  where 
he  supported  himself  as  a  copyist1.  His  bitter 
attack  on  Theodorus  Gaza  was  answered  (as  we  have  seen)  in 
a  courteous  spirit  by  Andronicus  Callistus,  a  native 
Callistus110'  °f  Constantinople,  who  makes  his  first  appearance 
in  Italy  in  1461,  when  (like  Argyropulos  at  an 
earlier  date)  he  aided  the  Greek  studies  of  Palla  Strozzi  at  Padua. 
It  was  probably  at  Padua  that  John  Free2  wrote  a  letter  of  intro- 
duction to  a  friend  at  Ferrara  describing  Callistus  as  fully  equal 
in  learning  to  Gaza,  and  as  a  modest  and  pleasant  person3. 
Callistus  afterwards  taught  at  Bologna  and  at  Rome,  and,  on  the 
death  of  Bessarion  in  1472,  left  for  Florence,  where  his  lectures 
were  attended  by  the  youthful  Politian,  who  wrote  a  graceful  set 
of  Latin  elegiacs  urging  Lorenzo  not  to  allow  Callistus  to  leave 
Florence4.  His  fame  as  a  lecturer  reached  the  Hungarian  bishop, 
Janus  Pannonius,  who  had  left  Italy  in  1458-9,  but  imagines 
himself  as  returning  to  the  school  in  which  Callistus  was  dis- 
coursing on  Homer,  Demosthenes,  and  Aristotle5.  Callistus 
dedicated  to  Lorenzo  a  translation  of  Aristotle,  De  Generatione  et 
Corruptione* .  He  subsequently  lived  in  Milan  and  in  Paris.  He 
died  in  London,  far  from  his  friends7,  after  aiding  a  fellow- 
countryman,  Hermonymus  of  Sparta,  to  return  to  Paris8,  where 
he  was  one  of  the  earliest  teachers  of  Greek  in  France. 

A  more  notable  name  is  that  of  Constantine  Lascaris  of  Con- 
stantinople (1434 — 1501),  a  pupil  of  Argyropulos. 
He  was  nineteen  years  of  age  when  he  was  made  a 
prisoner  by  the  Turks  on  the  fall  of  his  native  city. 
During  the  greater  part  of  the  next  seven  years  he  probably  stayed 


1  Legrand,  I  Iviii  f. 

2  Creighton's  Historical  Lectures  and  Addresses,  202. 

8  Hody,  228  f.  4  Politian,  ed.  1867,  227  f. 

5  Delitiae  poetarum  Hungaricorum,  1617,   p.  198  (cp.   Hody,  227 — 232; 
Legrand,  I  Hi  n.   6). 

6  Legrand,  I  Ivii. 

7  <f)i\wv  tprinos,  Const.  Lascaris,  ap.  Legrand,  I  Ivi  n.  3. 

8  1476.    Boissonade,  Anecd.  Gr.  \  420-6. 


CHAP.  VI.]  CONSTANTINE   LASCARIS.  77 

at  Corfu,  but  he  found  time  for  a  visit  to  Rhodes,  where  he  copied 
or  acquired  certain  MSS  now  at  Madrid1.  From  1460  to  1465  he 
was  transcribing  MSS  and  teaching  Greek  in  Milan.  It  was  there 
that,  in  a  happy  moment,  he  presented  to  the  princess  Hippolyta 
Sforza  a  beautifully  written  transcript  of  his  work  '  On  the  Eight 
Parts  of  Speech',  now  in  the  Paris  Library2.  On  her  marriage  to 
Alfonso  II,  the  future  king  of  Naples,  Lascaris  followed  her  to 
that  court,  and,  a  year  later,  started  for  Greece  in  a  vessel  that 
stopped  at  Messina,  He  was  urged  to  stay,  and  there  he  abode 
for  the  remaining  thirty-five  years  of  his  life.  At  Messina  he 
taught  Greek,  one  of  his  pupils  being  the  future  Cardinal  Bern  bo3. 
In  the  bitterness  of  his  spirit  he  once  wrote  to  a  friend  lamenting 
the  enslavement  of  Greece,  and  longing  to  leave  Sicily  for  the 
British  Isles,  or  for  the  Islands  of  the  Blest4.  In  gratitude,  how- 
ever, to  the  Sicilian  city,  where  he  had  spent  the  latter  half  of  his 
life,  he  left  his  MSS  to  Messina,  then  under  the  rule  of  Castile. 
At  Messina  they  remained  until  1679,  when  they  were  removed, 
first  to  Palermo,  and  thence  to  Spain.  In  1712  they  were  placed 
in  the  National  Library  founded  in  that  year  in  Madrid5.  Among 
them  (dated  Messina,  1496)  is  his  own  copy  of  Quintus  Smyr- 
naeus— the  poet  once  known  as  'Quintus  Calaber',  simply  because 
the  manuscript  of  his  epic  was  first  found,  by  Bessarion,  in 
'  Calabria '.  The  small  Greek  Grammar  of  Constantine  Lascaris, 
published  at  Milan  in  1476,  is  the  first  book  printed  in  Greek6. 
Constantine  Lascaris  is  a  pathetic  figure  in  the  history  of  scholar- 
ship. Though  he  bore  an  imperial  name,  he  found  himself  little 
better  than  a  slave  in  Italy.  He  was  reduced  to  support  himself 
by  teaching,  and  by  copying  MSS;  and  even  his  industry  as  a 


1  Cod.    Matrit.    no.    43    (Aphthonius  etc.),  no.    85   (Byz.   law),    no.    101 
(Choricius).     Cp.  Legrand,  I  Ixxi,  and  Iriarte's  Catalogue. 
3  no.  2590. 

3  In  1492.     Bembo,  Epp.  ed.  1582,  p.  4  f. 

4  Iriarte,  Bibl.  Matrit:  CoM.  Gr.  290  (Legrand,  I  Ixxx  f). 

6  Catalogued  by  Iriarte,  1769.     Cp.  Sabbadini,  Scoperte,  68. 

6  Legrand,  I  i — 5.  Reprinted  by  Aldus  at  Venice  (1495);  the  Pronouns 
had  been  finished  at  Milan,  1460,  the  Nouns,  1463;  the  Verbs  at  Messina, 
1468,  and  the  Subscript  Vowels,  1470.  His  abstract  of  Herodian  is  in  the 
Hamburg  Library. 


78  ITALY.  [CENT  XV  f 

copyist  was  of  no  avail,  when  his  skill  was  superseded  by  the 
newly-invented  art  of  printing1. 

The   same   famous   surname   was   borne   by  Janus  Lascaris 

(1445 — 1535),  who,  on  the  fall  of  Constantinople, 
Lascaris  was  taken  to  the  Peloponnesus  and  to  Crete.     On 

his  subsequent  arrival  in  Venice,  he  was  sent,  at 
the  charges  of  Bessarion,  to  learn  Latin  at  Padua.  On  the  death 
of  his  Greek  patron,  he  was  welcomed  by  Lorenzo  in  Florence, 
where  he  lectured  on  Thucydides  and  Demosthenes,  and  on 
Sophocles  and  the  Greek  Anthology.  As  the  emissary  of  Lorenzo, 
he  went  twice  to  the  East  in  quest  of  MSS.  He  recovered  as  many 
as  200,  but,  before  his  second  return,  his  great  Florentine  patron 
had  passed  away  (149 2)*.  On  the  fall  of  the  Medici,  he  entered 
the  service  of  France,  and  was  the,  French  envoy  at  Venice  from 
1503  to  1508.  When  the  second  son  of  Lorenzo  became  Pope 
as  Leo  X,  Janus  Lascaris  was  at  once  invited  to  Rome  and  set 
over  a  Greek  College.  One  of  his  colleagues  was  Musurus,  and 
among  his  pupils  was  Matthaeus  Devarius  of  Corfu  (c.  1500 — 
1570),  the  future  author  of  a  work  on  the  Greek  particles3,  and 
the  future  editor  of  the  editio  princeps  of  Eustathius  (1542-50). 
In  1518  Lascaris  returned  to  France,  where  he  aided  Francis  I 
in  founding  the  Royal  Library  at  Fontainebleau4.  In  this  work 
he  was  associated  with  Budaeus,  who,  as  an  occasional  pupil  of 
his  colleague,  learnt  more  Greek  from  Lascaris  than  from  his 
former  teacher,  Hermonymus  of  Sparta.  Lascaris  returned  to 
Rome  on  the  accession  of  the  second  Medicean  Pope,  in  1523, 
and  again  in  1534.  In  the  following  year  he  died,  and  was 
buried  in  the  church  of  Sant'  Agata,  where  the  Greek  epitaph, 
composed  by  himself,  tells  of  his  grief  for  the  enslavement  of  his 

1  Cp.    Hody,    240-6;    Tiraboschi,    vi   822-5;    Voigt,   i    369^    and   esp. 
Legrand,  I  Ixxi — Ixxxvii. 

2  He  visited  Corfu,   Arta,  Thessalonica,   Mount  Athos,   Constantinople, 
Crete.    The  memoranda  of  his  acquisitions  (Cod.  Vat.  no.  1412)  were  published 
by  K.  K.  Muller.-in  Centrlbl.f.  Bill,  i  (1884)  333—412.    Cp.  De  Nolhac,  Bibl. 
de  F.  Orsini,  154-9,  anc^  iQ  Melanges  d'arcA.  et  d^hist.  vi  (1886)  255  f,  264  f. 

3  Ed.  Klotz,  1835-42;  originally  published  in  1587  (details  of  his  life  in 
his   nephew's   dedication   of  this   work,    and   in  Legrand,  I   cxcv-viii,   and 
II  52  f). 

4  Cp.  Omont,  Catalogues  des  MSS  grecs  de  Fontainebleau  (1889),  p.  iv  f.    . 


CHAP.  VI.]     JANUS   LASCARIS.       MARCUS   MUSURUS.  79 

country,  and  of  his  gratitude  to  the  alien  land  that  had  given  him 
a  new  home1.  His  reputation  rests  on  his  five  editione  s  principe  s, 
all  of  them  printed  in  Florence,  in  Greek  capitals  with  accents  : 
namely,  four  plays  of  Euripides2,  Callimachus,  Apollonius  Rhodius, 
the  Greek  Anthology,  and  Lucian  (1494-6).  At  Rome  he  pro- 
duced at  the  Greek  press  on  the  Quirinal  the  ancient  scholia  on 
the  ///Wand  on  Sophocles  (i5i7-8)3. 

Among    his    pupils    in   Florence   was   the   Cretan   Musurus 
(c.  1470  —  1517),  who  was  so  diligent  in  teaching 
Greek  at  Padua   that   he  hardly  allowed  himself       M^Jrus 
four    days  of  holiday  throughout  the  year4.      In 
1513  we  find  him  lecturing  on  Greek  in  Venice,  and  making 
it  a  'second  Athens'.     Such  is  the  language  of  Aldus  Manutius5 
whom  he  aided,  from   1498  to   1515,   in  the  preparation  of  the 
earliest    printed    editions    of    Aristophanes6,     Euripides,    Plato, 
Athenaeus,    Hesychius,  and  Pausanias.      In  recognition  of  the 
beautiful  Greek  poem,  prefixed  in  1513  to  the  editio  princeps  of 
Plato7,  he  was  appointed  bishop  of  Monembasia  in  the  Morea, 
but  died  at  the  age  of  less  than  fifty,   before  starting  for  his 
distant   diocese8.       He   was    the    editor   of    the    '  Etymologic-urn 

1  Lascaris  Epigr.  ed.  1544,  f.  13  verso,  Adcr/capis  dXAoSairr;  70^77  m/car^ero, 
yalr/v  \  afire  \irjv  i;elvr)i>,  w  ^ve,  /ue/u06yaei'os.  |  evpero  /ieiAtx"7*',   o.\\'  &X^eTalj 


2  Med.  Hipp.  Ale.  Androm. 

3  Cp.  Boerner,  199  f;   Hody,  247  —  275;   Wolf,  Analecta,  i  237;  Vogel  in 
Serapeum,    1849,    no.    5    and    6;    Symonds,    ii   427  f;   and    esp.    Legrand,    I 
cxxx  —  clxii,  and  portrait,  ib.   in  411. 

4  Erasmus,  iii  788  B;   Nichols,  i  449.      His  teaching  is  highly  praised  by 
Beatus  Rhenanus  :  '  nihil  (in  Graecisauctoribus)  erat  tarn  reconditum,  quod  non 
aperiret,  nee  tam  involutum,   quod  non  expediret   Musurus,   vere  Musarum 
custos  et  antistes'  (Ep.  ad  Carolum    V  ;    Leyden  ed.  of  Erasmus,   i   /'«//.; 
cp.  Hody,  p.  304). 

5  Preface  to  Oratores  Graeci,  1513. 

6  Facsimile  in  Early  Venetian  Printing  (1895),  1  1  1. 

7  Printed  in  Botfield's  Prefaces  to  the  Editiones  Principes,   290-6,  and  in 
Didot's  Aide  Manuce,  491-8;  translated  in  Roscoe's  Leo  X,  i  421  f,  ed.  1846. 

8  He   is   described,   in   his   epitaph   in  S.   Maria  della  Pace,  as  exactae 
diligentiae  grammaticus  et  rarae  felicilatis  poeta   (Legrand,   I  cxxi),  and  by 
Erasmus  as  not  only  gente  Graectts,  eruditione  Graecissimus  (Ep.  295),  but  also 
as  Latinae  linguae  usque  ad  miracuhtm  docttis  (Ep.  671).     Cp.  Hody,  294  — 
307;  Boerner,  219  —  232;  R.  Menge  in  Schmidt's  Hesychius,  v  i  —  88  (1868); 


80  ITALY.  [CENT.  XV  f 

Magnum ',  published  at  Venice  in  I4991,  while  the  printer  was 

Caiiier  es        Zacharias  Callierges  (fl.  1499 — X523)>  who,  in  the 

same  year,  printed  the  commentary  of  Simplicius 

on  the  Categories,  and  afterwards  produced  at  Rome  the  second 

edition  of  Pindar  (1515),  and   an  early  edition  of  Theocritus 

(1516),  followed  by  his  Thomas  Magister  (1517).     Callierges  was 

noted  for  his  calligraphy  *,  and  his  Greek  type  is  as  beautiful,  in 

its  kind,  as  that  of  Aldus  Manutius8. 

and  esp.  Legrand,  I  cviii — cxxiv,  with  portrait  in  vol.  II,  frontispiece,  from 
Jovius,  Elogia,  p.  57;    also  in  Didot,  p.  300  (with  page  of  autograph,  opp. 

P.   5°°)- 

1  Facsimile  in  Early  Venetian  Printing,  123  (wrongly  dated  1497). 

2  Stobaeus,  in  New  Coll.,  Oxford,  copied  Dec.   1523,  the  latest  definite 
date  in  his  life. 

3  Hody,    317;    Ritschl's   Pref.    to   Thomas   Magister,   p.  xviii,   and   esp. 
Legrand,  I  1 — Ivii.     The  Greek  Immigrants  are  briefly  sketched  by  Heeren, 
ii  199 — 221,  Bernhardy,  Gr.  Lit.  i  747 — 7524;  Symonds,  ii  246 — 250,  375-8, 
and  by  others;  all  previous  accounts  are,  however,  superseded  by  Legrand's 
Bibliographie  Plelleniqtte,  I — ill  (1885 — 1903).    Cp.  Literature  in  Krumbacher, 
p.  502  f,  ed.  1897. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  ACADEMIES  OF  FLORENCE,  NAPLES,  AND  ROME. 

THE  thirty  years,  during  which  Cosimo  de'  Medici  was  in 
power  (1434-64),  were  separated  by  the  five  years  of  the  brief 
sway  of  his  son  from  the  three  and  twenty  years  of  the  rule  of 
Lorenzo  (1469-92).  Lorenzo  was  one  of  the  most  accomplished 
and  versatile  of  men ;  astute  as  a  politician,  graceful  as  a  poet, 
generous  as  a  patron,  and  eager  and  enthusiastic  as  a  lover  of  art 
and  philosophy  and  classical  learning.  In  his  virtues  and  in  his 
vices  he  was  the  incarnation  of  the  spirit  of  the  Renaissance. 

Ficino  had  translated  ten  of  Plato's  dialogues  before  the  death 
of  Cosimo  ;  ten  more  had  been  translated  before  the 

r  T  ii.  i  i    j.    j    •          The  Academy 

accession  of  Lorenzo;  the  work  was  completed  in  Of  Florence 
1477  ar>d  printed  in  1482.  The  Introduction  to 
the  Symposium  is  one  of  the  few  primary  authorities  on  the 
Platonic  Academy  of  Florence.  The  ancient  custom  of  cele- 
brating the  memory  of  Plato  by  an  annual  banquet  had,  after  an 
interval  of  twelve  hundred  years,  been  revived  by  Lorenzo.  Nine 
members  of  the  Academy,  including  Ficino  and  Landino,  had 
been  invited  to  the  villa  at  Careggi.  At  the  conclusion  of  the 
repast,  Ficino's  rendering  of  all  the  seven  speeches  in  the  Sym- 
posium is  read  aloud,  and  discussed  by  five  of  the  guests1.  Of 
the  nine  that  assembled  at  Careggi  to  discuss  the  Symposium,  the 
only  one  unknown  to  fame,  apart  from  Ficino  him- 

.-   .     „   .  Landino 

self,  is  Cnstoforo  Landino  (1424 — 1504).  A  survivor 
from  the  age  of  Cosimo,  he  was  destined  to  live  to  the  age  of 
eighty,  and  even  to  outlive  the  youthful  Lorenzo.     He  had  been 
associated  with  Ficino  as  Lorenzo's  tutor;   he  had  already  lec- 
tured on  Petrarch  (1460),  and,  at  a  later  time,  he  was  to  expound 

1  PP-  373—440  of  Basel  ed.,  1532. 
S.    II.  6 


82  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

Dante  (1481),  to  annotate  Horace  (1482)  and  Virgil  (1487),  to 
translate  the  elder  Pliny  (1501),  and  to  imitate  the  Tusculan 
Disputations  of  Cicero1  in  a  celebrated  dialogue,  whose  scene  is 
laid  at  Camaldoli,  near  the  source  of  the  Arno.  In  that  dialogue 
the  life  of  action  is  lauded  by  Lorenzo,  and  that  of  contemplation 
by  the  widely  accomplished  Leon  Battista  Alberti  (1404 — 1472)2, 
who  maintains  the  allegorical  significance  of  the  Aeneid,  and 
finds  affinities  between  the  poetry  of  Virgil  and  the  philosophy 
of  Plato3. 

Ficino  (1433 — 1499),  the  true  centre  of  the  Academy,  received 
holy  orders  at  the  age  of  forty,  and  spent  the  rest 
of  his  days  in  the  honest  and  reverent  endeavour  to 
reconcile  Platonism  and  Christianity.  In  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  he  translated  and  expounded  Plotinus  (ed.  1492).  After 
surviving  Lorenzo  for  seven  years,  he  died  in  1499,  an^  is  com- 
memorated by  a  marble  bust  in  the  Cathedral  of  Florence4. 

Among  other  members  of  the  Academy  was  that  paragon  of 
beauty  and  genius,  Giovanni  Pico  della  Mirandola 
(1463 — 1494),  who  first  flashed  upon  Florence 
shortly  before  the  publication  of  Ficino's  Plato.  He  was  pos- 
sessed by  the  great  thought  of  the  unity  of  all  knowledge,  and, 
while  he  was  still  absorbed  in  planning  a  vast  work,  which  was  to 
form  a  complete  system  of  Platonic,  Christian,  and  Cabbalistic 
lore,  he  passed  away  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-one,  on  the  very 
day  of  1494,  on  which  the  invader  of  Italy,  Charles  VIII  of 
France,  marched  into  Florence5. 

1  His   lecture   on  the    Tusc.   Disp.   is   printed   in    K.    Milliner's   Reden, 
118 — 129. 

2  Voigt,  i  37O-63;  Symonds,  ii  341-4;  portrait  in  G.  F.  Hill's  Pisanello, 
192.     At  20,  he  composed  a  Latin  Comedy,  which  passed  for  a  Classic  (the 
PhiloJoxius  of  'Lepidus  Comicus ',  ed.  Ven.  1588). 

3  Portrait  in  group  on  p.  58  supra ;  another  portrait  in  Alois  Heiss,  Les 
Medailleurs  de  la  Renaissance,  i  63. 

4  Reproduced  in  Wiese  and  Percopo,  It.  Lift.  199;  he  is  one  of  the  group 
on  p.  58  supra.     Cp.  Reumont's  Lorenzo,  ii  20 — 30  E.T. ;  Symonds,  ii  324—8; 
Harvard  Lectures,  89 — 94. 

6  Roscoe's  Lorenzo,  259^  ed.  1847;  Reumont,  ii  79 — 95;  Symonds,  ii 
329 — 338;  fine  portrait  in  the  Uffizi,  no.  1154,  reproduced  in  Armstrong's 
Lorenzo,  and  Wiese  and  Percopo,  203 ;  another  portrait  in  the  Uffizi,  repro- 
duced by  Alois  Heiss,  I.e.  i  29. 


CHAP.  VII.]      LANDING.      FICINO.      PICO.      BARBARO.          83 

Pico's  friend  and  correspondent,  Hermolaus  Barbaras  (1454 — 
1493),  died  only  a  year  before  him.     A  grandson 
of  Francesco  Barbaro,  the  Venetian  friend  of  Poggio,     BartaTiTs*11 
he  had  been  educated  at  Verona,  Rome,  and  Padua. 
He  translated  Themistius  and  Dioscorides,  as  well  as  the  Rhetoric 
of  Aristotle.     He  claimed  to  have  corrected  5000  errors  in  the  text 
of  the  elder  Pliny1.     In  a  memorable  letter,  Pico,  while  congra- 
tulating him  on  his  Ciceronian  style,  ventured  to  ask  whether  the 
old  schoolmen  might  not  say  to  any  one  who  now  charged  them 
with  dulness,  'Let  him  prove  by  experience  whether  we  barbarians 
have  not  the  god  of  eloquence  in  our  hearts  rather  than  on  our 
lips ' 2.     He  is   described   by    Politian   as   Hermolaus  Barbarus 
barbariae  hostis  acerrimus3 ;    and  he  is  declared  by   Bembo  to 
have  surpassed  all  former  Venetians  in  Greek  and  Latin  learning. 
He  died  in  Rome  in  1493,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-nine. 

'  Urbs  Venetum  vitam,  mortem  dedit  inclyta  Roma, 
non  potuit  nasci  nobiliusve  mori'4. 

In  the  following  year,  at  the  age  of  forty,  died  a  notable 
member  of  the  Florentine  Academy,  Angelo  Poli- 

.  .         ,  Politian 

ziano,  familiarly  known  as  Politian  (1454 — 1494). 
Sent  to  Florence  at  the  age  of  ten  from  his  home  at  Monte  Pul- 
ciano,  he  attended  the  lectures  of  Landino,  Argyropulos,  Andro- 
nicus  Callistus,  and  Ficino.  By  the  age  of  thirty,  he  was  tutor  to 
Lorenzo's  children,  and  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  Literature 
in  Florence.  Among  those  from  England,  who  attended  his 
lectures,  were  Grocyn  and  Linacre.  The  authors  professorially 
expounded  by  him  included  Homer  and  Virgil,  Persius  and 
Statius,  Quintilian  and  Suetonius.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
to  pay  attention  to  the  Silver  Age  of  Latinity;  and  he  justified 
his  choice  partly  on  the  ground  that  that  Age  had  been  unduly 
neglected,  and  partly  because  it  supplied  an  easy  introduction  to 
the  authors  of  the  Golden  Age5.  It  is  as  a  scholar,  and  not  as  a 

1  Castigaiiones  Plin.  1492-3. 

2  Ap.  Politian,  Epp.  ix  4.  3  Misc.  c.  xc. 

4  Jovius,  Elogia,  no.  36,  with  portrait  on  p.  69.     Cp.  Tiraboschi,  vi  828  f; 
Roscoe's  Lorenzo,  note  329. 

B  Oratio  super  Quintiliano  et  Siatii  Silvis,  in  Opera,  ed.  1498,  signature  aa. 

6—2 


84  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

philosopher,  that  he  claims  the  right  to  expound  Aristotle1.  He 
was  probably  the  first  teacher  in  Italy  whose  mastery  of  Greek 
was  equal  to  that  of  the  Greek  immigrants2. 

A  singular  interest  was  lent  to  his  lectures  on  Latin  and 
Greek  authors  by  his  impassioned  declamation  of  Latin  poems 
composed  by  himself  in  connexion  with  the  general  subject  of 
his  course.  The  four  extant  poems  of  this  type  are  known  by 
the  name  of  the  Sylvae.  The  first  in  order  of  time  is  connected 
with  the  Eclogues  of  Virgil  (1482);  the  next,  with  the  Georgics 
and  with  Hesiod;  the  third,  with  Homer;  and  the  last,  apparently, 
with  a  general  course  of  lectures  on  the  ancient  poets  (i486)3. 

Among  the  authors,  in  whose  textual  criticism  he  was  in- 
terested, are  Terence,  Lucretius,  Propertius,  Ovid,  Statius,  and 
Ausonius,  as  well  as  Celsus,  Quintilian,  Festus,  and  the  Scriptores 
Rei  Rusticae.  His  copy  of  the  editio princeps  of  Catullus,  Tibullus, 
Propertius,  and  Statius,  published  in  1472,  formerly  in  the  Laur- 
entian  Library4,  is  now  in-  the  Corsini  palace  in  Rome5.  He  made 
a  special  study  of  the  Pandects  of  Justinian,  the:  celebrated  MS 
of  which  was  removed  from  Pisa  to  Florence  in  1411.  By  the 
influence  of  Lorenzo,  Politian  was  allowed  to  study  the  MS  at  his 
leisure6,  and  was  thus  enabled  to  point  out  mistakes  in  the  later 
MSS,  and  in  the  current  editions  of  the  work7. 

The  most  learned  of  his  extant  productions  is  his  Miscellanea 
(1489).  Among  the  many  topics  discussed  in  its  pages  are  the 
use  of  the  aspirate  in  Latin  and  Greek,  the  chronology  of  Cicero's 
'Familiar  Letters',  the  evidence  in  favour  of  the  spelling  Vergilius 
in  preference  to  Vtrgilius,  the  details  of  the  discovery  of  purple 
dye,  and  the  differences  between  the  aorist  and  the  imperfect  in  the 


1  Lamia,  ib. ,  signature  Y. 

2  Letter  to  Matthias  Corvinus,  in  Epp.  ix  i. 

3  Text   in   ed.    1867,    285 — 427;    cp.    Symonds,    ii   453 — 484;    Harvard 
Lectures,  96. 

4  Mahly,  Angelus  I'olitianus,  22. 

5  Cp.  Schanz,  §  411,  p.  146;  Klotz,  Praef.  to  Statius,  Silvae,  pp.  1— Ixviii; 
Sahbadini,  Scoperte,  153,  n.  71. 

6  Misc.  c.  xli;  Epp.  x  4. 

7  Gibbon,   c.  44   (iv  468  Bury);    Roscoe's  Lorenzo,  note  217;   and  esp. 
Mahly's  Ang.  Folitianus,  61-7. 


CHAP.  VII.]  POLITIAN.  85 

signatures  of  Greek  sculptors.  Gellius  quotes  a  Latin  riddle,  and, 
for  its  solution,  refers  his  readers  to  a  lost  book  of  Varro  : — 

'  semel  minusve  an  bis  minus  sit  nescio, 
at  utrumque  eorum,  ut  quondam  audivi  dicier, 
lovi  ipsi  regi  noluit  concedere'. 

Politian  solves  the  riddle  with  the  word  Ter-minus,  adding  a 
reference  to  Ovid's  Fasti^. 

In  his  Latin  prose,  Politian  was  an  eclectic,  with  an  eccentric 
fondness  for  rare  and  archaic  words.  As  an  eclectic,  he  found 
himself  in  opposition  to  the  pretended  Ciceronian,  Bartolomeo 
Scala,  the  Latin  Secretary  of  Florence,  and  to  the  true  Ciceronian, 
Paolo  Cortesi,  the  author  of  the  remarkable  dialogue  'On  Learned 
Men'  (1490).  In  the  course  of  a  controversy  with  Scala,  Politian 
insists  that  a  single  style  is  not  sufficient  to  express  everything. 
He  adds  that  his  critics  sometimes  found  fault  with  him  for  using 
words  that  were  really  derived  from  the  best  MSS  of  Cicero.  Scala 
is  ready  to  approve  of  Politian's  imitation  of  Sallust  and  Livy, 
while  protesting  against  his  partiality  for  the  writers  of  the  Silver 
Age2.  In  the  controversy  with  Cortesi,  Politian  denounces  the 
Ciceronians  as  the  mere  '  apes  of  Cicero '.  '  To  myself  (he  adds) 
the  face  of  a  bull  or  a  lion  appears  far  more  beautiful  than 
that  of  an  ape,  although  the  ape  has  a  closer  resemblance  to 
man  '.  But  "  someone  will  say  :  '  You  do  not  express  Cicero '. 
I  answer :  '  I  am  not  Cicero ;  what  I  really  express  is  myself  "3. 
In  his  Latin  history  of  the  Pazzi  conspiracy,  the  model  he  selects 
is  Sallust. 

Politian  wrote  Greek  poems  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  and,  by 
his  verse  translation  of  four  books  of  the  Iliad4,  gained  the  proud 
title  of  Homericus  juvenis.  His  other  translations  include  poems 
from  Moschus  and  Callimachus  and  the  Greek  Anthology,  with 

1  ii  677  f.     On  the  interest  evoked,  by  its  publication,  cp.  Epp.   iii  18; 
Harvard  Lectures,  97.     It  led  to  a  feud  with  Merula,  who  pretended  that  part 
of  Politian's  learning  was  derived  from  himself  (Epp.  xi  i,  2,  5,  10,  n,  21; 
Roscoe's  Lorenzo,  251  f ;  Mahly,  141-3). 
.    2  Politian,  Epp.  v. 

3  Epp. .  viii    16;    Mahly,    74 — 86;    Sabbadini,    Ciceronianismo,    34 — 42; 
Harvard  Lectures,   157-9. 

4  ii — v,  Poesie  Lafine,  ed.  1867,  429 — 523. 


86  ITALY.  [CENT.  XV. 

part  of  Plato's  Charmides,  and  Epictetus,  and  a  flowing  rendering 
of  the  historian  Herodian1. 

In  Latin,  as  well  as  Italian,  verse,  Politian  was  a  born  poet. 
The  Italian  Opera  originated  in  his  Orfeo,  which,  in  its  first 
edition,  written  at  an  early  age,  contained,  imbedded  in  the 
Italian  text,  an  ode  in  Latin  Sapphics  to  be  sung  by  Orpheus2. 
There  is  a  singular  grace  and  beauty  in  the  long  elegiac  poem  on 
the  violets  sent  him  by  the  lady  of  his  love.  The  purport  of  the 
whole  may  be  gathered  from  a  single  couplet : — 

'  felices  nimium  violae,  quas  carpserit  ilia 
dextera  quae  miserum  me  mihi  subripuit'3. 

A  graver  pathos  lingers  over  the  lament  for  Lorenzo  with  its 
twice-repeated  refrain  : — 

'  quis  dabit  capiti  meo 
aquam,  quis  oculis  meis 
fontem  lachrymarum  dabit?'4 

The  death  of  Lorenzo  (i492)s  probably  hastened  the  death  of 
Politian  (i494)6,  and  the  Academy  could  hardly  survive  the  death 
of  Ficino  in  1499. 

In  the  last  year  of  his  life  we  find  Politian  corresponding  with 
Filippo  Beroaldo  the  elder  (1453 — 1505),  on  the 

Bcrosildo 

subject  of  Merula,  one  of  the  few  scholars  of  the 
day  who  failed  to  live  on  good  terms  with  Beroaldo.  Beroaldo 
had  produced  at  Parma  in  1476  the  first  commentary  on  the 

1  Mahly,  86—100. 

2  Opere  Volgari,  p.  71  f,  ed.  1885. 

3  Poesie  Lat.  235,  *  ib.  274. 

5  Politian,   Epp.  iv  2,   '  mine  extincto,   qui  fuerat  unicus   auctor  eruditi 
laboris  videlicet,  ardor  etiam  scribendi  noster  extinctus  est,  omnisque  prope 
veterum  studiorum  alacritas  elanguit '. 

6  On  Politian,  cp.  Jovius,   no.  38  (with  portrait  on   p.   73,   ed.    1577); 
F.  O.  Mencken  (Leipzig,  1836);  Tiraboschi,  vi  1098 — 1108;  W.  P.  Greswell, 
Memoirs  (1801,    1805,    1809);    S.   F.  W.   Hoffmann,  Lebensbilder  beriihtnter 
Humanisten,  i  (1837)  71 — 198;  and  esp.   A.  Mahly,   Ang.  Politianus,  Ein 
Culturbild  aus  der  Renaissance,   173   pp.    (1867);    Symonds,    ii    345 — 357, 
452 — 465  ;  Guido  Mazzoni,  //  Poliziano  e  /'  Umanesimo,  in  Vita  Ilaliana  net 
Rinascimento  (Milan,  1899),  147 — 177.     Opera,  Ven.  1498,  Flor.  1499,  Bas. 
1553;  Epp.  Bas.  1522,  Antw.  1567;   Opera,  Epp.,  Miscell.  Lugd.  1526  etc.; 
Poesie  Latine  e  Greche  in  Prose  Volgari  etc.,  ed.  Isidore  del  Lungo  (Firenze, 
1867).     His  portrait  is  included  in  the  group  on  p.  58. 


CHAP.  VII.]     BEROALDO.      BRITANNICO.      MARULLUS.        8/ 

elder  Pliny.  He  was  afterwards  a  professor  at  Milan  and  Paris 
and  in  his  native  city  of  Bologna1,  and  proved  himself  a  scholar 
of  wide  attainments  and  extraordinary  industry,  as  an  editor  of 
many  of  the  Latin  Classics,  including  Propertius  (1487)  and 
Plautus  (isoo).  The  Latin  Satirists  and  Terence 

,.,,,.  „.  .          .  Britannico 

were  edited  by  his  contemporary  Giovanni  Britan- 
nico of  Brescia  (d.  after  1518),  who  completed  in  1506  a  post- 
humous edition  of  Plautus  by  his  friend  'Pylades'  Buccardus2. 

Among  Politian's  contemporaries   at  Florence   was  Michael 
Tarchaniota  Marullus,  who  was  a  mere  child  when 

•      r  ^  •  r  Marullus 

his  family  fled  from  Constantinople  in  the  year  of 
its  fall.  They  took  refuge  first  in  Ancona,  where  his  great-grand- 
father had  lived  and  died.  In  his  youth  Marullus  served  under 
the  banner  of  '  Mars  and  the  Muses  '3.  On  settling  in  Florence 
he  won  the  favour  of  Lorenzo,  and  married  Alessandra,  the  ac- 
complished daughter  of  Lorenzo's  secretary,  Bartolommeo  Scala. 
The  daughter  had  previously  won  the  affections  of  Politian,  and  the 
feud  that  arose  between  the  rival  suitors  has  left  its  traces  on  the 
poems  of  both.  Among  the  Greeks  in  Italy  Marullus  is  exceptional 
in  his  mastery  of  Latin  verse.  In  the  first  edition  of  his  poems 
he  imitates  Catullus,  Tibullus,  and  Horace,  but  in  the  last,  that  of 
1497,  he  gives  proof  of  a  keen  admiration  for  Lucretius4.  His 
able  emendations  of  the  text  of  the  poet  were  well  known  during 
the  latter  part  of  his  life5,  and  a  copy  was  found  on  his  person  at 
his  death6.  He  perished  in  the  waters  of  the  Cecina  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Volterra  (i5oo)7. 

Among  those  who  waited  on  Lorenzo,  as  he  lay  a-dying  at  the 
early  age  of  forty-three,   were   Pico   and  Politian. 
There  too  was  Savonarola  (1452 — 1498),  who,  with- 
in the  next  few  years,  was  to  see  the  works  of  Latin  and  Italian 
poets  and  many  precious  MSS  perish  in  the  flames  kindled  by  his 

1  A  lecture  on  Juvenal  delivered  at  Bologna  is  printed  in  K.  Milliner's 
Reden,  60  f. 

2  Cp.  Ritschl,  Opitsc.  ii  62.  3  Epigr.  i. 
4  Esp.  in  his  last  poem ;  cp.  Munro's  Lncretitis,  p.  73. 

6  ib.  pp.  6 — 14*. 

6  Candidus  in  pref.  to  Juntine  ed.  (1512). 

7  Hody,  276 — 291. 


88  ITALY.  [CENT,  xv  f 

followers  (1497),  and  was  himself  to  close  his  marvellous  career 
by  an  awful  doom.  About  the  date  of  Lorenzo's  death,  Savonarola 
wrote  a  treatise  describing  all  learning  as  dangerous  unless  limited 
to  a  chosen  few.  He  there  attacks  the  abuse  of  poetry,  though 
he  spares  poetry  itself.  He  is  peculiarly  suspicious  of  the  imi- 
tation of  the  ancient  poets,  and,  as  a  reformer,  he  represents  a 
religious  reaction  against  the  pagan  tendencies  of  some  of  the 
humanists1. 

Shortly  after  the  death  of  Savonarola,  Florence  for  the  first  time 
employed  in  her  Chancery  the  astute  diplomatist, 
Niccolb  Machiavelli  (1469 — 1527),  who  ceased  to 
hold  office  on  the  restoration  of  the  Medici  in  1513.  While 
living  in  poverty  on  his  farm  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Florence, 
Machiavelli  wrote,  not  only  his  Principe,  but  also  his  Discourses 
on  the  first  decade  of  Livy,  in  which  the  Roman  historian  supplies 
the  author  with  a  few  texts  for  setting  forth  the  progress  of  an 
ambitious  people.  These  discourses  were  written  in  1516  to  1519 
for  the  meetings  of  the  revived  Academy  held  in  the  gardens  of 
Bernardo  Rucellai  in  the  Via  della  Scala2.  The  Academy  was 
suppressed  in  1522,  and,  when  it  was  restored  in  1540,  its  aim 
was  solely  the  study  of  the  Italian  language.  One  of  Machiavelli's 
comedies,  the  Clizia,  is  founded  on  the  Casina  of  Plautus,  while 
his  Italian  history  of  Florence,  down  to  the  death  of  Lorenzo, 
has  a  flowing  smoothness  worthy  of  Herodotus,  and  a  vivid 
picturesqueness  resembling  that  of  Tacitus.  Early  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  when  a  request  for  permission  to  publish  Boccalini's 
Commentaries  on  Tacitus  was  referred  to  five  of  the  Senators  of 
Venice,  '  it  is  the  teaching  of  Tacitus  (they  said)  that  has  produced 
Machiavelli  and  the  other  bad  authors,  who  would  destroy  public 
virtue  ;  we  should  replace  Tacitus  by  Livy  and  Polybius,  historians 
of  the  happier  and  more  virtuous  times  of  the  Roman  republic, 
and  by  Thucydides,  the  historian  of  the  Greek  republic,  who 
found  themselves  in  circumstances  like  those  of  Venice'3. 

1  Savonarola,  De  Divisione  ac  Utilitate  Omnium  Scientiarum ;  cp.  Villari's 
Savonarola,  501  f ;  Burckhardt,  476  E.T.  ;  Pastor,  Gesch.  der  Piipsle,  iii  141  f; 
and  Spingarn,  Lit.  Criticism  in  the  Renaissance,  \j^{. 

2  Nerli,  Comm.  vii  138. 

3  Sclopis,  in  Revue  hist,  de  droit  franc_ais  et  elranger,  ii  (1856)  25. 


CHAP.  VII.]         SAVONAROLA.      MACHIAVELLI.  89 

Machiavelli's  writings  abound  in  illustrations,  not  only  from  Livy 
and  Tacitus,  but  also  from  Aristotle's  Politics,  and  from  Polybius 
and  Plutarch.  It  is  held  by  some  that  he  was  saturated  with 
Thucydides,  with  whom  he  may  have  been  familiar  in  Latinised 
selections,  or  in  the  Latin  rendering  of  Leonardo  Bruni,  or  of 
Valla ;  but  he  has  very  few  actual  references  to  the  Greek  historian. 
It  has  been  judiciously  observed  by  Mr  John  Morley  that,  '  if 
he  had  ever  read  Thucydides,  he  would  have  recalled  that  first 
great  chapter  in  European  literature, ...where  the  historian  analyses 
the  demoralisation  of  the  Hellenic  world'1.  Paolo  Giovio  states 
that  Machiavelli  confessed  to  him  that  he  was  indebted  to 
Marcellus  Virgilius,  whom  he  had  once  served  as  secretary,  for 
a  number  of  choice  passages  from  Greek  and  Latin  authors  for 
insertion  in  his  works2.  Such  indebtedness  for  a  few  quotations 
is  quite  consistent  with  a  high  degree  of  originality3;  and,  what- 
ever doubt  there  may  be  as  to  his  knowledge  of  Greek,  there 
is  none  as  to  his  Latin.  At  his  farm,  he  used  to  read  Ovid 
and  Tibullus  in  the  open  air,  and,  in  the  evening,  array  himself 
in  royal  robes  before  holding  converse  with  the  great  men  of  old4. 
In  the  year  of  his  death,  Florence,  for  the  third  time,  expelled 
the  Medici,  only  to  fall  once  more  under  their  sway,  and  ultimately 
to  pass  for  two  centuries  under  the  power  of  the  younger  branch 
of  the  Medicean  house,  the  ultimate  descendants  of  the  younger 
brother  of  Cosimo,  the  Father  of  his  Country. 

The  Academy  of  Naples  came  into  being  during  the  reign  of 
Alfonso  of  Aragon  (1442-58),  the  'magnanimous' 
patron  of  learning,  who  was  interested  in  visiting        ^f  Napies"y 
the  birthplace  of   Ovid,  in  preserving  the  site  of 
Cicero's  villa  at  Gae'ta,  and  in  listening  to  recitations  from  Virgil 
or  Terence,  and  readings  from  Curtius  and  Livy.     The  centre  of 
this  Academy  was  the  poet  and  courtier,  Antonio  of  Palermo, 
better  known  as  Beccadelli  (1394 — 1471) ;  and  its  place  of  meeting 

1  Thuc.  iii  82-4;  Romanes  Lecture  (1897),  16. 

2  Elogia,  c.  87.  3  Algarotti,  ap.  Tiraboschi,  vii  594. 

4  Letter  to  Fr.  Vettori,  10  Dec.  1514.  Cp.,  in  general,  Macaulay's  Essay; 
Villari's  Machiavelli;  Symonds,  i  282 — 305;  and  Mr  Burd's  edition  of  the 
Prince, 


90  ITALY.  [CENT,  xv  f 

was  an  open  colonnade  looking  out  on  the  'Street  of  Tribunals'. 

On  the  death  of  Alfonso,  it  was  organised  as  a  club  under  the 

influence  of  the  poet  Pontario  (1426 — 150  A  who 

Pontano 

was  distinguished  for  the  purity  of  his  Latin  prose 

and  the  graceful  elegance  of  his  Latin  verse1.     His  poems  are  the 

theme  of  one  of  the  elegies  of  Sannazaro  (1458 — 

Sannazaro 

1530),  one  of  the  ablest  members  of  the  Academy, 
the  author  of  Latin  idylls  on  the  Bay  of  Naples,  and  a  Virgilian 
poem  on  the  Birth  of  Christ,  in  which  the  work  of  twenty  years  is' 
marred  by  an  incongruous  imitation  of  classical  models2.  Most 
of  the  prominent  members  of  this  Academy  were  poets.  One  of 
the  exceptions  is  Valla,  whom  we  have  already  noticed  in  another 
connexion3. 

While  the  Academy  of  Naples  had  been  fostered  by  Alfonso, 
and  that  of  Florence  by  Lorenzo,  Greek  and  Latin 
scholarship  in  Rome  owed  little  to  public  patronage 
between  the  death  of  Nicolas  V  (1456)  and  the  accession  of 
Leo  X  (1513)*.  Callixtus  III  regarded  the  sums  spent  by 
Nicolas  V,  on  the  red  and  silver  bindings  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  MSS  in  the  newly  founded  Vatican  Library,  as  a  lamentable 
waste  of  the  resources  of  the  Church5.  Pius  II  disappointed  the 
hopes  of  the  humanists  ;  Paul  II  persecuted  the  Roman  Platonists ; 
Sixtus  IV  opened  the  Vatican  Library  to  the  public,  but  suppressed 
the  stipends  of  the  local  professors.  Innocent  III  patronised 
Politian's  translation  of  Herodian,  but  did  nothing  for  scholarship 
in  Rome  itself;  no  service  to  the  Classics  was  rendered  by  the 
infamous  Alexander  VI.  Pius  III  was  Pope  for  less  than  a 
month ;  and  Julius  1 1  was  too  busy  with  his  wars  to  do  anything 
for  the  votaries  of  the  Classics, — beyond  the  bestowal  of  a  laurel- 
crown  on  a  young  Roman  poet  who  assumed  the  garb  of  Orpheus6. 
But  it  was  for  Julius  that  Raphael  painted,  in  the  Camera  della 
Segnatura,  between  1509  and  1511,  the  famous  fresco  of  Apollo 

1  Carmina,   ed.    1902.     He  was  one  of  the  early  critics  of  the  text  of 
Lucretius ;   cp.  Munro,  p.  6  f. 

2  Harvard  Lectures,  101-9.  3  P-  66  f,  supra. 

4  Symonds,  ii  357-9-  5  Vespasiano,  Vite,  216. 

6  Diary  of  Paris  de  Grassis,   1512   (Creighton's  History  of  the  Papacy, 
v  201,  314). 


CHAP.  VII.]      PONTANO.      SANNAZARO.      ERASMUS.  9! 

and  the  Muses  with  the  ancient  poets  on  Parnassus,  and  the  no 
less  famous  'School  of  Athens',  which  may  well  have  been 
inspired  either  by  the  writings  of  Marsilio  Ficino  in  Florence, 
or  by  the  suggestions  of  Sadoleto  in  Rome1.  It  was  under  Julius 
that  many  men  of  letters,  such  as  Sadoleto,  Bembo,  and  Vida, 
gave  the  first  proof  of  that  distinction  which  added  a  lustre  to  the 
pontificate  of  Leo  X2.  It  was  also  under  Julius 
that  Italy  was  visited,  in  1506-9,  by  Erasmus  iifuaiy"5 
(1466 — 1536).  In  1506,  he  went  to  Bologna. 
Filippo  Beroaldo  the  elder,  who  had  edited  a  vast  number  of 
Latin  Classics,  and  Codrus  Urceus,  a  professor  of  Greek,  who 
wrote  poems  in  good  Latin,  had  lately  passed  away.  Erasmus 
remained  at  Bologna  for  little  more  than  a  year,  working  quietly 
at  Greek,  and,  in  November,  saw  the  triumphal  entry  of  the 
warrior-pope,  Julius  II.  Early  in  1508,  he  left  for  Venice,  where 
he  spent  nine  months  with  Aldus  Manutius,  revising  his  Latin 
translation  of  the  Hecuba  and  Iphigeneia  in  Au/is,  correcting  the 
text  of  Plautus,  Terence,  and  Seneca3,  and  seeing  through  the 
press  a  new  edition  of  the  Adagia.  From  Venice  he  went  to 
Padua,  where  he  studied  Pausanias  and  Eustathius,  with  the 
scholiasts  on  Pindar,  Sophocles,  Euripides,  Theocritus,  and 
Lycophron4.  After  visiting  Ferrara  and  Siena,  in  the  spring  of 
1509  he  reached  Rome,  where  he  first  made  the  acquaintance 
of  the  younger  Beroaldo,  as  well  as  Cardinal  Riario,  the  nephew, 
and  Cardinal  Giovanni  Medici,  the  future  successor,  of  Julius  II. 
On  a  third  visit  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Cardinal  Grimani5, 
who  pressed  him  to  remain  in  Rome  ;  but  the  hopes  inspired  by 
the  news  of  the  accession  of  Henry  VIII  soon  called  him  to 
England.  He  afterwards  wrote,  however,  to  assure  one  of  the 
Cardinals,  that  the  river  of  Lethe  alone  would  wash  out  the 
memory  of  the  delights  of  Rome6 ;  and  another,  that  he  recalled 

1  Raphael  was  in  Florence  in   1508.      Cp.   F.   X.   Kraus,    Camera  della 
Segnatura  (Firenze,  1890),  and  Pastor,  Gesch.  der  Piipste,  iii  758  f,   768 — 772, 
792. 

2  F.  X.  Kraus,  in  Catub.  Mod.  Hist,  ii  15  f. 

3  Didot's  Aide  Manuce,  414  n.  2. 

4  Beatus  Rhenanus,  quoted  by  De  Nolhac,  56. 

5  Ep.  1175;  CP-  Harvard  Lectures,  139.  6  Ep.  136. 


92  ITALY.  [CENT,  xv  f 

with   regret   the   theatre,    the   libraries,   and   the  scholarly   con- 
versations he  had  enjoyed  in  that  city1. 

The  Roman  Academy  flourished  anew  under  Julius  II.     That 

Academy  had  owed  its  origin  to  Pomponius  Laetus 
Academy"*'       (X425 — 149%)>  a  pupil  of  Valla,  whom  he  succeeded 

as  the  leading  spirit  among  the  Roman  humanists. 
Greek  he  declined  to  learn  for  the  curious  reason  that  he  was 
afraid  that  it  might  spoil  his  Latin  style.  To  Pomponius  the 
contemplation  of  the  ruins  of  ancient  Rome  was  a  perpetual 
delight ;  and  in  his  own  person  he  revived  the  life  of  the  pagan 
past.  He  had  a  small  plot  of  land,  which  he  tilled  in  accordance 
with  the  precepts  of  Varro  and  Columella,  and  he  was  himself 
regarded  as  a  second  Cato.  His  vineyard  on  the  Quirinal  was 
frequented  by  his  enthusiastic  pupils.  Before  day-break  that 
'insignificant  little  figure,  with  small,  quick  eyes,  and  quaint 
dress  '2,  might  be  seen  descending,  lantern  in  hand,  from  his  home 
on  the  Esquiline  to  the  scene  of  his  lectures,  where  an  eager 
crowd  awaited  him3.  He  was  the  ruling  spirit  of  the  Academy. 
The  members  of  that  body  assumed  Latin  names,  and  celebrated 
the  foundation  of  Rome  on  the  annual  return  of  the  festival  of  the 
Palilia.  They  also  revived  the  performance  of  the  plays  of 
Plautus.  Among  the  best-known  members  were  Platina,  the  future 
librarian  of  the  Vatican  (i475-8i)4,  and  Sabellicus  (1436- — 1506), 
the  future  praefect  of  the  Library  of  San  Marco  in  Venice5.  In 
1468  the  Academy  was  suppressed  for  a  time  by  Paul  II,  on  the 
ground  of  its  political  aims  and  its  pagan  spirit ;  Pomponius  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Mausoleum  of  Hadrian,  and  was  put  to  the 
torture  with  Platina6  and  other  men  of  mark.  The  Academy 
was  revived  under  Sixtus  IV,  and  we  have  a  quaint  account  of 

1  Ep.   167-8.     Cp.  De  Nolhac,  Erasme  en  Ilalie,  144  pp.,  ed.  1898;  and 
Gregorovius,  Rome  in  the  Middle  Ages,  viii  309  f,  E.T. 

2  Sabellicus,  Epp.  lib.  xi;  Burckhardt,  279  E.T. 

3  Jovius,  Elogia,  no.  40 ;  portrait  on  p.  78. 

4  Portrait  in  Jovius,  p.  34.      Platina  is  included  in   Melozzo  da   Forli's 
fresco  (admirably  reproduced  in  Alois  Heiss,  Les  Mtdailleurs  de  la  Renais- 
sance, i  opp.  p.  52),  and  in  the  interesting  fresco  copied  in  J.  W.  Clark's  Care 
of  Books,  fig.  99. 

8  Portrait  in  Jovius,  p.  98  (closely  resembling  Politian). 
6  De  Vitis  Pontificum,  p.  338,  ed.  1568. 


CHAP.  VII.]  POMPONIUS   LAETUS.  93 

all  the  ceremonies,  grave  and  gay,  attending  the  commemoration, 
in  1482,  of  the  first  anniversary  of  the  death  of  Platina1. 
Between  Pomponius'  release  from  prison  and  his  death,  he  pro- 
duced editions  of  Curtius  and  Varro  (c.  1470),  commentaries  on 
the  whole  of  Virgil,  including  the  minor  works  (1487-90),  and 
editions  of  Pliny's  Letters  and  of  Sallust  (1490) ;  he  also  annotated 
Columella  and  Quintilian,  and  paid  special  attention  to  Festus 
and  Nonius  Marcellus.  In  complete  accordance  with  his  pagan 
view  of  life,  he  had  desired  that,  on  his  death,  his  body  should 
simply  be  placed  in  an  ancient  Roman  sarcophagus  on  the  Appian 
Way ;  but,  when  he  died  at  the  age  of  seventy,  his  desire  was 
over-ruled  by  his  having  a  Christian  burial  in  the  church  of 
San  Salvatore  in  Lauro,  and  his  obsequies  at  the  Ara  Caeli  were 
attended  by  as  many  as  forty  bishops2.  The  Academy  which  he 
founded  flourished  once  more  under  Julius  II,  when  it  had  its 
Dictator  and  its  Comitia,  which,  however,  were  of  a  somewhat 
frivolous  character.  Its  palmy  days  were  in  the  pontificate  of 
Leo  X,  when  it  included  the  most  brilliant  members  of  the  literary 
society  of  Rome,  men  like  the  future  Cardinals,  Bembo  and 
Sadoleto,  as  well  as  Paolo  Giovio  and  Castiglione.  It  held  its 
meetings  in  the  Circus  Maximus,  or  on  the  Quirinal,  or  near  the 
temple  of  Hercules  by  the  bank  of  the  Tiber,  or  in  the  suburban 
park  of  some  Maecenas  of  the  day,  when  a  simple  repast,  seasoned 
with  the  salt  of  wit,  would  be  followed  by  the  delivery  of  Latin 
speeches  and  the  recitation  of  Latin  poems3.  It  was  overwhelmed 
in  the  general  ruin,  which  accompanied  the  sack  of  Rome  by  the 
Spanish  and  German  troops  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V  in  1527. 
Among  the  minor  Roman  Academies  of  later  origin  was  the 
Accademia  delta  Virtu  founded  by  Claudio  Tolomei  and  others 
under  the  patronage  of  the  young  Cardinal  Ippolito  dei  Medici 
(d.  1535).  The  special  aim  of  this  Academy  was  the  study  of 
Vitruvius. 

1  Jacopo  Volterrano,  in  Muratori,  Script.  Rer.  Hal.  xxiii   171  (Tiraboschi, 
vi  322). 

2  Sabellicus,  vol.   iii,   Epp.  xi  pp.  458 — 461,  ed.  Basel ;   Tiraboschi,  vi 
108 — 114,  659 — 665;  Symonds,  i  353,  ii   359 — 362;  Creighton,  iv  47 — 56; 
Pastor,  Gesch.  der  Piipsle,  ii  292-5,  305  f;  also  Eckstein  on  Tac.  Dial.  p.  64; 
Naeke,  Opp.  i  119;  and  Mommsen,  in  Rhein.  Ahts.  vi  628. 

3  Tiraboschi,  vii  141-4;  Gregorovius,  Book  xiv,  Chap,  iv  (viii  313  f). 


ALDVS-  pivs-  MANVTIVS- 


ALDUS  MANUTIUS. 


From  a  contemporary  print  in  the  Library  of  San  Marco,  Venice, 
reproduced  as  Frontispiece  to  Didot's  Aide  Manuce;  p.  97  infra. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

THE   PRINTING   OF   THE    CLASSICS    IN    ITALY. 

WHILE  we  gratefully  recall  the  preservation  of  Latin  manu- 
scripts in  the  mediaeval  monasteries  of  the  West,  as  well  as  the 
recovery  of  lost  Classics  by  the  humanists  of  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries,  and  the  transference  to  Italy  of  the  treasures  of 
Greek  literature  from  the  libraries  of  the  East,  we  are  bound  to 
remember  that  all  this  would  have  proved  of  little  permanent  avail, 
but  for  the  invention  of  the  art  of  printing. 

The  old  order  culminates  in  the  name  of  Vespasiano  da 
Bisticci  (1421 — 1498),  the  last  of  mediaeval  scribes 
and  the  first  of  modern  booksellers.  The  date  of  da^sS"' 
his  birth  falls  exactly  a  hundred  years  after  the  death 
of  Dante  (1321)  and  before  the  death  of  Leo  X  (1521),  and  he  is 
himself  one  of  the  most  interesting  representatives  of  Medicean 
Florence.  An  intimate  friend  of  the  many-sided  Manetti,  he  was 
conscious  of  not  having  such  a  mastery  of  the  best  Latin  as  would 
warrant  his  using  that  language  in  answering  the  Latin  letters  of 
his  friend,  yet  he  possessed  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  com- 
mercial value  of  Latin,  Greek  and  Hebrew  MSS.  Besides  executing 
orders  for  Hungary,  Portugal,  Germany,  and  England,  he  was  the 
trusted  agent  of  the  three  greatest  collectors  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
Cosimo  de'  Medici,  Nicolas  V,  and  Frederic  of  Urbino.  When 
Cosimo,  the  founder  of  three  libraries,  the  private  library  of  the 
Medici,  that  of  San  Marco,  and  that  of  the  Badia  between 
Florence  and  Fiesole,  proposed  to  found  a  fourth  library  for  the 
monks  of  San  Lorenzo,  he  applied  to  Vespasiano,  who  promptly 
engaged  45  copyists,  and,  in  less  than  two  years,  produced  200  MSS 
for  that  purpose1.  The  library  was  divided  into  classes  according 

1    Vita  di  Cosimo,  §  n,  p.  255. 


96  ITALY.  [CENT.  xv. 

to  a  scheme  drawn  up  by  Tommaso  Parentucelli,  afterwards  famous 
as  Nicolas  V,  the  founder  of  the  collection  of  MSS  in  the  Vatican 
Library.  In  the  formation  of  that  library,  Vespasiano  was  one  of 
the  Pope's  principal  assistants,  and  the  bookseller  of  Florence 
dwells  in  glowing  terms  on  the  services  rendered  by  Nicolas  V  to 
the  cause  of  learning1.  Similarly,  Vespasiano  spent  fourteen  years 
in  forming  for  the  duke  of  Urbino  a  fine  library  including  all  the 
Greek  and  Latin  authors  as  yet  discovered,  all  the  volumes  being 
bound  in  crimson  and  silver,  and  all  in  perfect  condition,  all 
'written  with  the  pen,'  for  the  duke  would  have  been  ashamed 
(says  Vespasiano)  to  possess  a  single  printed  book2.  Such  is  the 
phrase  found  in  one  of  those  delightful  biographies  of  the  hundred 
and  three  men  of  mark,  the  patriots,  patrons  of  learning  and 
scholars  of  the  fifteenth  century,  biographies  founded  on  personal 
knowledge  and  inspired  by  a  love  of  virtue,  which  have  made  the 
name  of  Vespasiano  dear  to  all  who  are  interested  in  the  literature 
of  the  time  of  transition  from  the  age  of  the  mediaeval  copyist  to 
that  of  the  modern  printer.  He  rests  in  Santa  Croce  among  the 
great  men  of  Florence,  after  proving  himself  faithful  to  the  old 
traditions  of  learning  down  to  the  very  end  of  his  life3.  Twenty- 
eight  years  before  the  death  of  Vespasiano,  we  find  Filelfo 
genuinely  interested  in  the  new  art  of  printing,  and  resolving  on 
the  purchase  of  'some  of  those  codices  they  are  now  making  without 
any  trouble,  and  without  a  pen,  but  with  certain  so-called  types, 
and  which  seem  to  be  the  work  of  a  skilled  and  exact  scribe',  and 
finally  inquiring  as  to  the  cost  of  a  printed  copy  of  Pliny  and 
Livy  and  Aulus  Gellius 4. 

Printing  had  been  introduced  into  Italy  by  two  Germans, 
Sweynheym  and  Pannartz,  who  had  worked  under  Fust  at  Maintz. 
They  set  up  their  press  first  at  the  German  monastery  of  Subiaco 

1  Vita  di  Nicola  V,  §  25  f,  p.  38  f. 

2  Federigo,  duca  (T  Urbino,  §§  27 — 31,  esp.  p.  99  '  tutti  iscritti  a  penna,  e 
non  v'  e  ignuno  a  stampa,  che  se  ne  sarebbe  vergognato '. 

3  The  Vite  first  published  by  Mai,  in  Sficilegiiim  Romanum,   1839  f»  anc^ 
afterwards  by  Bartoli  (Florence,    1859).     Cp.  'n   general,    Voigt,    i   399  f3; 
Symonds,  ii  306  f. 

4  Letter    dated    25    July,    1470,   in   Rosmini's    Vita   di  Filelfo,   ii   201 ; 
Symonds,  ii  306. 


CHAP.  VIII.]  THE   EARLY   PRINTERS.  97 

in  the  Sabine  mountains  (1465)  and  next  at  the  palace  of  the 
Massimi  in  Rome  itself  (1467).  At  Subiaco  they  produced  the 
editio  princeps  of  the  De  Oratore  of  Cicero.  At  Rome  they  reprinted 
that  work,  and  added  the  earliest  edition  of  the  Brutus  and 
Orator  (1469);  moreover,  they  produced  the  editiones  prindpes  of 
Cicero's  Letters  and  Speeches,  Caesar,  Livy,  Gellius,  Apuleius, 
Virgil,  Lucan,  and  Silius  (1469-71),  the  prefaces  being  generally 
written  by  Giovanni  Andrea  de'  Bussi,  bishop  of  the  Corsican  see 
of  Aleria,  who  also  saw  through  the  press  their  Ovid  of  1471. 
Cardinal  Campano  edited  Quintilian  and  Suetonius  for  Philip  de 
Lignamine,  and  Cicero's  Philippics  for  Ulrich  Hahn  (1470). 
Pomponius  Laetus  edited  for  Georg  Lauer  the  first  edition  of 
Varro  De  Lingua  Latina  (1471),  and  the  second  of  Nonius 
Marcellus  (1476).  In  Venice,  the  first  edition  of  the  elder 
Pliny  was  produced  by  John  of  Spires  in  1469'.  At  Florence, 
Bernardo  Cennini,  the  first  Italian  who  cast  his  own  type,  printed 
the  commentary  of  Servius  on  the  whole  of  Virgil  (1471-72). 
By  the  year  1500  about  5,000  books  had  been  produced  in 
Italy,  of  which  about  300  belong  to  Florence  and  Bologna, 
more  than  600  to  Milan,  more  than  900  to  Rome,  and  2,835 
to  Venice,  while  presses  were  set  up  for  a  short  time  in  fifty 
places  of  less  importance. 

Before  the  year  1495  only  a  dozen  Greek  books  had  been  printed 
in  Italy,  viz.  the  Greek  grammars  of  Lascaris2  and  Chrysoloras3; 
two  Psalters4;  Aesop5  and  Theocritus6,  the  'Battle  of  the  Frogs 
and  Mice'7,  and  Homer8,  with  Isocrates9,  and  the  Greek  Antho- 
logy10. This  last  was  in  capital  letters,  and  was  succeeded  in 
Florence  by  similar  editions  of  Euripides,  Callimachus,  Apollonius 
Rhodius,  and  Lucian.  The  latter  were,  however,  preceded  by 
the  earliest  of  the  Greek  texts  printed  in  Venice  by  Aldus 
Manutius. 

1  See  list  of  Latin  Editiones  Prindpes  on  p.  103  infra, 

2  Milan,  1476;  Vicenza,  1488. 

3  Venice,  1484;  Vicenza,  1490. 

4  Milan,  1481-6.  5  Milan,  c.  1479. 

6  Milan,  c.  1493.  7  Venice,  1486;  cp.  p.  102. 

8  Florence,  1488.  9  Milan,  1493. 

10  Florence,  1494. 

S.    II.  7 


98  ITALY.  [CENT,  xv  f 

Aldus  Manutius  (1449 — 1515)  is  the  Latin  form  of  Aldo 
Manuzio,  whose  original  name  was  Teobaldo 
Manutius  Manucci.  Born  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Velletri, 
he  was  early  imbued  with  classical  learning  by  two 
natives  of  Verona,  having  studied  Latin  in  Rome  under  Gaspare, 
and  Greek  as  well  as  Latin  under  Guarino  at  Ferrara1.  His 
younger  fellow-student,  the  brilliant  Giovanni  Pico  of  Mirandola, 
recommended  Aldus  as  tutor  to  his  nephews  Alberto  and  Lionello 
Pio  at  Carpi,  and  it  was  at  Carpi  that  Aldus  matured  his  plans  for 
starting  a  Greek  press  with  the  aid  of  Alberto  Pio.  The  press  was 
ultimately  founded  in  Venice,  the  model  for  the  Greek  type  was 
supplied  by  the  Cretan  Marcus  Musurus  and  most  of  the  com- 
positors were  natives  of  Crete.  The  Greek  books  published  by 
Aldus  between  1494  and  1504  included  Musaeus,  Theocritus  and 
Hesiod,  Aristotle,  nine  plays  of  Aristophanes,  Sophocles,  Herodotus 
and  Thucydides,  Xenophon's  Hellenica,  with  eighteen  plays  of 
Euripides,  and,  lastly,  Demosthenes.  After  an  interval  caused  by 
the  troubles  of  war,  we  have  first  the  Greek  rhetoricians,  including 
the  first  edition  of  Aristotle's  Rhetoric  and  Poetic,  and  next,  the 
Moralia  of  Plutarch.  Another  interval,  due  to  the  same  cause, 
was  followed  by  the  publication  of  Pindar,  with  the  minor  Attic 
Orators,  and  Plato,  and  Athenaeus2. 

With  a  view  to  promoting  the  study  of  Greek  and  the  systematic 
publication  of  the  Greek  Classics,  Aldus  formed  in  1500  the  'New 
Academy'  of  Hellenists.  Greek  was  the  language  of  its  rules ; 
Greek  was  spoken  at  its  meetings;  and  Greek  names  were  adopted 
by  its  Italian  members.  Thus  Scipione  Fortiguerra  of  Pistoia, 
the  earliest  editor  of  the  text  of  Demosthenes,  and  Secretary  of 
the  Academy,  translated  his  name  into  Carteromachus. 

One  of  the  aims  of  the  Academy  was  to  produce  in  each  month 
an  edition  of  at  least  1,000  copies  of  some  'good  author'3.  Among 
the  ordinary  members  were  Janus  Lascaris  and  his  pupil  Marcus 
Musurus,  besides  other  scholars  from  Crete.  Among  the  honorary 
foreign  members  were  Linacre,  whose  Latin  rendering  of  the  Sphere 
of  Proclus  was  published  by  Aldus  in  1499,  and  Erasmus,  who 

1  Pref.  to  Theocritus,  1495,  p.  194  of  Botfield's  Prefaces. 

2  See  list  of  Greek  Editiones  Principes  on  p.  104  infra. 

3  Pref.  to  Euripides,  1503,  p.  226  Bolfield. 


CHAP.  VIII.]  ALDUS    MANUTIUS.  99 

visited  Venice  in  1508,  when  he  was  engaged  in  seeing  through 
the  press  a  new  edition  of  the  Adagio,1. 

As  a  printer  of  Latin  Classics  Aldus  had  been  preceded  in 
Venice  by  John  of  Spires  (1469),  Nicolas  Jenson,  and  Cristopher 
Valdarfer  (1470).  In  1501  Aldus  began  that  series  of  pocket 
editions  of  Latin,  Greek,  and  Italian  Classics  in  small  8vo,  which 
did  more  than  anything  else  towards  popularising  the  Classics  in 
Italy.  The  slanting  type  then  first  adopted  for  printing  the  Latin 
and  Italian  Classics,  and  since  known  as  the  'Aldine'  or  'Italic' 
type,  was  founded  on  the  handwriting  of  Petrarch  by  Francesco 
da  Bologna2,  and  it  was  first  used  in  1501  in  the  Aldine  editions  of 
Virgil,  Horace,  Juvenal  and  Persius,  as  well  as  in  the  Cose  Volgare 
of  Petrarch3.  The  later  Latin  texts  include  Valerius  Maximus 
(1502),  Pliny's  Letters  (i5o8)4,  and  Quintilian  (1514). 

In  1499  Aldus  had  married  the  daughter  of  Andrea  Torresano 
d'  Asola,  who  had,  twenty  years  previously,  bought  up  the  printing 
business  of  Nicolas  Jenson.  In  course  of  time  Aldus  and  his 
father-in-law,  Andrea,  went  into  partnership,  and  the  above  edition 
of  Pliny's  Letters,  printed  in  aedibus  Aldi  et  Andreae  soceri,  supplies 
us  with  the  first  public  record  of  the  fact.  Aldus  was  far  more 
than  a  printer  and  bookseller;  he  rejoiced  in  rescuing  the  writings 
of  the  ancients  from  the  hands  of  selfish  bibliomaniacs,  many  of 
his  texts  were  edited  by  himself,  and  he  was  honoured  as  a  scholar 
by  the  foremost  scholars  of  the  age.  One  of  the  most  generous  of 
men,  his  generosity  was  appreciated  by  Erasmus,  and  by  his  own 
countrymen.  The  editor  of  the  Prefaces  to  the  Editiones  Prindpes 
justly  describes  'the  dedications  of  Aldus  as  worth  all  the  rest; 
there  is  a  high  and  a  noble  feeling,  a  self-respect,  and  simplicity  of 
language  about  him  which  is  delightful;  he  certainly  had  aspiring 
hopes  of  doing  the  world  good'5.  He  is  probably  the  only  publisher 

1  Didot's  Aide  Matinee,  147 — 152,  435 — 470;  and  Symonds,  ii  385-8. 

2  Of  the  Griffi  family  (not  Francia) ;  cp.  Fumagalli,  Lexicon  typographicum 
Italiae,  Florence,  1905,  s.  v.  Bologna,  p.  42.     Aldus  himself  called  this  style 
of  type,  cancel leresco  (ib.  4/1). 

3  Didot,    155 — 169.     Of  the   rare  texts   above  mentioned,   I   happen   to 
possess  Munro's  copy  of  the  Juvenal  and  Persius,  bound  with  the  Catullus, 
Propertius  and  Tibullus  of  the  following  year. 

4  The  first  complete  ed.  with  all  the  correspondence  with  Trajan  (and  the 
Panegyricus).  B  Botfield,  p.  vi. 

7—2 


ioo  ITALY.  [CENT,  xv  f 

who,  in  the  preface  of  a  work  published  by  himself,  ever  used 
such  language  as  the  following : — nihil  unquam  memini  me  legere 
deterius,  lectuque  minus  dignum.  Such  are  the  terms  in  which  he 
refers  to  the  Life  of  Apollonius  by  Philostratus;  but  he  hastens  to 
add  that,  as  an  antidote  to  the  poison,  he  publishes  in  the  same 
volume  the  refutation  by  Eusebius,  translated  by  the  friend  to 
whom  he  dedicates  the  work.  In  the  twenty-one  years  between 
1494  and  1515,  Aldus  produced  no  less  than  twenty-seven  editiones 
prinripes  of  Greek  authors  and  of  Greek  works  of  reference1.  By 
the  date  of  his  death  in  1515,  all  the  principal  Greek  Classics 
had  been  printed2.  Before  1525  the  study  of  Greek  had  begun  to 
decline  in  Italy,  but  meanwhile  an  interest  in  that  language  had 
happily  been  transmitted  to  the  lands  beyond  the  Alps. 

Paolo  Manuzio  (1512 — 1574),  the  youngest  son  of  Aldo,  was 

educated  by  his  grandfather  Andrea,  who  carried  on 
Manutius        tne  business  till  his  death  in  1529,  when  Andrea  was 

succeeded  by  his  sons,  with  whom  Paolo  was  in 
partnership  from  1533  to  1540.  From  that  date  forward,  Paolo 
published  on  his  own  account  a  series  of  Ciceronian  works, 
beginning  with  the  complete  edition  of  1540-6,  and  including 
commentaries  on  the  Letters  to  Atticus  (1547),  and  to  Brutus  and 
Quintus  (1557),  and  on  the  Pro  Sextio  (1556).  One  of  the 
daintiest  products  of  his  press  is  the  text  of  Cicero's  De  Oratore, 
Brutus  and  Orator,  printed  in  Italic  type,  with  his  own  corrections, 
in  1559.  He  published  his  Italian  Letters  in  1556-60,  and  his 
Latin  Epistolae  et  Praefationes  in  1558.  He  had  a  branch  house 
in  Rome,  on  the  Capitol,  and  it  was  mainly  in  Rome  that  he  lived 
from  1561  till  his  death  in  1574,  producing  scholia  on  the  Letters 
Ad  Familiares  (1571)  and  on  the  Pro  Archia  (1572).  At  Venice 
and  Rome  he  published  several  works  on  Roman  Antiquities,  while 

1  Nine  of  these  27  'editions'  included  two  or  more  works,  69  in  all  besides 
the  27,  making  a  total  of  96. 

2  On  Aldus  Manutius,  see  Didot's  Aide  Manuce,  1875 ;  Renouard,  Annales 
de  f  imprinter ie  des  Aides  (1803-12;  ed.  2,  1834);  and  Omont,  Catalogue... en 
phototypie,  1892.      Cp.  A.  Schilck,  A.  M.  u.  seine  Zeitgenossen  (1862);  and 
Symonds,  ii  368 — -391.     Portrait,  published  in  Rome,  probably  by  Antoine 
Lafrery,   now  in  Library  of  San  Marco,  Venice,   copied  by  Phil.   Galleus, 
Effigies,  ii  (1577)  32,  and  in  frontispiece  to  Didot's  Aide  Manuce,  reproduced 
on  p.  94.     Portraits  of  all  the  three  Aldi  in  Cicero,  ed.  1583. 


CHAP.  VIII.]  PAULUS   MANUTIUS.  IOI 

his  comments  on  Cicero's  Speeches  were  posthumously  printed  in 
1578-9,  and  his  celebrated  commentarius  on  the  Letters  Ad 
Familiares  in  1592'.  Tiraboschi,  who  refers  to  the  eulogies 
paid  him  by  Muretus  and  others,  happily  describes  him  as 
having  been  worthy  of  a  far  longer  life,  and  still  more  worthy 
of  immortal  remembrance2. 

Paolo  bequeathed  his  business  to  his  son  Aldo  Manuzio  the 
younger  (1547—1597),  who  held  a  professorship  in 
Venice  before  succeeding  Sigonius  in  Bologna  and  ManuUus  n 
Muretus  in  Rome.  At  the  age  of  eleven,  he  had 
produced  a  treatise  on  the  '  Elegancies  of  the  Tuscan  and  Latin 
languages',  and,  at  fourteen,  a  work  on  Orthography  founded  on 
the  study  of  inscriptions  (1561).  The  second  edition  of  the  latter 
(1566)  contains  the  earliest  copy  of  an  ancient  Roman  calendar  of 
B.C.  8 — A.D.  3  discovered  by  his  father  in  the  Palace  of  the  Maffei 
and  now  known  as  the  Fasti  MaffeianP.  His  other  publications 
include  a  volume  of  antiquarian  miscellanies  entitled  De  Quaesitis 
per  Epistolam  (1576).  He  is  somewhat  severely  denounced  by  Sca- 
liger  as  'a  wretched  and  slow  wit,  the  mimic  of  his  father'4.  After 
little  more  than  a  century  of  beneficent  labour  in  the  cause  of  clas- 
sical literature  the  great  house  of  printers  came  to  an  end  when 
the  younger  Aldus  died  in  Rome  without  issue  in  I5975.  The  vast 
library  which  had  descended  to  him  from  his  father  and  his  grand- 
father was  dispersed,  but  the  productions  of  the  Aldine  press  are 
still  treasured  by  scholars  in  every  part  of  the  civilised  world. 

1  Ed.  Richter,  17791";  'optimi  etiamnunc  interprets '  (Orelli's  Cicero,  ed. 
1845,  III  p.  xxxv  f). 

2  vii  208  f ;   cy.  Epp.  1581,  ed.  Krause,  1720;   Epp.  Sel.  (Teubner,  1892), 
Lettere  Volgari,  1560,  Renouard,  Lettere  di  P.  M.  (Paris,  1834).     Portrait  in 
his   Liber  de   Coinitiis  (1585),   and   in    Phil.  Galleus,  ii  33,    and  Boissard's 
Icones,  vili  tnmm  i. 

3  Cp.   C.I.L.i  pp.   303-7;  J.  Wordsworth,  Fragments... of  Early  Latin, 
166  f,  539. 

4  Scaligerana,  149.     '  P.  Manucius  quidquid  scripsit  bonum  fuit,  magno 
labore  scribebat  epistolas.    Aldus  filius  miserum  ingenium,  lentum ;  quae  dedit 
valde  sunt  vulgaria  :  utrumque  novi;    Patrem  imitabatur,  solas  epistolas  bonas 
habet:  sed  trivit  Ciceronem  diu.     Insignis  est  Manucii  commentarius  in  Epi- 
stolas ad  Atticum  et  Familiares.      Manucius  non  poterat  tria  verba  Latine 
dicere,  et  bene  scribebat....' 

5  Portrait  in  Eleganze  (1580),  and  in  Cicero,  ed.  1583. 


102  GERMANY,   ITALY,   FRANCE.         [CENT.   XV  f 

The  present  chapter  may  fitly  close  with  a  chronological  conspectus  of  the 
editiones  principes  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Classics.     The  list 
Editiones  is  mainly  confined  to  the  principal  classical  authors,  with  the 

principes  addition  of  the  two  earliest  texts  of  the  Greek  Testament 

(1516-7)  and  of  the  Latin  Fathers  (1465),  but  to  the  exclusion 
of  translations,  grammars,  and  minor  bibliographical  curiosities.  Not  un- 
frequently  an  editio  princeps  conies  into  the  world  without  any  note  of  time  or 
place,  and  without  the  name  of  any  editor  or  printer,  and  the  determination 
of  these  points  is  often  a  matter  of  considerable  difficulty.  Possibly  the  unique 
Batrachomyomachia  in  the  Rylands  Library,  Manchester  (ascribed  by  Proctor 
to  Ferrandus  of  Brescia,  c.  1474),  and  the  rare  copies  of  Virgil  (Mentelin, 
Strassburg,  c.  1469),  Juvenal  (Ulrich  Hahn,  Rome,  c.  1470),  and  Martial 
(Rome,  c.  1471),  are  earlier  than  those  entered  in  the  list ;  and  it  is  uncertain 
whether  the  editio  princeps  of  Curtius  (c.  1471)  is  that  of  G.  Laver,  Rome,  or 
Vindelin  de  Spira,  Venice.  In  the  list,  approximate  dates  are  (as  here)  dis- 
tinguished by  the  usual  abbreviation  for  circiter',  and  conjectural  names  of 
printers,  or  of  places  of  publication,  are  enclosed  within  parentheses.  For  all 
these  details  the  best  bibliographical  works  have  been  consulted1.  The  name 
of  the  '  editor '  has  been  added,  wherever  it  can  be  inferred  either  from  the 
colophon  or  title-page,  or  from  the  preface  or  letter  of  dedication.  It  will  be 
seen  how  large  a  part  of  the  editorial  work  was  done,  in  the  case  of  Latin 
authors,  by  Giovanni  Andrea  de'  Bussi,  bishop  of  Aleria,  and,  in  the  case  of 
Greek,  by  Janus  Lascaris,  and  Aldus  Manutius  (with  or  without  the  aid  of 
Musurus).  Besides  frequently  indicating  the  names  of  the  editors,  the  Aldine 
prefaces  are  full  of  varied  interest.  Thus  Aldus  laments  that  his  work  as 
a  printer  is  interrupted  by  wars  abroad2  and  by  strikes  at  homes,  and  by 
difficulties  in  procuring  trustworthy  Mss.4  But  he  exults  in  the  fact  that 
Greek  is  being  studied,  not  in  Italy  alone,  but  also  in  France  and  Hungary 
and  Britain  and  Spain5.  A  Greek  scholar  at  Milan  begins  the  editio  princeps 
of  the  great  lexicon  of  Suidas  with  an  adroit  advertisement  in  the  form  of 
a  lively  dialogue  between  the  bookseller  and  the  student,  who  finally  produces 
three  gold  pieces  and  buys  the  book. 

1  Dibdin's  Introduction,  ed.  4   (London,    1827);  Panzer,   Annales   Tyf>o- 
graphici,  ad  ann.  1536,  n  vols.  (Nurnberg,  1793 — 1803);  Hain,  Repertoriutn 
Bibliographicuni,  ad  ann.   1500,  2  vols.  in  2  parts  each  (Stuttgart,   1826-38; 
now   in   course   of  reprinting),   with   Indices    and    Register   (Leipzig,  1891), 
Copinger's  Supplement ',  3  vols.  (London,   1898),   and   Reichling's  Appendices 
(Munich,  1905-) ;  R.  Proctor,  Index  to  the  Early  Printed  Books  in  the  British 
Museum  to  1500,  2  vols.  (London,  1898),  Germany,  in  1501-20  (1903),  and 
The  Printing  of  Greek  in  the  xvth  cent.  {Bibliographica,  Dec.    1900) ;    Re- 
nouard,  Annales  des  Imprimeries  des  Aides,  3  vols.  ed.  3  (Paris,  1834) ;  Didot, 
Aide  Manuce  (Paris,  1875);    Botfield,  Praefationes  el  Epp.  (London,  1861); 
R.  C.  Christie,   Chronology  of  the  Early  Aldines  (1894),  in  Selected  Essays 
(London,    1902),    223 — 246;    and    H.    Guppy,    The  John   Rylands   Library 
(Manchester,  1906),  49 — 78. 

2  Plato,  1513.  3  Prudentius,  1502  N.  8. 

4  Aristotle,  i  i,  and  iv  1495-8.  *  Aristotle,  i  2  (init.);  Steph.  Byz. 


Editiones  Principes  of  Latin  Authors. 


Date 

Author 

Editor 

Printer 

Place 

1465 

Cicero,  De  Officiis,  Paradoxa 

Fust  and  Schoeffer 

Maintz 

c.  1466 

Cicero,  De  Ojficiis 

Ulrich  Zell 

Cologne 

1465 

Cicero,  De  Oratore 

Sweynheymand  Pannartz 

Subiaco 

Lactantius;  1467  Aug.Civ.  Dei 

1467 

Cicero,  ad  Familiares 

Rome 

1469 

Cicero.ZV  Or.,Bnitus,Orator 

Apuleius 

Jo.  Andreas  de  Buxis 

Gellius 

Caesar 

Lucan 

Pliny,  Hist.  Nat: 

J.  de  Spira 

Venice 

c.  1469 

*Virgil 

Sweynheymand  Pannartz 

Rome 

Livy 

1470 

Cicero,  ad  Atticiim 

Sallust 

Vindelin  de  Spira 

Venice 

*J  u  venal  and  Per>ius 

Priscian 

Cicero,  Rhetorica, 

N.  Jenson 

Justin 

Quintilian,  Inst.  Or. 

Campanus 

(Phil,  de  Lignamine) 

Rome 

Suetonius 

c.  1470 

Cicero,  Philippicne 

Ulrich  Ha'h'n 

Terence 

(Mentel) 

(Strassburg 

Valerius  Maximus 

Boethius,  De  Phil.  Cons. 

Hans  Glim 

Savigliano 

Tacitus,  Ann.  n  —  16,  Hist., 

J.  de  Spira 

Venice 

Germ.,  Dial. 

1471 

Ovid 

Franc.  Puteolanus 

Azzoguidi 

Bologna 

Silius  Italicus 

Jo.  Andreas  de  Buxis 

Sweynheymand  Pannartz 

Rome 

Cicero,  Orationes 

Pliny,  Kp/>..  libri  viii 

Ludovicus  Carbo 

(Chr.  Val'darfer) 

(Venice) 

Pomponius  Mela 

Zarolus 

Zarotus 

Milan 

Nonius 

(Italy) 

Florus 

Gering,Crantz,  F'riburger 

Paris 

Varro,  L.L.\  0.1471  *Curtius 

Pomponius  Laetus 

Georg  Lauer 

Rome 

Eutropius 

Aem.  Probus,  i.e.  Nepos 

N.  Jenson 

Venice 

c.  1471 

Horace 

(Venice) 

*Martial 

G.  Merula 

Vindelin  de  Spira 

Venice 

1473 

Plautus 

Tib.,  Prop.,  Cat  ,  Slat.  Silv. 

Macrobius 

N.  Jenson 

Ausonius  and  Calpurnius 

Bart.  Girardinus 

Bart.  Girardinus 

Scriptores  de  Re  Rustica 

Merula  and  Colucia 

N.  Jenson 

Manilius 

Regiomontanus 

Regiomontanus 

Nuremberg 

c.  M73 

Lucretius 

Ferrandus 

Brescia 

1474 

Valerius  Flaccus 

Rugerius  and  Bertochus 

Bologna 

Amm.  MarceUinus,  libri  13 

Sabinus 

Sachsel  and  Golsch 

Rome 

c.  1474  84 

Seneca,  Tragoeiiiae 

Andreas  Gallicus 

Ferrara 

1475 

Quintilian,  Bed,  3 

Dom.  Calderinus 

Schurener 

Rome 

M75-83 

Statins 

Octavianus  Scotus 

Venice 

M75 

Hi-t.  Aug.  Scriptores 

Bonus  Accursius 

Philippus  de  Lavagna 

Milan 

Seneca,  Aforalia  et  /?//. 

Moravus 

Naples 

M77 

Dictys  Cretensis 

Masellus  Beneventanus 

(Philippus  de  Lavagna) 

Milan 

1478 

Celsus 

Bart.  Fontius 

Nicolaus  Alemannus 

Florence 

1481 

Quintilian,  Decl.  19 

Jac.  Grasolarius 

Lucas  Venetus 

Venice 

1482 

Claudian 

Barn.  Celsanus 

Jac.  Dusensis 

Vicenza 

c.  1482 

Pliny,  Pan.,  Tacitus,    Agr. 

Puteolanus.  I.anterius  '.  (Zarotus) 

(Mil.in) 

1486 

Probus 

Franc.  Michael              j  Boninus 

Brescia 

c.  1486 

Vitruvius 

Joan.  Sulpitius                 G.  Herolt 

Rome 

Froniinus,  De  aquaednctibns 

1487 

Vegetius,  Aelian,  Frontinus 

Eucharius  Silber 

1494 

Quintilian,  Decl.  138 

Thad.  Ugoletus 

Aug.  Ugoletus 

Parma 

1498 

Apicius 

Ant.  Motta 

Guil.  Signerre 

Milan 

1498-9 

Cicero,  4  vols.  folio 

Alex.  Minutianus 

Gulielmi  fratres 

1502 

Prosper,  Sedulius 

Aldus  Manutius 

Aldus  Manutius 

Venice 

c.  1508-13 

Symmachus 

Bart.  Cyniscus 

Bern,  de  Vitalibus 

1515 

Tacitus,  Annal.  i  —  5  etc. 

Beroaldus  II 

Steph.  Guilleroti 

Rome 

1520 

Velleius  Paterculus 

Beatus  Rhenanus 

Jo.  Froben 

Basel 

1533 

Amm.  Marcellinus,  libri  18 

M.  Accursius 

Silvanus  Otmar                  i  Augsburg 

1596 

Phaedrus 

Pierre  Pithou 

J.  Odot                                  Troyes 

See  p.  102. 


Editiones  Principes  of  Greek  Authors. 


Date 

Author 

Editor 

Printer 

Place 

c.  1478 

Aesop 

Lat.  trans.  Rinutius 

(Bonus  Accursius) 

(Milan) 

1486 

*  Batrachomyomachia 

Leonicus  Cretensis        :  Venice 

1488 

Homer 

Dem.  Chalcondyles 

Bart,    di    Libri    for 

Florence 

Bern.  Nerli 

1493 

Isocrates 

(Uderic  Scinzenzeller) 

c.  1493 

Theocritus,  i  —  18,  and  He- 

(Bonus  Accursius) 

Milan 

siod,  Opera  et  Dies 

1494 

Anthologia  Graeca 

J.  Lascaris 

Laur.  de  Alopa 

Florence 

c.  1495 

Euripides,    Med.    Hipp. 

Ale.  Andr. 

Callimachus,  i  —  6 

c.  1494-5 

Musaeus 

Lat.  trans.  Musurus 

Aldus  Manutius 

Venice 

1495  8 

Aristotle,  5  vols.  folio  and 

Aldus  Manutius 

Theophrastus,.//z'.rf./Y««/. 

1496  N.S. 

Theocritus,    i  —  30,    Bion, 

Moschus.Hesiod.Theognis 

1496 

Scriptores  Grammatici 

Guarino,  Politian  etc. 

Apollonius  Rhodius 

J.  Lascaris 

Laur.  de  Alopa                 Florence 

Lucian 

M97 

Zenobius 

Bened.  Ricciardini 

Phil,  de  Junta                   Florence 

1498 

'Phalaris' 

Bart.  Capo  d'  Istria 

Printers  from  Carpi         Venice 

Aristophanes,  9  plays 

Aldus  et  Musurus 

Aldus  Manutius 

1499 

Epp.  Graecae 

•• 

Dioscorides  and  Nicander 

\\ 

'  Etymologicum  Magnum' 

Musurus 

Zach.  Callierges 

Simplicius  in  Ar.  Categ. 

Z.  Callierges 

Milan 

1500 

Su'idas 
Ammonius  in  v  voces 

Dem.  Chalcondyles 

Printers  from  Carpi 
Z.  Callierges 

Venice 

Orpheus 

Phil.  Junta 

Florence 

1502 

Stephanas  Byz. 

Aldus  Manutius 

Aldus  Manutius 

Venice 

Pollux 

B  , 

Thucydides 

.  . 

Sophocles 

Herodotus 

1503 

Euripides,  18  plays 

Ammonius  in  Ar.  Interp. 

Ulpian  and  Harpocration 

Xenophon,  Hellenica 

I5<M 

Philostratus,  vita  Apoll. 

Philoponus  in  Ar. 

Demosthenes 

Aldus  et  Carteromachus 

1508-9 

Rhetores  Graeci  (incl.  Ar. 

Aldus  Manutius 

.. 

Rhet.  Poet.) 

1509 

Plutarch,  Moralia 

Aldus    et    Demetrius 

Aldus  et  Andreas  Asul. 

Ducas 

1512 

Dionysius  Periegetes 

Bondenus,  &  printer 

J.  Maciochus 

Ferrara 

1513 

Pindar,  Lycophron  etc. 

Aldus  Manutius 

Aldus  et  Andreas  Asul. 

Venice 

Orationes  Rhet.  Gr. 

Plato 

Aldus  et  Musurus 

.  . 

I5M 

Alex.  Aphrod.  in  Ar.  Top. 

Aldus  Manutius 

., 

Athenaeus 

Aldus  et  Musurus 

Hesychius 

1515 

Oppian,  Halieutica 

Bern.  Junta 

Phil.  Junta 

Florence 

1516  N.S. 

Aristoph.  TAesm.  JLys. 

1516 

Testamentum  Novum 

Erasmus 

Jo.  Froben                         Basel 

Xenophon 

Euphrosynus  Boninus 

Phil.  Junta                       Florence 

Pausanias 

Musurus 

Aldus  et  Andreas  Asul.   Venice 

Strabo 

Ben.  Tyrhenus 

'  • 

*  See  p.  102. 


Editiones  Principes  of  Greek  Authors  (continued). 


Date 

Author 

Editor 

Printer 

Place 

1517 

Libanius 

Coelius  Calcagninus 

Jo.  Maciochus 

Ferrara 

Didynius,  Homerica 

J.  Lascaris 

Ang.  Collottius 

Rome 

Aristides 

Euphrosynus  Boninus 

Phil.  Junta 

Florence 

Plutarch,  Vitae 

Phil.  Junta 

1514-7 

Complutensian  Polyglott 

Cardinal  Ximenes 

Arnold  Gul.de  Brocario 

Alcal'a 

1518 

Biblia  Sacra  Graeca 

Andreas  Asulanus 

Aldus  et  A  ndreas  socer 

Venice 

Aeschylus,  6  plays 

Fr.  Asulanus 

Porphyrius,  Homerica 

J.  Lascaris 

'  Monte  Caballo' 

Rome 

1525 

Galen,  in  5  parts 

Asulani  fratres 

Aldus  et  Andreas  Asul. 

Venice 

Xenophon,  Opera 

Aldi  in  aedibus 

1526 

Hippocrates 

Fr.  Asulanus 

Aldus  et  Andreas  Asul. 

1528 

Epictetus  and  Simplicius 

J.  Anton,  et  fr.de  Sabio 

153° 

Polybius 

Vine.  Obsopoeus 

Jo.  Secerius 

Hagenau 

1532 

Aristophanes,  u  plays 

Simon  Grynaeus 

Cratander 

Basel 

1533 

Diogenes  Laertius 

Hieron.    Froben   et 

Hieron.    Kroben   et 

Nic.  Episcopius 

Nic.  Episcopius 

Euclides 

Simon  Grynaeus 

Jo.  Hervagius 

Ptolemaeus 

Erasmus 

Hieron.  Froben  et 

Nic.  Episcopius 

1535 

Arrian 

Stobaeus 

Jo.  Bapt.  Egnatius 
Victor  Trincavelli 

J.  F.  Trincavelli 

Venice 

1539 

Diodorus,  16  —  20 

Vine.  Opsopoeus 

Jo.  Oporinus 

Basel 

J544 

Josephus 

Arnoldus  Arlenius 

Hieron.  Froben 

Archimedes 

lliomas  Gechauff 

Jo.  Hervagius 

1545 

Aelian,  Var.  Hist.,  etc. 

Camillas  Peruscus 

Rome 

!546 

Dionysius  Halic. 

Rob.  Stephanus 

Rob.  Stephanus 

Paris 

1548 

Dion  Cassius,  36  —  58 

1542-50 

Eustathius.  4  vols. 

Majoranus  &  Devarius 

Ant.  Bladus 

Rome 

I55i 

Dion  Chrys. 

F.  Turrisanus 

F.  Turrisanus 

Venice 

Appian 

Car.  Stephanus 

Paris 

1553 

Aelian,  Tactica 

Robortelli 

Spinelli 

Venice 

Aeschylus,  7  plays 

1553 

Menander,  Frag. 

F.  Morel  I 

Paris 

'554 

'  Longinus' 

Robortelli 

Jo.  Oporinus 

Basel 

Anacreon 

Putschius,  &  printer 

H.  Stephanus 

Paris 

Aretaeus 

Jac.  Goupyl 

Andr.  Turnebus 

1555 

Apollodorus,  Bibl. 

Ben.  Aegius 

Ant.  Bladus 

Rome 

1556 

Claudius  Aelian,  Opera 

C.  Gesner,  Robortelli, 

Gesneri  fratres 

Zurich 

Gillius 

1557 

Aeschylus,  c.  Ag.  323  —  1050 

Victor!  us 

H.  Stephanus 

Paris 

Maximus  Tyrius 

H.  Stephanus 

1558 

Marcus  Aurelius 

Xylander  et  C.  Gesner 

And.  Gesner 

Zurich 

J559 

Diodorus,  i  —  20 

H.   Stephanus 

H.  Stephanus 

Geneva 

'565 

Bion,  Moschus 

Adolf  MeUerch 

Goltzius 

Bruges 

1566 

Poetae  Gr.  Principes 

H.  Stephanus 

H.  Stephanus 

Paris 

Aristaenetus 

J.  Sambucus 

Plantin 

Antwerp 

1568 

Antonius    Liberalis, 

Xylander 

Thomas  Guarinus 

Basel 

Phlegon,  Apollonius 

1569 

Nonnus,  Dionysiaca 

Falkenburg 

Plantin 

Antwerp 

1572 

Plutarch,  Opera 

H.  Stephanus 

H.  Stephanus 

Paris 

1575 

Stobaeus 

Guil.  Canter 

Plantin 

Antwerp 

1580 

Plotinus 

I.  at.  trans.  Ficinus 

Petrus  Perna 

Basel 

1583 

Hierocles 

Jo.  Curterius 

Nic.  Nivellius 

Paris 

1587 

'  Empedocles,'  Sphaera 

Florent  Chrestien 

F.  Morel  II 

1589 

Polyaenus 

Casaubon 

J.  Toinaesius 

Leyden 

1594 

Andronicus  Rhodius 

Hoeschelius 

M.  Manger 

Augsburg 

1598 

lamblichus 

Jo.    Arcerius    Theo- 

Aegid.  Radaetis 

Franeker 

1       doretus 

1601 

Photius,  Bibliotheca 

Hoeschelius                    i  Jo.  Praetorius                   Augsburg 

1621 

Diophantus 

Cl.  G.  Bachetus             '  Seb.  Cramoisy                  Paris 

PIKTRO  BEMHO. 


From  Bartolozzi's  engraving  of  a  portrait  by  Titian  (1539).     Cp.  p.  ii2f. 
(Print-room,  British  Museum.) 


CHAPTER    IX. 

FROM   THE   AGE    OF    LEO   X   TO  THE   SACK  OF   ROME. 

THE  age  of  Aldus  Manutius  was  succeeded  by  the  pontificate 
of  Leo  X  (1513-21).  Under  the  care  of  Lorenzo  the  future  Pope 
had  learnt  his  Latin  and  his  Greek  from  the  best  scholars  of 
Florence.  When  he  made  his  progress  as  Pope  in  the  splendid 
procession  from  St  Peter's  to  the  Lateran,  the  streets  of  Rome 
were  adorned  with  marble  statues  of  the  old  pagan  divinities, 
while  a  triumphal  arch  in  front  of  the  palace  of  the  wealthy 
banker,  Agostino  Chigi,  bore  an  inscription  in  golden  letters 
recalling  the  times  of  Alexander  VI  and  Julius  II,  and  declaring 
that  the  reign  of  Venus  and  of  Mars  was  over,  and  that  of  Minerva 
had  begun :— 

'olim  habuit  Cypris  sua  tempora,  tempora  Mayors 
olim  habuit,  sua  nunc  tempora  Pallas  habet'1. 

Chigi  set  up  a  Greek  press  in  his  palace,  where  a  celebrated 
edition  of  Pindar,  the  first  including  the  scholia,  was  printed  in 
1515  by  Zacharias  Callierges  of  Crete,  who  produced  an  edition 
of  Theocritus  in  the  following  year.  The  Pope  himself  established 
a  Greek  school  and  a  Greek  printing-press  on  Monte  Cavallo. 
Under  the  supervision  of  Janus  Lascaris,  and  Marcus  Musurus2, 
the  scholia  on  Homer  and  Sophocles,  and  the  Homeric  Questions 
of  Porphyry,  were  there  published  in  15 1 7-8.  A  pupil  of  Politian, 
named  Guarino  of  Favera3,  who  had  already  taken  part  in  editing 

1  Casanova;  cp.  Gregorovius,  book  xiv,  c.  iii  (viii  186,  E.  T.). 

2  p.  78  f  supra. 

3  Also  known  as  Varinus  and  Phavorinus  and  as  Gamers  (from  his  birth- 
place in  the  March  of  Camerino).     Cp.  Tiraboschi,  vii  1 101  f. 


io8  ITALY.  [CENT.  xvi. 

for  Aldus  in  1496  a  collection  of  grammatical  extracts,  selected 
from  the  works  of  34  Greek  grammarians1,  and  was  afterwards 
to  be  the  compiler  of  a  Greek  dictionary  printed  by  Callierges 
in  1523,  was  made  bishop  of  Nocera  and  custodian  of  the  private 
library  of  the  Pope.  That  library  had  been  mainly  formed  from 
the  Medicean  collection,  which  had  been  dispersed  on  the  entry 
of  Charles  VIII  into  Florence  in  1494.  The  greater  part  of  it 
was  fortunately  purchased  by  the  monks  of  San  Marco,  from 
whom  it  was  bought  by  the  Cardinal  Giovanni  Medici  and  con- 
veyed to  Rome  in  1508,  there  to  remain  until  the  second 
Medicean  Pope,  Clement  VII,  restored  it  to  Florence  (1523), 
and  founded,  for  its  reception,  the  present  building  of  the 
Laurentian  Library2.  While  the  Medicean  collection  was  still 
in  Rome,  Leo  added  to  it  the  recently  discovered  MS  of  the  first 
five  books  of  the  Annals  of  Tacitus,  and  it  was  under  his 
patronage  that  the  first  complete  edition  of  Tacitus  was  produced 
at  Rome  in  1515  by  Filippo  Beroaldo  of  Bologna  (1472 — 1518), 
the  nephew  and  pupil  of  the  far  more  prolific  editor  bearing  the 
same  name  (1453 — 1505).  In  a  brief  granting  to  Beroaldo  the 
exclusive  privilege  of  publishing  this  work  (a  privilege  which  was 
immediately  infringed  at  Milan),  the  Pope  insists  on  the  im- 
portance of  classical  literature  and  expresses  his  earnest  desire 
to  continue  to  bestow  honours  and  rewards  on  men  of  learning3. 
The  publication  of  the  editio  princeps  of  the  extant  works 

of  Tacitus  was  followed  in  1516  by  the  appearance 
Aristo«e°f          °f  tne  sma^  but  by  no  means  unimportant  treatise 

of  Pietro  Pomponazzi,  De  Immortalitate  Animae*. 

1  Scriptores  Grammatici  Graeci ;  ' 'Thesaurus  Cornucopiae  el Horti  Adonidis ' 
(1496);  cp.  Roscoe's  Leo  X,  i  349  f,  489,  ed.  1846;  Botfield's  Prefaces,  205. 
This  work  is  not  really,  as  stated  by  Gregorovius,  viii  346,  'the  first  Thesaurus 
of  the  Greek  language',  in   the  ordinary  sense  of  that  term.      Guarino  was 
aided  by  another  pupil  of  Politian,  Carlo  Antinori,  and  by  Politian  himself; 
also  by  Aldus  and  Urbano  da  Belluno,  author  of  the  Aldine  Greek  Grammar 
of  Jan. 1497. 

2  Anziani,  Delia  biblioiheca  Mediceo-Laurenziana,  1872;  Jebb's  Introd.  to 
plain  text  of  Sophocles  (1898),  xxxiii. 

3  The  brief  was  written  by  Sadoleto  (Pastor,   Gesch.  der  Pafste,  iv  483); 
translated  in  Roscoe's  Leo  X,  i  357. 

4  Bologna,  1516;  Venice,  ^25;  anon.  '1534'. 


CHAP.  IX.]  BEROALDO.      POMPONAZZI. 

Its  author,  a  native  of  Mantua  (1462 — 1525),  is  a  representative 
of  one  of  the  four  varieties  of  the  Aristotelianism  of 

.  ...  .  Pomponazzi 

the  time,  namely  that  which  accepts  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  opinions  of  Aristotle  originally  put  forth  by  Alexander 
of  Aphrodisias. 

The  Italian  Aristotelians  were  either  content  to  follow  one  of  the  three 
exponents  of  Aristotle,  Thomas  Aquinas  or  Averroes  or  Alexander,  or  they 
studied  the  Greek  text  of  Aristotle  himself  with  or  without  the  aid  of  the 
current  Latin  translations.  Thomas  Aquinas  was  the  interpreter  accepted  by 
Aristotelians,  who  were  in  full  accord  with  the  normal  doctrine  of  the  Church. 
The  teaching  of  Averroes  had  found  a  home  in  Padua  in  the  first  half  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  where  it  continued  to  flourish  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
in  the  sixteenth,  under  Zimara  (d.  1532)  and  Zabarella  (d.  1589),  until  it 
practically  came  to  an  end  on  the  death  of  Cremonini  (1637).  It  had  roused 
the  energetic  protests  of  Petrarch  in  the  fourteenth  century,  the  century  in 
which  it  was  represented  at  Padua  by  Jean  de  Jandun  (fl,  1322) l.  It  had  also 
been  represented  in  Northern  Italy  by  Urbano  da  Bologna  (fl.  1334),  and  by 
Paolo  Veneto  (d.  1429),  who,  at  a  disputation  held  at  Bologna  in  the  presence 
of  800  Augustinians,  had  been  defeated  by  Niccolo  Fava  (d.  1439),  a  friend  of 
Filelfo2  and  an  early  representative  of  that  school  of  students  of  the  Greek  text 
which  was  to  dethrone  Averroes  in  the  following  century3.  Averroism  of  a 
much  more  moderate  type  than  that  of  Paolo  Veneto  had  been  expounded  at 
Padua  in  the  fifteenth  century  by  a  member  of  a  distinguished  family  of  Vicenza, 
named  Gaetano  da  Thiene  (1387 — i46s)4.  It  was  at  Padua  that,  in  the  same 
century,  the  first  printed  edition  of  Averroes  had  appeared  in  14/2,  followed  by 
a  new  edition  in  1552-3.  Averroism  was  combined  with  varying  degrees  of 
orthodoxy.  Even  the  celebrated  Thomas  de  Vio  (1469 — 1534),  who  became 
Cardinal  Cajetan  in  1517,  used  Averroes  as  his  text-book  at  Padua,  where  he 
counted  Pomponazzi  among  his  pupils.  Towards  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  the  extreme  Averroistic  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  the  immortal  reason  in 
the  whole  human  race  had  been  professed  at  Padua  by  Nicoletto  Vernias  from 
1471  to  1499,  but,  in  the  latter  year,  under  the  moderating  influence  of  the 
bishop  of  Padua,  Vernias  had  withdrawn  from  that  doctrine,  and  had  written 
in  favour  of  the  plurality  of  souls,  and  the  immortality  of  each  individual  human 
soul*.  Four  years  before  this  public  change  of  opinion,  he  had  become  remiss 
in  his  teaching,  and  he  found  himself  opposed  by  a  spirited  rival  in  the  person 
of  Pomponazzi,  who  broke  loose  from  the  dry  and  dull  routine  of  the  traditional 
exposition  of  Aristotle  and  Averroes  by  adopting  a  more  vigorous  and  varied 
style6. 

1  Renan,  Av.  339-42 4.  -  Epp.  i  29,  38  (1428). 

3  Tiraboschi,  vi  333  f,  343  f;  Renan,  Averroes,  344~64. 

4  Tiraboschi,  vi  345 ;  Renan,  Av.  3474.  5  Renan,  Av.  3524. 
6  Jovius,  Elogia,  no.  71 ;  Renan,  Av.  3534. 


l  id  ITALY.  [CENT.  xvi. 

While  agreeing  that  the  doctrine  of  Averroes  as  to  the  unity 
of  all  intellect  had  been  sufficiently  refuted  by  Thomas  Aquinas, 
Pomponazzi  held  that  Aristotle's  true  meaning  was  not  that  there 
was  a  plurality  of  immortal  intellects  (as  contended  by  Aquinas), 
but  that  the  human  soul,  including  the  rational  faculty,  was 
mortal.  For  this  interpretation  he  appealed  to  Alexander  of 
Aphrodisias,  who  identifies  the  active  mortal  intellect  with  the 
divine  mind  and  declares  the  individual  reason  of  each  man 
to  be  mortal1.  To  escape  from  the  imputation  of  heterodoxy, 
he  distinguished  between  two  orders  of  truth,  the  philosophical 
and  the  theological,  admitting  that  an  opinion,  which  was  philo- 
sophically true,  might  be  theologically  false.  Two  years  after  this 
youthful  teacher  had  begun  to  supersede  the  aged  Vernias,  the 
traditional  interpreters  of  Aristotle  were  set  aside  and  the  original 
Greek  text  restored  to  a  position  of  supremacy  by  a  scholar  of 
Albanian  origin  born  in  Venice,  who  had  attended  the  lectures 
of  Demetrius  in  Florence.  This  was  none  other 

Leonico 

than  Leonico  Tomeo  (1456 — 1531),  an  admirer  of 
Plato  and  of  Cicero2,  who,  by  the  vigour  of  his  attack  on  scholas- 
ticism, and  by  the  beauty  of  his  style,  opened  a  new  era  in  the 
scholarly  study  of  Aristotle.  While  he  effectively  recalled  atten- 
tion to  the  original  text,  he  treated  the  views  of  Averroes  with  the 
utmost  deference,  and  even  found  support  in  the  Arabic  inter- 
preter's psychology  for  a  reconciliation  of  Aristotle  with  Plato, 
and  a  proof  of  the  pre-existence  and  the  immortality  of  all  indivi- 
dual souls.  He  is  described  as  a  singularly  attractive  person,  a 
quiet  and  unambitious  bachelor,  whose  house,  no  less  than  his 
lecture-room,  was  frequented  by  earnest  students  in  quest  of 
knowledge.  Towards  the  end  of  his  long  life,  his  venerable 
appearance  was  enhanced  by  the  silvery  whiteness  of  his  flowing 
beard.  As  the  inmate  of  his  home  he  kept  a  tame  crane  for  no 
less  than  forty  years,  and,  not  long  after  the  loss  of  his  favourite 
bird,  he  died  of  old  age  at  75.  In  the  church  of  San  Francesco 
in  Padua  his  merits  are  commemorated  in  the  Latin  prose  of  an 

1  Ueberweg,  ii  13  E.T.     Pomponazzi,  who  was  ignorant  of  Greek,  doubt- 
less used  the  translation  of  Alexander,  irepl  faxy*,  D7  Girolamo  Donato  of 
Venice  (Brescia,  1495).     It  had  already  been  printed  in  Oxford,  1481. 

2  Erasmus,  Ciceronianus,  71,  ed.  1621. 


CHAP.  IX.]  LEONICQ.      ACHILLINI.  ill 

epitaph  written  by  Bembo,  who  also  honoured  his  memory  in  the 
impressive  epigram  : — 

'Naturae  si  quid  rerum  te  forte  latebat, 
Hoc  legis  in  magno  nunc  Leonice  Deo.'  l 

Pomponazzi  was  opposed  in  Padua  by  the  moderate  Averroist 
Alessandro  Achillini  (1463 — 1518).     The  war  that 

r  r  ^        i        •   r         i  i  Achillini 

arose  from  the  league  of  Cambrai  for  the  overthrow 
of  Venice  compelled  these  academic  combatants  to  transfer  their 
battlefield  to  Bologna,  where  Achillini  died  nine  years  afterwards. 
He  cherished  a  belief  in  the  orthodoxy  of  his  views,  by  distin- 
guishing (like  his  opponent)  between  theological  and  philosophic 
truth,  but  this  even  balance  of  opinion  is  not  maintained  in  the 
pagan  epitaph  which  was  placed  on  his  tomb  : — 

'  Hospes,   Achillinum  tumulo  qui  quaeris  in  isto, 

Fallen's,  ille  suo  iunctus  Aristoteli 
Elysium  colit,  et  quas  rerum  hie  cliscere  causas 

Vix  potuit,  plenis  nunc  videt  ille  oculis : 
Tu  modo,  per  campos  dum  nobilis  umbra  beatos 

Errat,  die  longum  ferfetuumque  vale.'2 

Meanwhile,  a  decree  of  the  Lateran  Council,  published  on 
19  Dec.  15 1 23,  had  condemned  all  who  maintained  either  the 
mortality  or  the  universal  unity  of  the  intelligent  soul.  The 
former  was  the  view  of  Alexander4,  the  latter  that  of  Averroes. 
The  same  Council  condemned  the  distinction  between  two  orders 
of  truth,  and  declared  everything  false  that  was  in  conflict  with 
revelation.  In  September,  1516,  Pomponazzi  produced  his 
celebrated  treatise  on  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  towards  the 
close  of  which,  after  stating  that  Aristotle  regards  the  soul  as 
mortal,  he  himself  concludes  that  the  immortality  of  the  soul  is 
a  neutral  problem,  that  the  soul  cannot  be  proved  by  natural 
reason  to  be  either  mortal  or  immortal,  but  that  its  immortality 
depends  on  revelation.  The  tone  and  spirit  of  the  work  are  clearly 
opposed  to  the  Lateran  decree,  but,  when  the  Dominicans  of 
Venice  urged  the  Pope  to  condemn  it,  the  question  was  referred 
to  the  papal  secretary,  Bembo,  who  (as  it  happened)  had  attended 

1  Jovius,  no.  81  (portrait  on  p.  170);    Tirabosclii,  vii  422  f. 

2  Jovius,  no.  57  (portrait  on  p.  112);  Tiraboschi,  vi  489  f. 

3  Labbe,  xix  842  f.  4  i.e.  Alexander  of  Aphrodisias. 


ii2  ITALY.  [CENT.  xvi. 

Pomponazzi's  lectures  at  Padua.  In  Bembo's  view  the  work 
contained  nothing  worthy  of  censure,  and  this  opinion  was 
judicially  approved  by  the  Master  of  the  Palace.  As  the  writer 
had  separated  the  region  of  philosophic  speculation  from  that 
of  Christian  belief,  he  was  acquitted,  especially  as  he  had  formally 
declared  that  he  did  not  adhere  to  anything  he  had  written,  save 
in  so  far  as  was  determined  by  the  Apostolic  See.  The  Pope, 
however,  entrusted  the  formal  refutation  of  the  treatise  to  a 
dexterous  controversialist,  Augustinus  Niphus,  who  had  produced 
a  complete  edition  of  the  works  of  Averroes  in  1495-7,  and  had 
passed  from  extreme  to  moderate  and  comparatively  orthodox 
Averroism1.  Pomponazzi,  a  person  of  diminutive  stature,  never 
dared  to  show  himself  in  Venice,  where  his  book  had  been  burned 
in  public ;  for  nine  more  years  he  enjoyed  the  safety  of  the  papal 
city  of  Bologna.  He  finally  resolved  on  starving  himself  to  death, 
and  on  departing  from  the  world  in  perfect  silence,  but  that 
silence  was  broken  by  a  few  brief  words  attesting  that  he  died 
without  the  hopes  inspired  by  Christianity2.  His  body  was  taken 
to  his  native  place,  where  he  was  buried  in  the  church  of  San 
Francesco,  while  a  bronze  statue  was  set  up  in  his  memory  by  his 
pupil,  the  Cardinal  Gonzaga3. 

Among  the  Latin  scholars  of  this  age  the  most  conspicuous 

was  Pietro   Bembo  (1470 — 1547).     His  father,  a 

Venetian   noble,  was  the  owner  of  the  celebrated 

Bembine  MS  of  Terence.    The  son  was  born  and  bred  in  Florence. 

He    afterwards    studied    Greek   under    Constantine   Lascaris   at 

Messina4,    and   philosophy   under   Pomponazzi   at   Padua.      On 

completing  his  education,  he  joined  his  father  at  the  brilliant 

court  of  Ferrara,  where  he  sang  the  praises  of  Lucrezia  Borgia 

in  elegiacs  modelled  on  those  of  Tibullus5,  and  dedicated  to  her 

the  most  graceful  of  his  Italian  works,  a  Platonic  dialogue  on 

1  Renan,  Av.  366-71*.  2  Pastor,  iii  113-5. 

3  See  Jovius,  no.  71  (portrait  on  p.  134).  On  Pomponazzi,  cp.  in  general 
Tiraboschi,  vii  425-31;  Renan,  Av.  353-66*;  F.  Fiorentino  (1868);  Geiger, 
Renaissance  u.  Humanismus,  289  f;  Creighton,  v  270-5;  Fairbairn  in  Camb. 
Mod.  Hist,  ii  702-4;  Pastor,  Gesch.  der  Papstc,  iv  (1906)  562  f;  also  R.  C. 
Christie's  Selected  Essays  (1902),  124 — 160. 

*  Cp.  his  description  of  Etna,  Ven.  1495  ;  Opera  (1567),  iii  41 — 69. 

5  Delitiae  CC  Ital.  Poet.  (1608),  i  354. 


CHAP.  IX.]  BEMBO.  113 

love1.  At  Urbino,  he  attended  the  court  of  Guidobaldo  da 
Montefeltro  (1506-8),  and,  in  Castiglione's  Cortegiano,i\.\$  Bembo 
who  discourses  on  the  same  Platonic  theme,  until  the  day  breaks 
and  the  star  of  love  alone  is  shining  in  the  summer  sky2.  At 
Rome,  in  1512,  he  was  soon  engaged  in  a  controversy  on 
Latin  style  with  Gianfrancesco  Pico  della  Mirandola  (1470 — 
1533),  the  scholarly  nephew  of  Politian's  brilliant  friend,  Giovanni 
Pico3.  In  this  controversy,  Pico  is  the  eclectic,  and  Bembo 
the  Ciceronian4.  In  the  following  year,  Leo  X,  on  his  accession, 
appointed  Bembo  one  of  the  papal  secretaries.  This  office  he 
held  during  practically  the  whole  of  Leo's  pontificate,  and  his 
official  letters,  in  their  published  form,  are  good  examples  of  an 
ultra-Ciceronian  style.  In  the  printed  edition,  the  papal  secre- 
tary lapses  into  some  of  the  strangely  pagan  phrases  that  were 
characteristic  of  the  age5.  The  Virgin  Mary  is  described  as 
Dea  ipsa* ;  Francis  I  is  exhorted  per  deos  atque  homines  to 
undertake  a  crusade  against  the  Turks7;  and  a  bishop  calls 
'  gods  and  men  '  to  witness  to  the  truth  of  his  statement8.  In 
the  '  History  of  Venice '  the  Senate  of  the  Venetian  Republic 
becomes  the  Patres  Conscripti,  the  Turks  are  transformed  into 
the  Thracians,  and,  by  a  still  stranger  anachronism,  the  '  im- 
mortal gods '  are  mentioned,  certainly  in  thirteen  passages,  and 
probably  in  many  more. 

Among  his  official  letters,  the  two  of  special  interest  to 
scholars  are  those  recommending  Janus  Lascaris  and  Longolius 

1  Gli  Asolani,  1504.  2  Symonds,  Italian  Byways,  137. 

3  p.  82  sufra. 

4  J.  Fr.  Picus  (19  Sept.  1512)  and  Petrus  Bembus  (i  Jan.  1513)  De  Imita- 
tioneaxe  both  printed  in  Bembo's  Opera  (Bas.  1567)  iii  i — 41,  and  by  themselves 
(c.    1513,    and  Jena,    1726).      Cp.   Erasmus,    Ciceroniames,   69    (ed.    1621); 
Sahbadini's  Ciceronianismo,  46;  Harvard  Lectures,  159. 

8  Gregorovius,  book  xiv,  c.  4  (viii  295  f,  E.T.). 

6  Epp.  viii  17.  7  Epp.  xv  17. 

8  Epp.  xii  24,  'obtestansque  deos  et  homines',  and,  ad  fin.,  'ex  quo  tamen 
et  uberior  a  Diis  immortalibus  gratia,  et  clarior  ab  hominibus  gloria  te  sequetur ' 
(to  Francis  I).  Pastor,  Gesc/i.  der  Ptipste,  iv  (1906)  433,  says:  'Die  meisten 
heidnischen  Ausdriicke  wurden  erst  spater  fiir  die  Druckausgabe  der  Briefe 
hinzugefugt;  in  den  Originalen,  die  aus  der  Kanzlei  Leos  X  versandt  wurden, 
findet  sich  die  Mehrzahl  jener  Wendungen  nicht'  (Anhang,  nr.  3). 

S.    II.  8 


ii4  ITALY.  [CENT.  xvi. 

to  the  favour  of  Francis  I1.  The  second  of  these  is  the  last 
of  the  series.  Shortly  before  the  death  of  Leo  in  1521,  Bembo 
had  withdrawn  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Padua,  where  he  formed 
a  choice  collection  of  medals,  inscriptions,  statues  and  pictures2. 
The  Terence,  which  he  had  inherited  from  his  father,  and  the  MS 
of  the  fragments  of  Virgil  (cent,  v),  ultimately  passed  into  the 
Vatican  Library.  He  brought  his  collections  to  Rome3  on  being 
made  a  Cardinal  in  1539.  It  was  after  that  date  that  he  acquired 
the  once  celebrated  Tabula  Isiaca*.  On  his  death  in  1547  he  was 
buried  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  sopra  Minerva,  and,  among 
the  Latin  poems  written  in  his  memory5,  there  are  some,  which, 
like  Castiglione's  Idyll  of  Alcon*,  and  the  Eclogues  of  Joannes 
Baptista  Amaltheus7,  may  well  be  regarded  as  the  Italian  proto- 
types of  Milton's  Lycidas.  In  his  perfect  mastery  of  pure  and 
correct  Latin  prose,  Bembo  is  the  typical  Ciceronian  of  his  time. 
His  interest  in  Latin  scholarship  is  displayed,  not  only  in  his 
treatise  De  Imitatione,  but  also  in  his  disquisition  on  the  Culex  of 
Virgil  and  on  the  plays  of  Terence,  composed  in  the  form  of  a 
dialogue  between  Pomponius  Laetus  and  Hermolaus  Barbarus8. 
Nine  years  after  his  death,  these  were  valued  by  Muretus9  more 
highly  than  their  author's  Latin  poems.  As  a  Latin  poet  he  has 
more  elegance  than  vigour.  His  early  elegiacs,  best  represented 
by  his  Galatea™  and  his  poem  De  Galeso  et  Maximo11,  are  mainly 
modelled  on  Tibullus,  Ovid,  and  Martial.  He  imitates  the 
hexameters  of  Catullus  in  the  poem  on  Benacus™,  and  his  hendeca- 

1  Epp.  xi  5,  and  xvi  30  (April,  1521). 

2  Villa  in  Opere  (Ven.  1729)  ;  copied  in  Wiese  and  Percopo,  328  f. 

3  Opere,  iii  266. 

4  Now  in  Turin  Museum,  a  spurious  product  of  the  age  of  Hadrian. 

5  Delitiae,  i  379 — 396,  esp.  380  f. 

6  Symonds,  ii  490  f. 

7  Selecta  Poemata  Italorum,  ed.  Pope  (1740),  i  23 — 37.     Ed.  vi  'Lycidas'; 
p.  14,,  pecudes,  alto  sub  sole,  requiram:  externasqite  petam,  diversa  per  aequora, 
terras  ('To-morrow  to  fresh  woods,  and  pastures  new  ') ;  p.  25,  at  vos  o  lauri; 
Eel.  viii  'Corydon';  p.  29,  En  iternm  ('Yet  once  more,  O  ye  laurels'). 

8  Ed.  1530;  also  in  Opera,  iii  70 — 128. 

9  Opera,  ii  525  ;  cp.  Harvard  Lectures,  170. 

10  Delitiae,  i  347.  n  i  364. 
12  i  306  (also  in  Sel.  Poemata  Ital.  ii  192). 


CHAP.  IX.]  SADOLETO.  1 1 5 

syllables  in  some  delightful  lines  defending  his  cultivation  of  his 
mother  tongue,  and  concluding  as  follows  : — 

'  Hac  uti  ut  valeas,  tibi  videndum  est ; 
ne  dum  marmoreas  remota  in  ora 
sumptu  construis  et  labore  villas, 
domi  te  calamo  tegas  palustri'1. 

His  hexameter  poem  on  the  river-god  Sarca,  the  '  father '  of  the 
Mincius,  closes  with  a  fine  apostrophe  on  Virgil2.  But,  of  all  his 
Latin  verses,  those  that  live  longest  in  the  memory  are  his  eulogy 
of  Politian,  ending  with  the  line,  Arbiter  Ausoniae,  Politiane, 
fyrae3 ;  and  two  of  the  shortest  of  his  epitaphs,  that  on  Actius 
Sincerus  Sannazarius  : — 

'  Da  sacro  cineri  floras :    hie  ille  Maroni 
Sincerus  Musa  proximus,  ut  tumulo'; 

and  that  on  Raphael : — 

'Hie  ille  est  Raphael,  tnetuit  quo  sospite  vinci 
Rerum  niagna  parens,  et  moriente  mori'4. 

Bembo's  colleague  as  papal  secretary  was  Jacopo  Sadoleto 
(1477 — 1547)5.     He  had  studied  at  Ferrara  under 

.  Sadoleto 

Leomcenus,  and  had  reached  Rome  in  the  pon- 
tificate of  Alexander  VI,  when  he  enjoyed  the  patronage  of 
Cardinal  Caraffa,  and  the  friendship  of  Scipio  Carteromachus. 
The  hexameter  poem,  in  which  he  celebrated  the  discovery  of  the 
Laocoon  in  1506,  was  one  of  the  most  memorable  compositions  of 
the  age.  In  the  enthusiasm  kindled  by  the  recent  discovery 
of  the  masterpiece,  the  poem  was  warmly  welcomed.  Bembo 
read  it  'a  hundred  times"5;  but  it  is  to  be  feared  that,  to  many 
modern  readers,  it  will  seem  as  polished  and  as  cold  as  the 

1  1365;  cp.  Symonds,  ii  415. 

2  Mai,  Spicilegium  Rom.  viii  488 — 504;  Burckhardt,  259  E.T. 

3  Delitiae,  i  375;  Jovius,  no.  38. 

4  Deliliae,  i  378  f.     On  Bembo,  cp.  Tiraboschi,  vii  938  f ;  Roscoe's  Leo  X, 
c.  16;  Greswell's  Politian  etc.  405-53*;  Symonds,  ii  410-5,  481-5;  Creighton, 
vi  199;  Cian,  Un  decennio  di  vitti  di  Bembo  (Torino,  1885);  and  Pastor,  Gesch. 
dcr  Ptipste,  iv  (1906)  430-4.     Portrait  by  Titian,  reproduced  on  p.  106;    cp. 
Phil.  Galleus,  Effigies,  i  (1572)  A  5. 

5  For  his  later  Letters,  cp.  Epp.  ed.  Balan  (Innsbruck,  1885). 

6  Epp.  Fam.  iii  23  (vol.  iv  p.  178  a,  ed.  Ven.  1729). 


1 16  ITALY.  [CENT.  xvi. 

marble  which  it  commemorates'.  His  far  longer  poem  on  the 
ancient  Roman  hero,  Marcus  Curtius,  has  much  more  life  and 
movement2.  In  his  maturer  years  he  wrote  Ciceronian  treatises 
De  Gloria  and  De  laudibus  philosophiae*.  The  influence  of 
Quintilian  is  apparent  in  his  dialogue  on  education,  where  the 
poets  passed  in  review  are  Homer  and  Virgil,  Plautus  and 
Terence,  and  a  new  emphasis  is  laid  on  the  study  of  Greek4.  His 
Letters  are  more  important  than  those  of  Bembo  for  the  light  that 
they  throw  on  the  literary  life  of  the  age ;  and  he  is  in  general  a 
man  of  wider  interests  and  of  far  finer  character  than  his  colleague. 
He  counted  Erasmus  among  his  correspondents,  and  had  the 
highest  regard  for  Melanchthon  and  Calvin.  He  was  made  bishop 
of  Carpentras  by  Leo  X,  and  a  Cardinal  by  Paul  III,  and  he  died 
in  the  same  year  as  Bembo  (i547)5.  . 

The  briefest  mention  must  suffice  for  the  '  learned  Muse '  of- 
Celio  Calcagnini  of  Ferrara  (1479 — 1541),  a  many- 

Calcagnini  \ 

sided  scholar,  who  saw  service  as  a  soldier,  was 
interested  in  law  and  astronomy,  collected  MSS,  and  severely 
criticised  the  De  Offidis  of  Cicero.  His  learning  has  been  lauded 
by  his  friend  Giraldi,  who  implies  that  his  Latin  verses  were 
a  mosaic  of  reminiscences  from  the  ancient  poets6.  Giraldi 
himself  is  among  those  addressed  in  his  hendecasyllables,  which 
are  in  general  more  successful  than  his  elegiacs.  But  a  place 
may  here  be  found  for  the  best  and  briefest  of  his  epigrams, 


1  Delitiae,  ii  582  f  (58  lines);  transcribed  by  Lessing  in  his  Laokoon,  c.  vi, 
where  it  is  considered  'worthy  of  an  ancient  poet'.     Cp.  Gregorovius,  viii 
146  f,  E.T. 

2  Delitiae,  ii  584 — 600;  Sel.  Poemata  Ital.  ii  181 — 191. 

3  Welcomed  by  Beml>o,  Epp.  Fam.  v  21,  as  a  masterpiece  of  Ciceronian 
style. 

4  De  Libris  Recte  Instituendis  (1534);  also  in  Opera,  iii  66 — 126  (Verona, 
1738).    Cp.Tiraboschi,  vii  312  ;  Gerini,  Scrift.pedag.de!  sec.  ^T/(Torino,  1891) ; 
Woodward's  Renaissance  Education,  c.  ix. 

B  Epp.  (Lyons,  1560) ;  Epp.  proprio  nomine  scriptae  (Rome,  1760-7);  Opera 
(Mainz,  1607;  Verona,  1737);  lllustrium  Imagines  (Rome,  1517).  Cp. 
Tiraboschi,  vii  308  f;  A.  Joly  (Caen,  1857);  Symonds,  ii  415;  Gregorovius, 
viii  327  f;  Pastor,  Gesch.  der  Pdpste,  iv  (1906)  434-6;  portrait  in  Boissard,  I 
xliv  262. 

De  Poetis  Nostrorum  Temporum,  ed.  Wotke  (1894)  33  f. 


CHAP,  IX.]  CALCAGNINI.      VIDA.  I  17 

'  Ut  tibi  mors  felix  contingat,  vivere  disce : 
ut  felix  possis  vivere,  disce  mori'1. 

The    foremost    Christian    poet    of    the    time    was    Marcus 
Hieronymus  Vida  (c.  1490 — 1566),  who  was  born 
at    Cremona,    and    spent    most    of  his   youth    at 
Rome   under  Julius  II  and  Leo  X.     Of  his  earlier   poems  the 
greatest  is  his  Art  of  Poetry'1.     He  was  the  first  of  the  many 
Italians  who  wrote  on  that  theme  in  the  sixteenth  century3.     His 
poem  is  mainly  inspired  by  Virgil.     But  he  is  distinctly  original 
in  laying  down  laws  of  imitative  harmony,  and  in  illustrating  them 
by  his  own  verse4.     He  is  apostrophised  in  the  well-known  lines 
of  Pope's  Essay  on  Criticism  : — 

'  Immortal  Vida :  on  whose  honour'd  brow 
The  Poet's  bays  and  Critic's  ivy  grow  ; 
Cremona  now  shall  ever  boast  thy  name, 
As  next  in  place  to  Mantua,  next  in  fame ' 5. 

His  didactic  poems  on  the  Management  of  Silkworms  and  on  the 
Game  of  Chess  are  singularly  skilful  compositions6.  The  former 
was  highly  appreciated  by  the  elder  Scaliger7,  and  the  latter  by 
Leo  X,  who  presented  the  poet  with  a  priory  at  Frascati,  and 
set  him  the  task  of  composing,  amid  the  beauties  of  nature,  an 
epic  poem  on  the  Life  of  Christ.  The  Christias,  which  was  thus 
begun  under  happy  auspices  in  the  age  of  Leo,  was  not  completed 
until  the  time  of  the  second  Medicean  Pope8.  It  is  more 
successful  in  the  general  treatment  of  its  sacred  theme  than 
Sannazaro's  poem  De  Partu  Virginis9. 

1  Delitiae,  i  520.  Cp.  Tiraboschi,  vii  870-3;  Roscoe's  Leo  X,  c.  21; 
Geiger,  Renaissance,  232  f.  He  revised  for  Aldus  the  ed.  princeps  of  Libanius 
OS'?)- 

a  Selecla  Poemata  Italorum,  i  131—189;  written  before  1520,  printed  1527. 

3  Spingarn,  Literary  Criticism  in  the  Renaissance,  i26f,  131  f. 

4  Selecta  Poemata  Italorum,  i  182-5. 

5  1.  705  f.     It  was  probably  this  eulogy  that  led  to  the  whole  poem  being 
translated  by  Chr.  Pitt. 

6  De  Bombyce,  and  De  ludo  scacorum  (Sel.Pocm.  Ital.  i  103—120,  190 — 210). 

7  Poetices  liber  vi  806  (1586). 

8  Cremona,  1535;  illustrated  ed.,  Oxford,  1725. 

9  Tiraboschi,  vii  1440-51 ;  Hallam,  i  431*;  Roscoe's  Leo  X,  c.  17  (ii  1540; 
Symonds,  ii  399;  Pastor,  Gesch.  der  Papste,  iv  (1906)  436-8  (and  the  literature 
there  quoted) ;  portrait  in  Wiese  and  Percopo,  282. 


n8  ITALY.  [CENT.  xvi. 

Among   the   correspondents   of  these   Roman    poets   was   a 
patrician   of  Venice,    Andreas  Navagero   (1483 — 

Navagero  .      .  . 

1529).  He  revised  for  the  Aldine  press  Quintilian 
and  Virgil  (1514),  Lucretius  (1516),  Ovid  and  Terence  (1517), 
Horace,  and  the  Speeches  of  Cicero  (1519).  The  three  volumes  of 
the  last  were  accompanied  by  Ciceronian  letters  of  dedication 
addressed  to  Leo  X,  Bembo  and  Sadoleto.  Among  the  works 
dedicated  to  himself  was  the  editio  princeps  (1514)  of  Pindar 
(whose  Odes  he  had  more  than  once  transcribed),  together  with 
editions  of  Cicero,  De  arte  rhetorica  and  Brutus  (1514-5),  and 
the  first  decade  of  Livy  (1518).  He  wrote  Latin  verse  of  singular 
beauty  and  purity  on  elegiac  and  idyllic  themes;  and  Giraldi 
has  praised  his  antiquae  simplicitatis  aemu/atio1.  So  deep  was  his 
detestation  of  Martial  that  once  a  year,  on  a  day  dedicated  to  the 
Muses,  he  solemnly  burnt  a  copy  of  that  poet's  epigrams2.  He 
found  relief  from  the  depression  caused  by  overwork  by  serving 
for  a  time  as  a  soldier.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  librarian  of 
San  Marco,  and  historiographer  of  Venice,  but  his  early  death,  as 
envoy  to  the  court  of  Francis  I  at  Blois,  led  to  the  History  being 
entrusted  to  Bembo.  Among  the  poets  and  scholars  of  his  age, 
he  is  one  of  the  purest  in  life  and  the  most  attractive  in  character3. 
The  fellow-students  of  Navagero,  at  the  philosophical  lectures 
of  Pomponazzi  at  Padua,  included  one  of  the  ablest 

Fracastoro 

authors  of  the  age,  Girolamo  Fracastoro  (1483 — 
I553)-  Devoted  to  the  study  of  music  and  astronomy,  he  was 
famous  as  a  physician  and  a  poet.  The  theme  of  the  most 
important  of  his  poems  was  the  terrible  scourge  that  first  ap- 
peared in  1495  among  the  French  soldiers  quartered  at  Naples4. 
A  theme  no  less  unpromising  had  been  vigorously  handled  by 
Lucretius  in  his  description  of  the  plague  of  Athens;  but 
Manilius  rather  than  Lucretius  is  the  model  of  Fracastoro.  The 
poem  was  dedicated  to  Bembo,  and  men  of  letters  admired  the 

1  P-  29>  31  Wotke ;  cp.  J.  C.  Scaliger,  Poet,  vi,  'Naugerii  stilus  generosus 
totus:  semper  enim  aliquid  vult,  quantum  potest'. 

2  Jovius,  no.  78;  portrait  in  Boissard,  I  (1597)  xliii  256. 

3  Opera  (Padua,  1718),  including  his  Variae  Lectiones  on  Ovid  ;   Poems  in 
Delitiae,  ii  104 — 135;  cp.  Greswell's  Politian  etc.  474-7^  Roscoe:s  fao  X, 
ii  163-7;  ESdG?*JUtJf**ttftt  4651";  Symonds,  ii  485-8. 

4  Bembo,  Hist.  Feneta,  iii  113,  ed.  1567. 


CHAP.  IX.]      NAVAGERO.      FRACASTORO.      FLAMINIO.        119 

poetic  skill  with  which  the  author  had  handled  an  undoubtedly 
difficult  topic.  Sannazaro  held  it  superior  to  anything  composed 
by  himself  or  any  of  his  brother-poets,  while  the  elder  Scaliger 
even  described  it  as  a  '  divine  poem ' '.  The  author  passed  a  large 
part  of  his  life  at  his  beautifully  situated  villa  near  Verona,  a 
villa  described  in  one  of  his  poetical  epistles2.  His  memory  was 
perpetuated  at  Padua  by  a  statue  of  bronze,  by  the  side  of  a 
similar  memorial  of  his  friend  Navagero ;  and  the  names  of 
both  are  united  in  a  monumentum  acre  perennius,  in  Fracastoro's 
celebrated  dialogue  Naugerius  (i555)3-  Navagero  not  only  sup- 
plies the  title  of  that  work,  but  is  also  the  principal  speaker,  as 
the  exponent  of  the  ideal  element  in  Aristotle's  theory  of  poetry4. 
A  pleasant  contrast  to  the  neo-paganism  of  not  a  few  of  the 
poets  of  this  age  is  presented  by  Marcantonio 

J  Flaminio 

Flaminio  of  Serravalle  (1498 — 1550),  who  is  de- 
scribed by  the  historian  of  Italian  literature  as  'a  name  no 
less  dear  to  Virtue  than  to  the  Muses'5.  In  his  early  youth  he 
presented  to  Leo  X  some  elegant  compositions  in  Latin  verse  ; 
but  he  cared  little  for  the  great  world  of  Rome.  Though  he 
spent  part  of  his  life  at  Urbino  and  Bologna,  and  at  Padua, 
Genoa  and  Naples,  and  visited  Venice  in  1536,  with  a  view  to 
supervising  the  printing  of  his  paraphrase  of  Aristotle's  Meta- 
physics, he  was  never  happier  than  at  his  villa  on  the  Lago  di 
Garda,  poring  over  his  Aristotle  or  writing  his  Latin  poems6. 

1  Foetices  liber  vi  817,  ed.  1586.     The  poem  De  Morbo  Galileo  is  printed 
in  Sel.  Poemata  flalomm,  i  53 — 95;  part  is  translated  in  Greswell's  Politian  etc. 
4792,  and  in  Roscoe's  Leo  X,  c.  17  (ii  160),  and  the  whole  by  Tate  in  Dryden's 
Miscellaneous  Poems,  v  333 — 381,  ed.    1716  (other  poems,  ib.   ii    198 — 235). 
The  author  himself  says,  in  his  dialogue  on  poetry,   'omnis  materia  poetae 
convenit,  dummodo  exornari  possit '. 

2  Ad  Franc.  Turrtanum,  quoted  and  translated  in  Greswell's  Politian  etc. 
464— 47 12. 

3  Fracastorii  Opera,  i  340;  Naugerii  Opera,  227 — 272. 

4  Spingarn,  Literary  Criticism  in  the  Renaissance,  31.     On  Fracastoro,  cp. 
Tiraboschi,  vii  1458;   Roscoe's  Leo  X,  c.  17;   Greswell's  Politian  etc.,  455 — 
491 2;  Symonds,  ii  477 — 481.     Portrait  in  Boissard,  i  xvii  128. 

5  Tiraboschi,  vii  1417  f. 

6  His  delight  in  a  rural  life  is  charmingly  expressed  in  his  poems  Ad  agellum 
suiim  and  Ad  Fr.  Tnrrianum  (in  Sel.  Poemata  Ital.  ii  53,  62).     Most  of  his 
poems  are  printed  in  Delitiae,  i  984 — 1045. 


ITALY.  [CENT.  xvi. 


His  verse  is  marked  by  piety  of  tone,  and  purity  of  theme,  as 
well  as  terseness  and  vigour  of  style.  A  volume  of  poems  by 
scholars  of  Northern  Italy,  which  he  sends,  about  1549,  to  his 
patron,  Cardinal  Alessandro  Farnese,  is  accompanied  by  a  set  of 
verses,  in  which  he  expresses  his  wonder  that,  after  the  dark  ages, 
and  after  all  the  ruin  that  has  since  befallen  Italy,  so  many  lights 
of  song  had  shone  forth  in  a  single  generation,  and  within  the 
narrow  bounds  of  Trans-Padan  Italy.  But  these  lights  alone  (he 
declares)  would  suffice  to  dispel  the  gloom  of  barbarism  and 
restore  the  splendour  of  Latin  letters;  they  would  add  eternal 
lustre  to  Italy,  while  Latin  was  now  studied,  not  only  by  the 
northern  nations,  but  even  in  the  New  World1. 

Such  are  some  of  the  principal  Latin  poets  of  that  age,  but 
there  are  many  whose  names  cannot  here  be  recounted,  though 
they  are  far  from  forgotten.  The  scholars  and  poets  of  Italy  have 
been  enumerated  by  Bartolommeo  Fazio  (d.  I457)2  and  by 
Cortesius  (d.  i5io)3.  Francesco  Arsilli  supplies  us  with  a 
hundred  epigrammatic  descriptions  of  the  poets  who  dwelt  on 
Leo's  Parnassus4.  In  1514,  no  less  than  a  hundred  and  twenty 
'poets'  laid  their  offerings  on  the  altar  in  the  church  of  Sant' 
Agostino5.  Two  hundred  'illustrious'  poets  of  Italy  are  included 
in  the  Delitiae  of  Janus  Gruter6.  Lilio  Giraldi  of  Ferrara 
(1479 — X552)  nas  crowned  his  dialogues  on  the  Greek  and  Latin 
poets  of  the  past  with  two  that  are  rich  in  delicate  discrimination 
of  the  many  poets  of  his  time7;  while  Paolo  Giovio  (1483 — 1552) 
has  published  his  'eulogies'  on  the  scholars  of  Italy,  whose  portraits 
he  had  gathered  round  him  in  his  villa  on  the  Lake  of  Como8. 

1  Carmina  (Padua,   1743),   122  f;    Poeinata  Sel.  Italorum  (Oxford,   1808), 
166;  Symonds,  ii  504-7.    Cp.  Tiraboschi,  vii  1417-32;  Roscoe's  Leo  X,  c.  17; 
Ores  well,  I.e.,  493 — sop2,  and  Fifty  Select  Poems  imitated  by  E.  W.  Barnard, 
with  a  memoir  (Chester,   1829);    Harvard  Lectures,   pp.  iv,  82;   portrait  in 
Carmina  (1743),  copied  in  \Viese  and  Percopo,  326. 

2  De  viris  ilhistribus.  3  De  hominibus  doc t is. 

4  De  Poetis  Urbanis  (1524),  reprinted  in  Tiraboschi,  vii  ad  fin.;  cp.  Roscoe's 
Leo  X,  c.  \i  ad  fin. 

6  Coryciana  (1524) ;  Roscoe,  I.e.',  Gregorovius,  viii  357  f;  Creighton, 
vi  121. 

6  Deliiiae  CC  Italorum  poetarum  hujus  superiorisque  aevi  illustrium  (1608). 

7  De  poetis  nostrorum  temporum  (Ferrara,  1548) ;  ed.  Wotke,  1894. 

8  Elogia  vcris  clarorum  virorum  imaginibus  apposita  (Ven.  1546);  Elogia 


CHAP.  IX.]  FULVIO..     LONGOLIUS.  121 

From  the  poets  we  turn  to  the  archaeologists.     A  collection  of 
Roman  inscriptions  founded  on  the  researches  of 

Roman  In- 

Fra  Giocondo  of  Verona,  and  probably  prepared  by  scriptions  and 
the  learned  Canon  Francesco  Albertini,  was  pub- 
lished in  Rome  by  Mazocchi  in  I52I1.  Meanwhile  in  1513 
Andrea  Fulvio  had  presented  to  Leo  X  a  description  of  the 
antiquities  of  Rome  in  Latin  verse.  This  archaeological  poet 
was  the  learned  adviser  of  Raphael,  who  studied  an  Italian 
translation  of  Vitruvius  specially  made  for  his  own  use  by  Marco 
Fabio  Calvi  of  Ravenna,  and  in  1518-9,  shortly  before  his  death, 
proposed  to  Leo  X  a  scheme  for  an  illustrated  plan  of  Rome 
divided  into  the  ancient  '  regions '.  The  scheme  bore  fruit  in  the 
prose  version  of  the  Antiquitates  of  Fulvio,  and  in  the  Plan  of 
Rome  by  Calvi,  both  published  in  the  year  of  the  ruin  of  Rome, 
the  fatal  152^. 

Rome,  which  had  been  visited  by  Erasmus  under  Julius  II, 
was,    in    the    age    of    Leo,    the   goal   of   another 

Longolius 

wanderer  from  the  North,  Christopher  Longolius 
(1488 — 1522).  Neither  the  study  of  the  law  at  Valence,  nor  its 
practice  in  Paris,  could  prevent  his  being  drawn  to  Rome  by  the 
'genius  of  Italy'3.  In  1517  he  entered  the  capital  in  the 
disguise  of  a  soldier  ;  his  disguise  was  soon  detected,  he  was 
hospitably  entertained  for  three  years,  and,  under  the  advice  of 
Bembo,  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  and  the  exclusive 
imitation  of  Cicero.  A  charge  of  treason  to  Rome,  founded  on 
the  fact  that,  as  a  student  in  France,  he  had  once  eulogised  the 
ancient  Gauls  at  the  expense  of  the  ancient  Romans,  drove  him 
from  Rome  to  Padua,  where  he  once  more  found  a  friend  in 
Bembo.  At  Padua  he  published  a  volume  of  Ciceronian  epistles, 
and,  in  1522,  he  died  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-four.  His  death 
was  lamented  by  all  the  scholars  of  the  day,  not  excluding 

doctorum  viroriim  (Bas.  c.  1556);  Elogia  virorum  literis  illustrium,  ex  ejtisdern 
Musaeo...iniaginibns  exornata  (Bas.  1577);  his  own  portrait  ib.  and  in  Uffizi. 
Cp.  Tiraboschi,  vii  908  f;  Gregorovius,  viii  344. 

1  Henzen,  Monatsber.  Berl.  Acad.  1868,  403  f;  Pastor,  Gesch.  der  Piipste, 
iv  (1906)  465. 

2  Pastor,  I.e.,  468,  n.  3  ;    Lanciani,  Golden  Days  of  the  Renaissance  (1906), 
245—252. 

:i  Epp.  iv  26,  '  felicem  ilium  ac  plane  divinum  Italiae  genium  sum  secutus'. 


122  ITALY.  [CENT.  XVI. 

Erasmus,  who,  in  his  Ciceronianus  (1523),  singles  him  out  as  a 
typical  Ciceronian1. 

Leo's  posthumous  fame  as  a  patron  of  learning  has  been  partly 
enhanced  by  the  phrase  of  Erasmus,  who  marked  the  transition 
from  Julius  II  to  Leo  X  in  the  words  : — '  an  age  worse  than  that 
of  iron  was  suddenly  transformed  into  an  age  of  gold'2.  Leo's 
'golden  days'  have  been  celebrated  in  Pope's  Essay  on  Criticism  ; 
and,  when  Leo  died,  his  tomb  was  strewn  with  verses  lamenting 
the  passing  away  of  the  'golden  age'3. 

Leo's  successor,  Adrian  VI  (1522-3),  cared  little  for  classical 
literature  or  Greek  art.  In  the  presence  of  an 

Adrian  VI  .  r 

envoy  from  Venice,  after  glancing  for  a  moment  at 
the  Laocoon  and  the  Apollo  Belvedere,  he  turned  away,  and  said 
with  a  sigh  : — '  They  are  the  idols  of  the  ancients'4. 

The  pontificate  of  the  second  Medicean  Pope,  Clement  VII 
(1523-34),  saw  a  brief  revival  of  learning.  Piero 

Clement  VII 

Valenano  of  Belluno  (1477 — 1558),  who  had  lived 

Valeriano 

in  Rome  since  1509,  and  had  been  a  favounte 
of  Leo  X,  and  a  friend  of  that  multifarious  scholar,  Cardinal 
Egidius  Canisius  of  Viterbo5,  was  now  recalled  from  Naples,  and 
appointed  professor  of  Eloquence6.  His  fame  as  an  antiquarian, 
as  a  critic  of  Virgil,  and  as  a  successful  imitator  of  Horace  and 
Propertius,  is  eclipsed  by  his  thrilling  account  of  the  calamities 
that  befell  the  scholars  of  his  time.  The  greatest  of  these 
calamities  was  the  Sack  of  Rome  by  the  Spanish  and  German 
troops  of  Charles  V  in  the  month  of  May,  1527 7.  In  that 
overwhelming  catastrophe  many  an  artist  and  many  a  scholar 
perished,  or  suffered  grievous  losses,  or  passed  into  exile.  The 
learned  recluse,  who  had  aided  Raphael  in  the  study  of  Vitruvius, 
died  a  miserable  death  in  a  hospital ;  the  literary  critic  of  the 

1  p.   82  f,    ed.   1621.      Cp.  Jovius,  no.   67    (portrait   on  p.  127,    and   in 
Bullart's  Academie,  ii  (1682)  156);    Sabbadini,  Ciceronianismo,   52 — 60;  Gre- 
gorovius,  viii  361  f;  Harvard  Lectures,  i6of. 

2  Ep.  174.  3  Gregorovius,  viii  432. 

*  Negri  in  Lettere  di  Principi,  i  113  (Venice,  1581);  cp.  Valeriano,  ii  34. 
6  Gregorovius,  viii  341  f. 

6  Portrait   (in  fur  cloak,    with  strong   face   and    fine  eyes)    in    Philippus 
Galleus,  Effigies,  ii  (Antwerp,  1577)  36. 

7  Creighton,  vi  339 — 344,  and  Diaries  quoted  ib.  381-3,  418 — 437. 


CHAP.  IX.]  THE   SACK   OF   ROME.  123 

Latin  poets  of  that  age,  Lilio  Giraldi,  had  to  lament  the  loss  of  all 
his  books;  the  writer  of  the  eulogies  of  learned  men,  Paolo 
Giovio,  was  bereft  of  his  only  copy  of  part  of  the  first  decade  of 
his  great  History  of  Rome,  while  the  head  of  the  Roman  Academy 
saw  most  of  his  fine  collection  of  MSS  and  antiquities  dispersed 
and  destroyed.  Valeriano  was  absent  from  Rome  during  this 
appalling  calamity,  but  on  his  return  he  found  in  the  strange 
adventures  of  those  who  had  lingered  in  the  doomed  city,  much 
of  the  material  for  his  work  'on  the  misfortunes  of  scholars'1. 
Giovio,  at  the  close  of  his  brief  biographies,  bids  a  sad  farewell 
to  the  scholars  of  his  own  nation.  The  Germans,  he  laments, 
'  have  robbed  exhausted  Greece  and  slumbering  Italy  of  the 
ornaments  of  peace,  of  learning,  and  of  the  flower  of  the  arts'. 
Yet  this  'hostile  age'  has  left  us  'something  of  our  ancient 
heritage'.  'If,  after  the  almost  utter  loss  of  liberty,  we  may  still 
glory  in  anything,  we  may  boast  that  we  hold  the  citadel  of 
imperishable  eloquence.'  Every  citizen  of  Rome  must  'guard 
this  post,  in  order  that  under  the  banner  of  Bembo  and  Sadoleto, 
we  may  heroically  defend  the  remnant  of  the  great  bequest  of  our 
forefathers'2. 

Immediately  after  the  great  disaster,  men  were  saying  on 
all  sides  that  the  light  of  the  world  had  perished.  Sadoleto, 
who  had  left  for  his  bishopric  in  the  South  of  France,  wrote  to 
the  head  of  the  Roman  Academy  recalling  those  happy  meetings 
that  had  now  been  broken  up  by  the  cruel  fate  of  Rome3.  He 
himself  received  a  letter  from  Bembo,  who  had  withdrawn  to 
Padua,  exhorting  him  to  bury  their  common  misfortunes  in  a  life 
of  study4;  and  another  from  Erasmus,  saying  that  this  terrible 
event  had  affected  the  whole  earth;  for  Rome  was  not  only  the 
fortress  of  the  Christian  religion,  the  instructress  of  noble 
minds,  but  also  the  mother  of  the  nations  ;  her  fall  was  not  the 
fall  of  the  city,  but  of  the  world5. 

1  DC  literatonini  infelicitate,  Venice,   1620;    cp.  Roscoe's  Leo  A",   c.  21; 
Gregorovius  viii  334,  357,  651  ;  Symonds,  ii  443  f. 
-  Elogia,  ad  fin.;  Gregorovius,  viii  350. 

3  Sadoleto,  Efp.  i  106.     Cp.  Gregorovius,  viii  654  f. 

4  Bembo,  Epp.  Fain,  iii  24. 

5  Erasmus,  Ep.  988. 


History  of  Scholarship  in  the  Sixteenth  Century. 


Italy 

Spain  and 
Portugal 

France 

Netherlands 

England  and 
Scotland 

Germany 

Janus   Lascaris 

Ant.     Nebriss- 

Wimpfeling 

1445-1535  . 

ensis  1444—1522 

1450—1528 

Aldus  Manutius 

Reuchlin 

M49—  15*5 

I455-I522 

Beroaldus  1 

Grocyn 

Conrad  Celtes 

1453-1505 

1446-1519 

I459—I.508 

Leonico  Tonieo 

Linacre 

Trithemius 

1456—1531 
Sannazaro 

Budaeus 
1467—1540 

Erasmus 
1466-1536 

1460—1524 
Colet 

1462—1516 
Peutinger 

M58-I539 

Corderius 

1467-1519 

1465-1547 

Pomponazzi 

1479—1564 

Lily  1468—1522 

Busche 

1462—1565 

J.  0.  Scaiiger 

Vives(in  Nether- 

More 

1468—1534 

Achillini 

1484—1558  (in 

lands  1512  22, 

1478-1535 

Pirkheimer 

1463-  1518 

Fran  061523-5  3) 

1525-40) 

Croke 

1470^530 

Machiavelli 

Rabelais 

1489—1558 

HeatusRhenanus 

1469—1527 

1490-1553 

1485-1547 

Musurus 

Danesius 

Eobanus  Hessu* 

1470-  1517 

1497—1577 

1488—1540 

Bembo 

NoniusPincianus 

Toussain 

Glareanus 

1470—1547 

I47I-I552 

1498—1547 

1488—1563 

Beroaldus  11 

R.  Stephanus 

Nannius 

Petrus     Mosel- 

1472—1518 

1503—1559 

1500—1557 

lanus 

Sadoleto 

Dorat 

Buchanan 

1493—1524 

M77-I547 

1502—1588 

1506  —  1582 

Grynaeus 

Calcagnini 

Dolet 

1493—1541 

M79—I54I. 

I509—  1546 

Gelenius 

Lilio  Giraldi 

Le  Roy 

Pulmannus 

1497—  J554 

M79-I552 

I5IO-I577 

1510—1590 

Melanchthon 

Navagero 

i  urnebus 

H.  Junius 

M97—  '560 

1483—1529 

1512-  1565 

1511-1575 

Rivius 

Paolo  Gio*  io 

Dalechamps 

1500—1553 

1483-1552 

15*3—  15<# 

Camerarius 

Fracastoro 

Amyot 

Cheke 

1500-1574 

1483—1553 

I5I3—I593 

1514—1557 

Micyllus 

J.  C.  Scaliger 

Vergara 

Raraus 

Petreius  Tiara 

Ascham 

1503—1558 

1484—1558  (in 

I484—I545 

I5I5—I572 

1516—1588 

1515-1568 

Sturm 

Italy  —1529) 

1.  am  bin  us 

Pighius 

1507—  "589 

Longolius 

1520—1572 

1520—1604 

Conrad  Gesner 

1488—1522  (in 

De  Grouchy 

1516—1565 

Italy  1517-22] 

1520—1572 

G.  Fabricius 

Vida 

Vives 

Cujas 

1516—1571 

1490—1566 

1492-1540 

1522—1590 

H.  Wolf 

Flaminio 

Clenardus 

Hotman 

1516—1580 

1498—1550 

I495—I542 

1524—1590 

B.  Faber 

Nizolius 

Reseiide 

Muretus 

1520—1576 

1498-1566 

1498-1573 

1526—1585 

F.  Fabricius 

Victorius 

Doneau 

1525-1573 

M99-I585 

1527—1591 

Vulcanius 

Golding 

Martin  Crusius 

Paleario 

H.  Stephanus 

1538—1614 

1536—1605 

1526—1607 

1504-1570 

1528-31—  1598 

J.  J.  Scaliger 

Xylander 

Castelvetro 

Osorio 

P.  Daniel 

1540-1609  (at 

1532—1576 

1505—  I571 

1506—1584 

1530—1603 

Leyden  1593  — 

Sylburg 

Fr.  Portus 

Ant.  Augustinus 

Brisson 

1609) 

1536  -1596 

1511—1581 

1517—1586 

I53I—I59I 

W.  Canter 

Savile 

Rhodoman 

Majoragius 

Sanctius 

Montaigne 

1542—1575 

1549—  1£22 

1546—1606 

I5I4-I555 

1523—1601 

1533—  J592 

Cruquius   ed. 

Frischlin 

Robortelli 

Nunnesius 

Passe  rat 

Horace  1578 

I547-I590 

1516—1567 

d.  1602 

1534—1602 

Janus  Dousa  I 

Phil.  Holland 

Aem.  Portus 

Sigonius 

Ach.  Statins 

Pierre  Pithou 

1545-1604 

1552—1637 

1550—1615 

1524—1584 

1524—1581 

1539-1596 

Lipsius 

Chapman 

Guilielmus 

Muretus 

P.  Ciacconius 

J.  J.  Scaligcr 

1547-1606 

1559—1634 

1555—1584 

1526-1585  (in 

1525—1581 

1540—1609 

A.  Schott 

Owen 

Hoeschel 

Italy  1554-85) 

Gothofredus 

1552—1629 

1560  —  1622 

1556—1617 

Panvinio 

Alvarez 

J549—  J62i 

Modius 

A.  Melville 

Gruter 

1529-  1568 

1526—1583 

Bongars 

1556—1599 

1565—1622 

1560—1627 

Patrizzi 

A.  Ciacconius 

1554-1612 

Janus  Dousa  II 

Drummond 

Taubmann 

152?—  1597, 

1540—1599 

Casaubon 

1571—  J597 

1585-1649 

1565—1613 

Fulvio  Orsini 

Cerda 

1559-1614 

FranciscusDousa 

Johnston 

Acidalius 

1529—1600 

1560—1643 

Mercier  d.  1626 

1577—1606 

1587—1641 

I567—I595 

BOOK    II. 

THE   SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 


Videmus  Latinam  eruditionem,  quamvis  impend iosam,  citra 
Graecismum  mancam  esse  ac  dimidiatam.  Apud  nos  enim  rivuli 
vix  quidam  sunt  ef  lacunculae  lutulentae ;  apud  illos  fontes  pnris- 
simi  et  flumina  durum  volventia. 

ERASMUS,  Ep.  149  ed.  Allen,   1906  ;    (Paris,  1501). 

Capessite  ergo  sana  studio, ... ;  veteres  Latinos  colite,  Graeca 
amplexamini,  sine  quibus  Latina  tractari  neqneunt.  Ea  pro 
omnium  litterarum  usu  ingenium  alent  mitius,  atque  elegantius 
undequaque  red  dent. 

MELANCHTHON,  De  Corrigendis  Adulescentiae 
Studiis,  ad  fin.  (Wittenberg,   1518). 

Linguae  Graecae  osoribus  ita  responsum  volo,  omnem  elegantem 
doctrinam,  omnem  cognitionem  dignam  hominis  ingenui  studio,  uno 
verbo,  quicquid  usquam  est  politiorum  dtsdplinarum,  nullis  a/iis, 
quam  Graecorum  libris  ac  literis,  contineri. 

MURETUS,   Or.  ii  iv  (Rome,   1573). 


ERASMUS  (15-23). 

From  the  portrait  by  Holbein  in  the  salon  carre  of  the  Louvre. 
(Photographed  by  Messrs  Mansell.) 


CHAPTER    X. 

ERASMUS. 

IN  tracing  the  history  of  humanism,  our  natural  course  at  the 
present  point  would  be  to  turn  from  Italy  to  the  other  countries  of 
Europe  and  to  embark  on  a  survey  of  the  Revival  of  Learning  in 
each.  But  there  is  one  eminent  scholar  whose  life  and  influence, 
so  far  from  being  confined  to  his  native  land,  are  even  more  closely 
connected  with  France,  England,  Italy,  Germany  and  Switzerland 
than  with  the  land  of  his  birth.  Our  survey  of  the  early  history  of 
scholarship  beyond  the  bounds  of  Italy  will  therefore  be  preceded 
by  some  account  of  Erasmus,  so  far  as  his  remarkable  career  was 
connected  with  Classical  Scholarship. 

Erasmus  was  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1466.  He  was  the  second 
of  the  two  sons  of  Gerard  of  Gouda,  near  Rotterdam, 

Erasmus 

and  Margaret  of  Zevenberge  in  Brabant.  His  father 
was  in  priest's  orders  at  the  time  of  his  birth,  and  the  name 
Erasmus  was  that  of  a  martyred  bishop  of  Campania,  who  was 
revered  in  the  Low  Countries,  as  well  as  in  England1.  The  Latin 
equivalent,  Desiderius,  was  adopted  by  Erasmus  himself,  whose  full 
name  in  the  old  Latin  style  was  Desiderius  Erasmus  Rotterodamus. 
In  his  ninth  year  he  was  sent  to  school  at  Deventer,  where  the 
mediaeval  text-books  of  Grammar  were  still  in  use,  and  his  high 
promise  was  there  recognised  in  1484",  when  the  school  was 
visited  by  Rudolphus  Agricola,  afterwards  described  by  Erasmus 
himself  as  '  the  first  who  brought  from  Italy  some  breath  of  a 
better  culture'3.  In  the  same  year  he  was  removed  to  a  school 
at  Bois-le-Duc,  distinctly  inferior  to  that  at  Deventer,  though 

1  F.  M.  Nichols,  Epistles  of  Erasmus,  i  37  f. 

2  P.  S.  Allen,  Epp.  Erasmi  (1906),  i  p.  581. 

3  p.  i  of  Ep.  ad Botzhennim,  30  Jan.  1524  (Leyden  ed.  of  Opera,  i  init.). 


128        HOLLAND,   FRANCE,   ENGLAND,   ITALY.     [CENT.  XV  f 

founded  by  the  Brothers  of  the  Common  Life1;  in  1487  he  entered 
an  Augustinian  monastery  near  Gouda;  and  in  1492  was  ordained 
priest.  The  ten  years  spent  in  that  monastery  happily  left  him 
much  leisure  for  study,  and  among  the  works  that  he  there  wrote 
was  an  abridgement  of  the  Elegant 'iae  of  Lauren  tius  Valla.  He 
next  entered  the  service  of  the  bishop  of  Cambrai,  who  sent  him 
to  Paris,  where  he  wrote  a  laudatory  preface  to  a  Latin  history  of 
France  and  thus  became  known  to  Colet.  In  Paris  he  learnt  a 
little  Greek,  but  made  his  living  mainly  as  a  teacher  of  Latin, 
counting  among  his  pupils  one  of  his  future  patrons,  the  youthful 
Lord  Mountjoy,  whom  he  accompanied  to  England  in  1499.  He 
was  welcomed  by  Colet  at  Oxford,  and  by  More  and  Warham  in 
London.  Early  in  the  following  year  he  returned  to  Paris,  there 
to  resume  the  work  which  he  describes  in  the  pathetic  words : — 
'  my  Greek  studies  are  almost  too  much  for  my  courage,  while  I 
have  not  the  means  of  procuring  books,  or  the  help  of  a  master'2. 
He  is  conscious  that  'without  Greek  the  amplest  erudition  in  Latin 
is  imperfect'3,  and,  of  his  early  study  of  Homer,  he  says  (like 
Petrarch)  '  I  am  refreshed  and  fed  by  the  sight  of  his  words,  even 
when  I  cannot  always  understand  him'4.  In  1500  he  produced 
his  Adagia,  and,  in  the  following  year,  an  edition  of  Cicero  De 
Ojficiis,  besides  working  at  Euripides  and  Isocrates.  For  part  of 
1502-3  he  resided  at  Louvain,  where  he  studied  Lucian  in  the 
newly  published  Aldine  text  of  1503:  His  return  to  Paris  was 
followed  by  a  visit  to  London,  where  (early  in  1506)  he  presented 
Warham  with  a  translation  of  the  Hecuba,  and  Fox  with  a  rendering 
from  Lucian,  whom  he  continued  to  translate  in  conjunction  with 
More.  In  June  he  left  for  Italy,  visiting  Turin,  where  he  received 
the  degree  of  Doctor  in  Divinity  ;  Florence,  which  appears  to  have 
attracted  him  but  little;  Bologna,  where  (as  we  have  already  seen) 

1  The  school  to  which  Erasmus  was  removed  in  his  i.}.th  year  is  described 
by  himself  as  one  of  those  belonging  to  the  Fratres  Collationarii  (Ep.  442),  i.e. 
the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life.     Cp.  Delprat's  History  of  the  Confraternity 
(Utrecht,    1830),    196,    313^    quoted   (with    other   passages)   in   a  letter  to 
Dr  A.  W.  Ward  from  F.  van  der  Haeghen  of  Ghent. 

2  iii  80;  Nichols,  Epp.  \  233;  Ep.  123,  p.  285  Allen. 

3  iii  9680;  36  and  968  ;  De  Ratione  Studii,  §  3;  Ep.  129,  p.  301  Allen. 

4  iii  78;  Nichols,  i  270;  Ep.  131,  p.  305  Allen.    Woodward's  Erasmus, 
ii  135- 


CHAP.  X.]  ERASMUS.  129 

he  worked  quietly  at  Greek ;  Venice,  where  (as  a  guest  of  Aldus) 
he  prepared  a  second  edition  of  his  Adagia;  Padua,  where  he 
attended  the  lectures  of  Musurus,  and  then  passed  through 
Florence  and  Siena  to  Rome,  where  he  was  far  less  interested  in 
its  old  associations,  its  '  ruins  and  remains ',  its  '  monuments  of 
disaster  and  decay',  than  in  the  libraries  and  in  the  social  life  of 
the  papal  city1.  Returning  to  England  in  1509,  he  published  his 
famous  satire,  the  Moriae  Encomium.  Soon  afterwards  he  found 
a  home  in  Cambridge2,  where,  under  the  influence  of  John  Fisher, 
bishop  of  Rochester,  he  became  Lady  Margaret  Professor  of 
Divinity.  His  rooms  were  near  the  south-east  corner  of  the 
inner  cloistered  court  of  Queens'.  It  was  there  that  in  October, 
1511,  he  taught  Greek  to  a  little  band  of  Cambridge  students, 
using  for  his  text-book  the  Grammar  of  Chrysoloras,  and  hoping 
to  begin  that  of  Theodorus  Gaza,  if  he  could  obtain  a  larger 
audience3.  Meanwhile,  he  was  aiding  Colet  in  his  great  design 
for  the  future  school  of  St  Paul's  by  writing  his  treatise  De 
Ratione  Studii  (1511),  as  well  as  a  work  on  Latin  composition, 
De  Copia  Rerum  et  Verborum  (1512),  and  a  text-book  of  Latin 
Syntax,  founded  on  Donatus  (1513).  He  was  also  producing 
Latin  renderings  from  the  Moralia  of  Plutarch,  and  was  beginning 
to  prepare  his  edition  of  St  Jerome,  and  his  text  of  the  Greek 
Testament.  Early  in  1514  he  left  Cambridge  with  a  view  to  the 
publication  of  these  works  at  Basel  in  1516.  His  edition  of  the 
Greek  Testament,  the  first  that  was  actually  published,  was  accom- 
panied with  a  Latin  version  and  with  notes  suggested  by  those  of 
Valla,  which  Erasmus  had  discovered  in  I5054.  1516  was  also  the 
date  of  the  first  edition  of  his  famous  Colloquies.  The  years 
between  1515  and  1521  were  spent  mainly  at  Basel  and  Louvain, 
where  he  aided  in  organising  the  Collegium  Trilingue  for  the  study 
of  Hebrew,  Greek  and  Latin.  In  the  spring  of  1522  he  returned 
to  Basel,  making  it  his  home  for  the  next  seven  years.  He  there 
published  his  Ciccronianus  (1528),  a  celebrated  dialogue  on  Latin 

1  De  Nolhac,  Erasme  en  Italic,  1888  (cp.  p.  91  supra). 

2  Aug.   1511 — Jan.   1514.     He    had    paid    a  brief  visit   in    1506  (Allen,   i 
p.  590  f ). 

3  Ep.  123  (iii  no);  cp.  Ep.  233,  p.  473  Allen. 

4  Cp.  Ep.  182,  p.  406  f  Allen. 

S.    II.  9 


130  GERMANY,   SWITZERLAND.  [CENT.  XVJ. 

style,  in  which  he  vigorously  protests  against  limiting  the  modern 
cultivation  of  Latin  prose  to  a  slavish  and  pedantic  imitation  of 
the  vocabulary  and  phraseology  and  even  the  very  inflexions  of 
Cicero.  The  dialogue  aroused  the  bitter  attacks  of  the  elder 
Scaliger  and  of  Etienne  Dolet1.  In  the  same  year  he  also 
produced  his  treatise  De  Recta  Latini  Graecique  Sermonis  Pro- 
nuntiatione,  which,  in  process  of  time,  led  the  northern  nations  of 
Europe  to  adopt  the  '  Erasmian '  pronunciation  of  Greek  in 
preference  to  that  which  Reuchlin  had  derived  from  the  modern 
Greeks  and  had  introduced  into  Germany.  In  the  pronunciation 
adopted  by  Reuchlin  the  vowels  ij,  i,  v  and  the  diphthongs  01  and 
ai  were  all  pronounced  like  the  Italian  /,  while  av  and  eu  were 
pronounced  like  af  or  av,  and  </or  ev.  'The  Erasmians  main- 
tained... that,  among  the  ancients,  each  vowel  or  diphthong  had 
its  own  proper  sound,  a  like  the  Italian  a,  iota  like  the  Italian 
*,  v  like  the  French  u  or  German  u,  e  and  rj  like  the  Italian  short 
and  long  e  respectively,  and  that  the  diphthongs  had  the  sound 
which  results  from  the  combined  sounds  of  their  component 
letters.  They  proved  also  that  /?  had  the  sound  of  our  b,  y  of 
our  hard  g,  8  of  our  d,  £  of  ds,  x  of  hard  ch...;  that  T  and  TT 
should  always  "retain  the  sound  of  /  and  /,  and  that  the  initial 
aspirate  should  be  sounded  as  h'2. 

In  1529  Erasmus  gave  to  the  world  the  maturest  of  his  educa- 
tional treatises  in  a  work  De  Pueris  statim  ac  liberaliter  Erudiendis. 
In  the  same  year  he  left  Basel  for  Freiburg  on  the  verge  of  the 
Black  Forest,  where  he  was  still  living  when  his  edition  of  Terence, 
the  most  important  of  his  classical  recensions,  was  published3.  In 
1534  he  returned  to  Basel,  and  worked  at  his  edition  of  Origen. 
He  was  engaged  on  a  new  edition  of  his  Letters,  and  on  other 
work,  when  he  died  in  the  summer  of  1536. 

The  art  of  Holbein  and  of  Diirer,  with  some  slight  touches 
derived  from  tradition,  enables  us  to  picture  his  personal  appear- 
ance as  a  man  of  slight  but  well-built  figure,  with  bluish  grey  eyes 
and  light  brown  hair,  a  face  characterised  by  a  quiet  humour,  and 
a  calm  and  steady  gaze,  blended  with  a  caution  that  verges  on 

1  Cp.  Harvard  Lectures,  162  —  167,  and  pp.  177-8  infra. 
z  W.  G.  Clark  in  Journal  of 'Philology ',  l  no  2,  98 — 108  ;  Egger,  Hellenisme 
en  France,  i  451 — 470.  3  Basel,  1532. 


CHAP.  X.]  ERASMUS.  131 

timidity1.  The  inscription  on  the  portrait  by  Diirer8,  as  well  as  a 
phrase  in  the  author's  own  Letters3,  tells  us  that  a  better  picture 
may  be  found  in  his  writings.  We  there  find  proof  of  an  unwearied 
industry  brightened  by  a  quick  apprehension,  a  vivid  fancy,  and  a 
playful  wit,  acuteness  of  observation  and  vigour  of  intellect  rather 
than  depth  of  thought,  wide  and  varied  learning  expressed  with 
facility  in  a  flowing  style  that  is  free  from  a  ponderous  and  pre- 
tentious pedantry,  and  never  aims  at  elegance  for  its  own  sake. 
Erasmus  is  a  representative  not  so  much  of  Greek  as  of  Latin 
scholarship,  and  of  Latin  verse  far  less  than  of  Latin  prose.  The 
strength  as  well  as  the  occasional  weakness  of  his  character,  and 
the  wide  extent  of  his  influence,  are  amply  attested  in  his  Letters. 
His  varied  learning  is  best  seen  in  his  Adagia,  where  his  erudite 
illustrations  of  the  meaning  of  ancient  proverbial  phrases  are  often 
curiously  diversified  by  pungent  criticisms  on  modern  priests  and 
princes4;  and  the  same  satirical  element  is  constantly  recurring  in 
his  Colloquies.  He  has  rendered  service  to  the  cause  of  education 
not  only  by  his  general  treatises  on  the  subject,  but  also  by  the 
lucid  text-books  on  syntax  and  style  that  soon  superseded  the  dull 
mediaeval  manuals.  He  translated  into  Latin  the  Greek  Grammar 
of  Theodoras  Gaza,  and  supplied  a  Latin  Syntax  founded  on 
Donatus.  He  represents  scholarship  on  its  formal  side,  grammar, 
style  and  rhetoric.  He  promoted  the  study  of  models  of  pure 
Latinity,  such  as  Terence  and  Cicero.  The  other  Latin  books 
that  he  recommends  for  use  in  schools  are  select  plays  of  Plautus, 
with  Virgil  and  Horace,  Caesar  and  Sallust.  In  Greek  he  approves 
Lucian,  Demosthenes,  Herodotus,  Aristophanes,  Homer  and 
Euripides5.  His  own  editions  of  Latin  authors  comprise  Seneca 
(1515),  Suetonius  (1518),  certain  works  of  Cicero  (1518-32),  with 
Pliny  (1525)  and  Terence  (1532).  His  Greek  texts  belong  to  the 
last  five  years  of  his  life  and  include  Aristotle  (1531)  and  Ptolemy 
(1533).  He  also  produced  recensions  of  St  Ambrose,  St  Augustine 
and  St  Chrysostom,  with  three  editions  of  St  Jerome.  Lastly,  we 

1  Beatus  Rhenanus  (Nichols,  i  36) ;  Mullinger's  Cambridge,  i  491  ;  Jebb's 
Erasmus,  5  f. 

2  rrjv  Kpeirrw  TO.  ffvyypdfj.iJ.aTa.  5«'£a  (1525). 

3  Ef.  428  (iii  446),  optimam  Erasmi  partem  in  libris  videre  licet,  quoties 
lihet  (i  June,  1519).  4  Cp.  Hallam,  Lit.  i  280-5. 

5  De  Ratione  Studii,  §  3  ;  ed.  Woodward,  112. 

9—2 


132  THE   NORTHERN    NATIONS.          [CENT.  XVI. 

cannot  forget  his  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament  (1516).  In  the 
preface  to  that  work,  the  scholar,  who  had  done  so  much  for 
secular  as  well  as  for  sacred  learning,  points  the  contrast  between 
those  two  branches  of  scholarship  in  the  words: — 

'  aliorum  litterae  sunt  eiusmodi  ut  non  parum  multos  paenituerit  insumptae 
in  illis  operae...at  felix  ille  quern  in  hisce  litteris  meditantem  mors  occupat'1. 

Even  as  Petrarch  marks  the  transition  from  the  Middle  Ages 
to  the  Revival  of  Learning,  so,  in  the  early  history  of  learning, 
Erasmus  marks  the  transition  from  Italy  to  the  northern  nations 
of  Europe.  'I  used  my  best  endeavour'  (he  declared)  'to  deliver 
the  rising  generation  from  the  depths  of  ignorance  and  to  inspire 
them  with  a  taste  for  better  studies.  I  wrote,  not  for  Italy,  but  for 
Germany  and  the  Netherlands'*.  Before  turning  to  the  northern 
nations,  we  propose  to  trace  the  History  of  Scholarship  in  Italy 
in  the  age  that  immediately  succeeded  the  Revival  of  Learning. 

1  The  following  is  a  small  part  of  the  literature  on  Erasmus.     Opera,  ed. 
J.    Clericus   (Leyden)   in   eleven   folio   vols.    (1703-6);    Life  etc.  by  Jortin 
(1758-60);    De  Laur    (1872);    R.  B.    Drummond   (1873);    Fougere   (1874); 
Nisard  (1876);  Froude  (1894) ;  Emerton  (1899);  Mark  Pattison  in  Enc.  Brit. 
ed.  ix,  and  Capey,  with  brief  bibliography  (1902);  also  Bursian,  Gesch.  d.  cl. 
Philol.  in  Dnitschland,  i  142-9 ;  Geiger's  Renaissance,  526 — 548,  Mullinger's 
Cambridge,  i  472 — 520;  Jebb's  Erasmus  (1890)  and  in  Camb.  Mod.  Hist.  i 
569 — 571;  F.  M.  Nichols,    The  Epistles  of  Erasmus  (1901-4);   Woodward, 
Erasmus  on   Education  (1904),    with   bibliography,    Renaissance  Education 
(1906),  104 — 126,  and  Brunetiere,  Hist,  de  la  Lift.  Francaise  classique  (1904),  i 
34 — 50;  and,  lastly,  Briefe  an  Erasmus,  ed.  Enthoven  (Strassburg,  1906),  and 
esp.  Erasmi  Epistolae,  vol.  i,  1484 — 1514,  ed.  P.  S.  Allen  (Oxford,  1906). 
Of  the  portraits  by  Holbein  there  are  three  types : — (1)  the  profile-portraits, 
(a)  once  in  the  possession  of  Charles  I,  and  now  in  the  salon  carre  of  the 
Louvre  (reproduced  on  p.  126);  (b)  at  Basel,  with  a  simpler  background,  and 
with  the  words  on  the  paper  clearly  legible : — In  Evangelium  Marci  para- 
phrasis  followed  by  the   author's   name...,   Cunctis  mortalibus  ins(itum  est) 
(reproduced   in    Geiger's    Humanismus,   531) ;      (2)   the     three-quarter-face 
portrait   at   Longford   Castle,  near  Salisbury ;    (3)  the  small  circular  three- 
quarter-face  portrait  at  Basel,  representing  a  somewhat  older  man.     (l)  and 
(2)  belong  to  1523  (Woltmann's  Holbein,  182-9). 

2  Jebb's   Erasmus,    41  f;    Erasmus,    Opera   (Basel,    1540),  ix   1440,    'me 
adolescente  in  nostrate  Germania  regnabat  impune  crassa  barbaries,  literas 
Graecas   attigisse  haeresis    erat.     Itaque   pro   mea  quantulacunque   portione 
conatus  sum  iuventutem  ab  inscitiae  coeno  ad  puriora  studia  excitare.     Neque 
enim  ilia  scripsi  Italis,  sed  Hollandis,  Brabantis,  ac  Flandris.     Nee  omnino 
male  cessit  conatus  meus'  (1535). 


CHAPTER  XI. 

ITALY  FROM   1527  TO   1600. 

THE  Sack  of  Rome  in  the  month  of  May,  1527,  marks  the  end 
of  the  Revival  of  Learning  in  Italy,  but  not  the  end       T .. 

•* '  Literary 

of  the  History  of  Scholarship  in  that  country.     In     Criticism. 

Vidci 

the  month  immediately  preceding  that  appalling 
event,  a  work  composed  by  Vida  before  1520  was  printed  in 
Rome  in  the  form  of  a  didactic  poem  De  Arte  Poetica,  the  first  of 
a  long  series  of  volumes  on  the  theory  of  poetry  published  in 
Italy  during  the  sixteenth  century.  Vida's  treatise  accepts  as  the 
text-book  of  literary  criticism  the  Ars  Poetica  of  Horace,  while 
it  finds  the  true  model  of  epic  verse  in  the  Aeneid  of  Virgil1. 
Meanwhile,  in  1498,  another  of  the  great  classical  influence  of 
text-books  of  literary  criticism,  the  treatise  of  Aristotle's 
Aristotle  On  the  Art  of  Poetry,  had  been  im- 
perfectly translated  into  Latin  by  Giorgio  Valla  of  Piacenza 
(c.  1430-99),  probably  a  cousin  of  Laurentius  Valla;  and  it  was 
in  this  form  that  Aristotle's  treatise  was  first  known  in  the  Revival 
of  Learning.  The  Greek  text  was  afterwards  printed  for  the  first 
time  in  the  Aldine  edition  of  the  Rhetores  Graeri  (1508) ;  but  the 
modern  influence  of  this  famous  work  dates  from  the  memorable 
year  I5362.  It  was  the  year  that  saw  the  Greek  text  separately 
published  by  Trincaveli,  a  revised  Latin  translation  published  by 
Pazzi,  and  the  teaching  of  Aristotle  applied  for  the  first  time 
to  the  theory  of  tragedy  by  Daniello3.  In  1536  Ramus  obtained 
his  doctor's  degree  in  Paris  by  maintaining  that  all  the  doctrines 

1  On  Vida,  see  p.  117  supra;   and  cp.    Saintsbury,  History  of  Criticism, 
ii  29 — 37  ;  Spingarn,  Literary  Criticism  in  the  Renaissance,  127,  131-3. 

2  Spingarn,  17.  3  Spingarn,  137;  also  28,  41,  81  f. 


134  ITALY.  [CENT.  xvi. 

of  Aristotle  were  false,  thus  marking  the  decline  of  Aristotle's 
teaching  in  philosophy ;  but,  in  the  very  same  year,  the  dedicator 
of  Pazzi's  posthumous  work  declares  that,  in  the  treatise  on 
Poetry,  'the  precepts  of  poetic  art  are  treated  by  Aristotle  as 
divinely  as  he  has  treated  every  other  form  of  knowledge', — thus 
marking  the  beginning  of  Aristotle's  influence  in  literature1. 
Between  1536  and  1550  the  critics  and  poets  of  Italy  had 
assimilated  the  teaching  of  Aristotle's  treatise  on  Poetry.  In  1543 
Giraldi  Cintio  tells  us  that  it  was  already  in  use  as  a  dramatic 
text-book2.  In  1548  the  first  critical  edition,  with  a  Latin  transla- 
tion and  a  learned  commentary,  was  produced  by  Robortelli,  then 
professor  at  Pisa3.  In  the  following  year  the  first  Italian  transla- 
tion was  published  by  Bernardo  Segni,  and  before  April  in  that 
year,  Ferrara  was  the  scene  of  its  first  public  exposition  by  Maggi, 
whose  edition  appeared  in  1550".  The  great  edition  by  Victo- 
rius  was  produced  in  1560,  and  in  1563  we  find  Trissino  adding 
to  his  earlier  work  (1529)  two  new  parts,  which  are  entirely 
founded  on  Aristotle5.  Next  follow  the  Italian  commentaries 
of  Castelvetro  (1570)  and  Piccolomini  (1575).  The  former 
is  regarded  by  Tasso  as  supreme  in  erudition,  and  the  latter 
in  maturity  of  judgement6.  The  Unity  of  Time,  which  had  made 
its  first  appearance  in  Giraldi  Cintio  (i543)7,  is  now  followed 
by  the  Unity  of  Place,  which  presents  itself  in  Castelvetro 
(i57o)8,  whose  commentary  is  lauded  by  Milton9,  and  described 
by  Bentley  as  sold  for  its  'weight  in  silver  in  most  countries 
of  Europe'10.  Aristotle's  treatise  was  even  expounded  in 
Latin  verse  by  Baldini  in  1576,  and,  ten  years  later,  it  was 
paraphrased  and  explained  in  Italian  prose  by  Salviati  (1586),  who 
briefly  reviews  the  works  of  his  precursors11.  It  was  made  into  a 
practical  manual  for  poets  and  playwrights  by  Riccoboni  (1591)'*, 

1  Spingarn,  137. 

2  Discorso  suite  Comedie  e  sulle  Tragedic,  \\  6  (Spingarn,  62). 

3  p.  141  infra.  4  Cp.  Tiraboschi,  vii  1472  f. 

6  Spingarn,  140.  6  xv  20  (Spingarn,  140). 

7  Discorso  sulle  Comedie  e  sulle  7'rageJie,  ii  lof;  Spingarn,  91. 

8  Po'etica,  534;  Spingarn,  98  f. 

9  Of  Education  (iv  389,  ed.  1863).  10  Phalaris,  63,  Wagner. 

11  Printed  from  MS  in  Florence  by  Spingarn,  314-6. 

12  Spingarn,  140. 


CHAP.  XL]      INFLUENCE   OF   ARISTOTLE'S    POETIC.  135 

defended  against  all  detractors  by  Buonamici  (I597)1,  and  finally 
expounded  on  a  large  scale  by  Beni  (1613). 

Meanwhile,  a  series  of  treatises  on  the  Art  of  Poetry  had  been 
produced  in  Italy  by  Danielle  (1536),  Muzio  (1551),  Varchi 
(r5S3)>  Giraldi  Cintio  (1554),  Fracastoro  (i555)2,  Minturno 
(1559),  and  Partenio  (i56o)3.  All  these  culminated  in  a  work  by 
a  more  famous  scholar  of  Italian  birth,  Julius  Caesar  Scaliger 
(1484 — 1558),  who  in  1529  had  left  the  banks  of  the  Lago  di 
Garda  for  Agen  on  the  Garonne.  In  his  treatise  on  poetry, 
posthumously  published  at  Geneva  in  1561,  he  describes  Aristotle 
as  'imperator  noster,  omnium  bonarum  artium  dictator  per- 
petuus'4.  The  elder  Scaliger  belongs  to  the  history  of  scholarship 
in  France,  the  land  of  his  adoption,  but  we  must  here  notice  two 
eminent  Italian  scholars,  whose  studies  were  closely  connected 
with  the  Ars  Poetica  of  Aristotle,  though  far  from  being  confined 
to  it. 

Piero  Vettori,  whose  name  is  more  familiar  in  the  Latin  form 
of  Petrus  Victorius  (1499 — 1585),  may  be  regarded 

•111  /~i  r  Victorius 

as  possibly  the  greatest  Greek  scholar  of  Italy,  as 
certainly  the  foremost  representative  of  classical  scholarship  in 
that  country  during  the  sixteenth  century,  which,  for  Italy  at 
least,  may  well  be  called  the  saecuhtm  Victorianum.  Descended 
on  both  sides  from  families  of  distinction  in  Florence,  he  owed 
much  to  the  intellectual  ability  of  his  mother.  He  learnt  his 
Greek  from  Marcello  Hadriano,  and  Andrea  Dazzi5,  and  from  the 

1  Discorsi  Poelici  in  difesa  d'  Aristotele. 

2  p.  1 1 8  supra. 

3  See  Index  to  Spingarn  and  Saintsbury. 

4  Poetices  libri  septem,   vn  ii    i,   p.  932   (ed.    1586).     Cp.  Saintsbury,   ii 
69—80.     Scaliger's  treatise  was  succeeded  by  a  second  work  by  Minturno 
(1564),    and   by   those   of  Viperano   (1579),    Pat"zzi    (I586),    Tasso    (1587), 
Denores  (1588),  Buonamici  (1597)  and  Summo  (1600). 

6  Andrea  Dazzi  (1475  —  1548),  a  pupil  of  the  Latin  secretary  of  Florence, 
and  editor  of  Dioscorides  (1518),  Marcellus  Virgilius  Adrianus  (1464 — 1521), 
whom  he  succeeded  as  professor.  In  his  Latin  poem  on  the  'Battle  of  the 
Cats  and  Mice'  he  imitated  Virgil,  Ovid,  and  Silius  Italicus.  He  also  wrote 
minor  hexameter  poems,  Silvae,  and  Greek  and  Latin  Epigrams  (W.  Riidiger, 
Marcellus  Virgilius  Adrianus,  65  pp.,  and  Andreas  Dactius  aus  Florenz, 
70  pp.,  Halle,  1897). 


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VlCTORIUS. 

From  the  portrait  by  Titian,  engraved  by  Ant.  Zaballi  for  the  Ritratti 
Toscani,  vol.  I,  no.  xxxix  (Allegrini,  Firenze,  1766). 


CHAP.  XI.]  VICTORIUS.  137 

blind  scholar,  Giorgio  Riescio  of  Poggibonsi.  An  early  interest  in 
astronomy  led  to  his  eager  study  of  Aratus  and  his  commentator 
Hipparchus.  At  the  age  of  24  he  visited  Spain  in  the  company  of 
his  relative,  Paolo  Vettori,  admiral  of  the  papal  fleet  which  was 
sent  to  escort  the  newly-elected  Pope,  Adrian  of  Utrecht,  to  the 
shores  of  Italy ;  and,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Barcelona,  he  then 
collected  a  number  of  Latin  inscriptions1.  After  taking  part  in 
the  spirited  but  unavailing  attempt  of  Florence  to  oppose  the 
return  of  the  base-born  tyrant,  Alessandro  Medici,  he  lived  in 
retirement  at  San  Casciano  from  1529  to  the  death  of  the  second 
Medicean  Pope,  Clement  VII  (1534).  In  1536-7  he  produced 
in  three  volumes  an  edition  of  the  Letters  and  the  philosophi- 
cal and  rhetorical  works  of  Cicero,  whose  Speeches  had  already 
been  edited  by  Naugerius.  Under  Cosimo  I,  he  withdrew  to 
Rome,  but  was  soon  invited  to  return  to  Florence  as  professor  of 
Latin.  He  was  subsequently  professor  of  Greek,  and  of  Moral 
Philosophy.  In  Latin  scholarship  he  paid  special  attention  to 
Cicero's  Letters* ;  he  also  edited  Cato  and  Varro,  De  Re  Rustica 
(1541),  and  Terence  (1565)  and  Sallust  (1576).  In  Greek  his 
greatest  works  are  his  Commentaries  on  Aristotle's  Rhetoric 
(1548),  Poetic  (1560),  Politics  (1576)  and  Nicomachean  Ethics 
(1584).  All  of  these  are  published  in  folio  volumes,  in  which 
every  sentence,  or  paragraph,  of  the  text  is  printed  separately, 
followed,  in  each  case,  by  a  full  exposition.  For  the  second 
Juntine  edition  of  Sophocles  (1547)  he  collated  certain  ancient 
MSS  in  Florence  (doubtless  including  the  codex  Laurentianus]  so 
far  as  regarded  the  Oedipus  Tyrannus,  Oedipus  Coloneus,  and 
Trachiniae,  but  in  the  preface  he  is  simply  described  as  '  a  learned 
man ',  without  any  mention  of  his  name.  He  produced  editions 
of  Plato's  Lysis,  and  Xenophon's  Memorabilia  (1551),  Porphyry, 
De  Abstinentia  (1548),  Clemens  Alexandrinus  (1550),  Dionysius 
of  Halicarnassus  on  Isaeus  and  Dinarchus  (1581),  and  Demetrius, 
De  Elocutione  (1562),  with  the  text  interspersed  in  the  folio  pages 

1  Cp.  Epp.  167  f. 

2  Ed.  1536,  followed  by  Castigationes  in  1540-1,  Ad  Familiares  1558,  and 
Ad  Atticum  1571.     Many  of  the  corrections  now  universally  accepted  are  due 
to  Victorius,  e.g.  Ad  Fam.  iv  8,  virep  MaMa?  for  'supra  Maias',  and  Ad  Alt. 
xv  19,  '  De  Menedemo  '  for  '  Demea  domi  est';  cp.  Riidiger,  P.  V.  18,  24,  49. 


138  ITALY.  [CENT.  xvi. 

of  the  Latin  commentary.  In  Greek  verse,  he  published  the 
editio princeps  of  the  Electro,  of  Euripides  (1545),  a  play  discovered 
in  that  year  by  two  of  his  pupils,  and  the  first  edition  of 
Aeschylus  which  contained  the  complete  Agamemnon  (1557)'. 
Twenty-five  books  of  Variae  Lectiones,  or  Miscellaneous  Criticisms, 
published  in  1553,  were  followed  by  thirteen  more  in  1569,  and 
re-issued  in  the  complete  folio  edition  of  thirty-eight  books  in 
1582.  The  only  other  works  that  need  here  be  mentioned  are  his 
Epistolae  ad  Germanos  missae  (1577)  and  the  Epistolae  and 
Orationes  published  by  his  grandson  in  1586. 

While  he  disapproved  of  the  disastrous  policy  of  the  Medicean 
Pope,  Clement  VII,  which  ended  in  the  Sack  of  Rome  and 
the  suppression  of  the  liberty  of  Florence,  he  was  loyal  to  the 
successors  of  Clement,  and  to  the  Grand  Dukes  of  Tuscany  ;  and 
he  was  sent  by  Florence  to  congratulate  Julius  III  on  his  election 

(T549)- 

When  the  Grand  Duke,  Francesco,  married  Bianca  Capella, 
Victorius  presented  the  ruler  of  the  State  with  a  very  exceptional 
wedding-gift  in  the  form  of  a  new  edition  of  the  commentary 
on  Aristotle's  Rhetoric  (1579).  In  the  Commentary  on  the 
Ethics,  Aristotle's  reference  to  the  opinion  of  Eudoxus,  that 
pleasure  is  the  chief  good2,  prompts  Victorius  to  introduce  an 
irrelevant  notice  of  the  services  of  Eudoxus  in  the  correction  of 
the  Calendar,  and  an  equally  irrelevant  compliment  to  Gregory 
XIII  on  his  similar  services, — a  compliment  which  Victorius 
also  pays  the  Pope  in  a  separate  letter  on  this  subject3.  None  of 
the  attempts  to  attract  Victorius  to  Rome  or  Bologna  had  any 
permanent  result ;  he  remained  true  to  Florence  to  the  last.  We 
are  told  that,  for  eighty-five  of  the  eighty-six  years  of  his  long  life, 
his  sight  remained  undimmed;  also  that  he  drank  water  only,  and 
constantly  bathed  in  his  native  stream  of  the  Arno.  At  the  age 
of  86  he  died  and  was  buried  in  the  church  of  Santo  Spirito,  where 
the  following  inscription  may  be  seen  on  the  wall  to  the  right 
of  the  altar  :  — 

1  Owing  to  the  loss  of  14  leaves,    more  than  two-thirds  of  the  play  is 
missing  in  the  Medicean  MS,  viz.  323 — 1050,  1159  —  1673,  ed.  Wecklein. 

2  Ethics,  x  2,  §  i. 

3  Epp.  p.  222, '  nactus  occasionem  idoneam  laudandi  te  etc.' 


CHAP.  XL]  VICTORIUS.  139 

'D.  O.  M. 

In  sepulcro  hoc  sub  aram  posito 
Inter  ceteras  familiae  Vettori  exuvias 

Translata  servantur  ossa 
Petri  Victorii  cognomento  docti'. 

During  his  lifetime  five  medals  were  struck  in  his  honour1, 
and  his  portrait  was  painted  by  Titian2,  while,  in  the  frontispiece 
of  his  posthumous  Epistolae,  we  have  an  engraving  representing 
the  great  scholar  in  the  8yth  year  of  his  age.  His  fame  was 
not  limited  to  his  own  land,  or  his  own  time.  Scholars  of  his  own 
age,  or  little  later,  were  loud  in  his  praises.  His  scrupulous  care 
and  unwearied  industry  are  lauded  by  Turnebus,  who  declines 
to  be  compared  with  him,  even  for  a  moment3;  the  epithets 
doctissimus,  optimus,  and  fidelissimus  are  applied  to  him  by  the 
younger  and  the  greater  of  the  two  Scaligers4,  while  Muretus  calls 
him  eruditorum  coryphaeus* ;  and  similar  eulogies  might  be  quoted 
from  Justus  Lipsius6,  and  the  author  of  the  Polyhistor1^  as  well  as 
from  editors  of  the  Ars  Poetica  of  Aristotle,  such  as  Anna  Dacier8, 
and  of  Cicero's  Letters,  such  as  Graevius9.  His  Variae  Lectiones, 
however,  were  sometimes  regarded  as  unduly  diffuse,  and  the 
prolixity  of  his  Latin  letters  has  been  noticed  in  the  Scaligerana™, 
and  by  Balzac,  who  observed  that  the  perusal  of  the  whole 
volume  was  as  tedious  as  travelling,  on  foot  and  alone,  across  the 
moorlands  of  Bordeaux".  Among  his  editions  of  Greek  authors, 
the  highest  place  for  wide  and  varied  learning  was  generally  awarded 
to  his  commentary  on  Aristotle's  Rhetoric™,  while  his  contemporary 
Robortelli  lauded  him  as  the  only  scholar  who  had  really  thrown 
light  on  the  text  of  Cicero13.  He  is  described  by  a  poet  as  having 

1  Bandini's  Vita,  1759,  opp.  p.  civ,  and  on  title-page. 

2  Reproduced  opp.  p.  137. 

3  Adversaria,  xix  28  ;  Epp.  clar.  Ital.  et  Germ,  iii  34. 

4  Prima  Scaligerana,  99.  s   Var.  Led.  viii  6. 

6  Var.  Led.  ii  25. 

7  Morhof,  Polyhistor,  \  5,  15. 

8  Ed.  1692,  Preface. 

9  Epp.  Earn.,  Praef.     Cp.  Sir  Thomas  Pope  in  Blount's  Censura,  475  f. 

10  P-  359- 

11  Lettres  a  M.  Chafelain,  iii  21  (6  July,  1638),  ed.  1656. 

12  Epp.  clar.  Ital.  et  Germ,  i  36.  13  ib.  \  6. 


140  ITALY.  [CENT.  xvi. 

climbed  the  'hill  of  Virtue.',  and  taken  his  place  on  its  summit 
between  Cicero  and  Aristotle1.  The  funeral  oration  in  his  honour 
was  delivered  by  Leonardo  Salviati,  the  head  of  the  newly  founded 
Accademia  della  Crusca,  who  dwells  on  the  simplicity  of  his  life, 
the  unselfishness  of  his  character,  and  his  high  qualities  as  a 
teacher ;  and  personifies  Italia  as  saying  of  her  famous  son  : — 

Now  no  more  shall  distant  peoples  cross  the  snows  of  the  Alps  to  see 
Victorias,  or  men  of  mark  arrive  from  every  land  to  hear  him  ;  or  princes  hold 
converse  with  him.  Now  no  more  shall  the  works  of  scholars  in  all  parts  of 
the  world  be  sent  here  for  his  approval ;  or  youth  learn  wisdom  from  his  lips2. 

Within  a  year  of  the  delivery  of  that  funeral  oration,  Salviati, 
in  the  course  of  the  celebrated  controversy  in  defence  of  Ariosto 
and  in  depreciation  of  Tasso,  had  written  an  extensive  com- 
mentary on  the  Ars  Poetica  of  Aristotle,  which  still  remains  in  MS 
at  Florence3.  As  commentators  on  that  treatise,  Salviati  and 
Victorius  alike  had  been  anticipated  by  the  author  of  the  first 
critical  edition,  Robortelli  (1548). 

Francesco  Robortelli  (1516 — 1567)  was  the  son  of  a  notary 
belonging  to  a  noble  family  at  Udine.  He  was 

Robortelli 

educated  at  Bologna,  and  held  professorships  at 
Lucca  (1538),  Pisa  (1543).  Venice  (1549).  an<i  Padua  (1552-7), 
and  at  Bologna  itself  (1557).  From  Bologna  he  returned  to 
Padua  in  1560.  Seven  years  later  he  died  in  poverty,  and  the 
university  honoured  him  with  a  public  funeral,  while  the  gratitude 
of  his  Paduan  pupils  of  the  '  German  nation  '  caused  his  statue  to 
be  placed  in  the  church  of  Sant'  Antonio4.  An  inordinate  self- 
esteem  led  to  his  quarrelling  with  several  of  the  leading  scholars 
of  his  time.  His  earliest  work,  the  Variorum  Locorum  Adnota- 
tiones  (Venice,  1543),  is  remarkable  for  its  frequent  attacks  on 
Erasmus.  It  was  reprinted  at  Florence  in  1548,  in  the  same 
volume  as  several  minor  works  on  History  and  Rhetoric,  on 
Catullus  and  Virgil,  and  on  the  Names  of  the  Romans,  closing 

1  Albericus  Longus,  ib.  ad  fin. 

2  Orazione   Funerale,    1585.     Cp.,    in    general,    Bandini's     Vita,    1759; 
H.   Kammel  \njakrb.  f.   Philol.  xcvi,   1866,  325  f,  421  f;  and  W.  RUdiger 
(Halle,  1896). 

3  Cod.  Magliabech.  II  ii  2,  Spingarn,  314  f;  also  123  f. 

4  G.  B.  Rossetti,  Pitture  etc.  di  Padova^  77. 


CHAP.  XL]  ROBORTELLI.  141 

with  a  Greek  Ode  in  honour  of  the  author.  The  disquisition 
on  the  Names  of  the  Romans  became  notorious  in  connexion 
with  his  subsequent  controversy  with  the  great  authority  on 
Roman  Antiquities,  Sigonius.  In  the  same  year  he  produced 
a  far  more  important  work,  his  edition  of  Aristotle's  treatise  on 
the  Art  of  Poetry,  a  thin  folio  volume  including  a  critical  revision 
of  the  text,  a  Latin  translation,  and  a  learned  and  suggestive 
commentary1.  In  the  course  of  the  latter  he  reviews  the  question 
of  aesthetic  imitation,  discusses  the  reason  why  tragedy  deals  only 
with  persons  of  importance,  and,  in  his  interpretation  of  Aristotle's 
famous  definition  of  tragedy,  describes  terror  and  pity  as  'purging' 
the  mind  of  those  emotions,  and  diminishing  their  effect  in  real 
life,  by  familiarising  the  spectator  with  their  representation  on  the 
stage2.  In  this  view,  he  is  followed  by  Victorius  (1560)  and 
Castelvetro  (1570).  His  edition  concludes  with  a  paraphrase  of 
the  Ars  Poetica  of  Horace,  and  some  account  of  other  criticisms 
on  poetry.  Much  of  the  erudition  contained  in  this  work  was 
afterwards  utilised  in  the  Arte  Nuevo  of  Lope  de  Vega  (d.  1 635)1 
His  next  important  work  was  an  edition  of  Aeschylus,  including 
the  scholia  (1552),  in  which  he  revised  the  text,  and  did  much 
towards  restoring  the  metre4.  In  the  same  year  he  published 
Aelian's  Tactics  with  a  Latin  translation,  and  with  illustrations 
copied  from  ancient  MSS.  He  was  the  first  to  print  the  celebrated 
treatise  On  the  Sufi/imes,  which  here  appears  as  the  work  of 
'  Dionysius  I.onginus',  an  attribution  which  remained  unchallenged 
until  i8o86.  With  a  pardonable  pride,  the  editor  describes  the 
text  as  an  opus  redivivum  ...  e  tenebris  in  lucem  eductum  ;  but  all 
that  he  supplies  by  way  of  elucidation  of  this  masterly  work  is  a 
series  of  marginal  headings  denoting  the  principal  contents.  His 
unimportant  edition  of  Callimachus,  with  the  Greek  scholia  and 
with  a  Latin  translation,  appeared  in  the  same  year  as  his  Fasti 
Capitolini  (1555).  The  only  other  work  that  need  here  be 
noticed  is  the  folio  volume  of  1557  including  a  treatise  on  the 
Art  of  Criticism,  two  books  of  emendations,  and  a  comparison  of 

1  Later  ed.  Basel,  1555.  ~  Cp.  Spingarn,  29,  63,  77. 

3  Ed.  Morel-Fatio,  1901-2  (Saintsbury's  History  of  Criticism,  ii  50,  345). 

4  Cp.  Enm.  ed.  Davies,  p.  25.  8  Basel,  1554. 
6  Cp.  Rhys  Roberts,  3,  247,  251. 


142  ITALY.  [CENT.  xvi. 

the  chronology  of  Livy  with  the  dates  in  the  extant  Roman  Fasti. 
The  short  treatise  On  the  Art  of  Textual  Criticism  claims  to  be 
the  first  of  its  kind1.  It  still  deserves  respectful  remembrance,  for 
it  really  broke  new  ground.  The  author  here  notes  the  general 
characteristics  of  Latin  MSS,  and  the  different  kinds  of  handwrit- 
ing, indicates  some  of  the  principal  causes  of  corruption  and  the 
corresponding  means  of  restoration,  and  lays  down  certain  rules 
for  conjectural  emendation2.  The  chronological  work  published 
at  the  same  time,  and  the  earlier  Fasti  Capitolini  of  1555,  are  con- 
nected with  his  memorable  quarrel  with  his  learned  fellow-country- 
man, Sigonius.  The  quarrel  arose  out  of  Robortelli's  unimportant 
treatise  On  the  Names  of  the  Romans,  published  while  he  was 
still  at  Pisa  (1548).  Five  years  later,  Sigonius  wrote  on  the  same 
subject,  attacking  Robortelli's  opinions3,  but  describing  the  author 
as  a  'friend'  and  as  'a  man  of  learning'.  In  the  following  year 
Robortelli  published  a  letter  resenting  the  attack,  and  reprinted 
this  letter  in  his  Fasti  Capitolini.  The  latter  had  been  published 
earlier  in  the  same  year  by  Sigonius  with  additions  of  his  own. 
But  these  additions  were  omitted  by  Robortelli,  who  stated  that 
they  contained  many  mistakes,  which  he  proposed  to  set  forth  in 
his  public  lectures.  In  a  new  edition  of  the  Fasti  (1556),  Sigonius 
said  nothing  of  Robortelli ;  and,  in  the  following  year,  Robortelli, 
in  his  treatise  on  the  chronology  of  Livy,  renewed  his  attacks  on 
Sigonius,  repeatedly  describing  him  as  nullo  judicio  praeditus,  and 
heading  half  the  chapters  with  error  Sigonii.  Sigonius  managed 
to  obtain  advance  sheets  of  this  work,  and  was  thus  enabled 
to  answer  the  attack  within  a  month  of  its  publication.  The 
answer  is  as  bitter  as  the  attack,  but  Sigonius  'might  fairly  plead 
excessive  provocation.  The  quarrel  was  composed  for  a  time  by 
the  good  offices  of  Cardinal  Seripando,  who  was  at  Bologna  in 
1561,  but  it  broke  out  afresh  in  1562,  when  both  the  disputants 

1  De   Arte  sive   Ratione    corrigendi    Antiquos   Libras   Disputatio,    mine 
primum  a    me  excogitata ;  reprinted  in   the    Amsterdam   ed.    of    Scioppius, 
De  Arte  Critica  (1672),  and  in  Gruter's  Lampas,  ed.  1747,  t.  ii. 

2  Hallam,  i4g64. 

3  e.g.  Robortelli  had  denied  the  antiquity  of  Roman  female  praenomina, 
except  in  the  marriage  formula,  ubi  tu  Gaius,  ego  Gaia.     Sigonius  replied  by 
quoting  examples  to  the  contrary  from  the  times  of  the  Republic. 


CHAP.  XL]  SIGONIUS.  143 

were  professors  in  Padua.  Robortelli's  treatise  De  Vita  et  Victu 
Populi  Romani  was  afterwards  attacked  by  Sigonius  in  his 
Disputationes  Patavinae,  and  Robortelli  replied  under  an  assumed 
name  in  his  Ephemerides  Patavinae  with  remarks  on  the  personal 
peculiarities  of  Sigonius,  which  brought  on  him  a  still  more 
violent  attack  in  a  second  edition  of  the  Disputationes,  Happily, 
both  works  were  suppressed  by  order  of  the  State.  Robortelli's 
merits,  as  an  editor  of  Aeschylus,  and  as  an  intelligent  expositor  of 
Aristotle's  treatise  on  Poetry,  are  undoubted.  It  is  true  that 
he  failed  to  rise  to  the  height  of  a  great  opportunity  in  the  editio 
princeps  of  the  treatise  On  the  Sublime,  but,  five  years  later,  he 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  art  of  textual  criticism  as  applied  to 
Latin  MSS.  It  would  have  been  better  for  his  reputation  if  he 
had  written  nothing  more,  for,  in  the  department  of  Roman 
Antiquities,  he  was  no  match  for  his  opponent  Sigonius1. 

Carlo  Sigone  or  Sigonio  (c.  1524 — 1584)  was  born  at  Modena, 
and  at  Modena  he  died,  after  having  held  professor- 
ships at  Venice  (1552),  Padua  (1560),  and  Bologna 
(1563).  His  minor  works  include  a  Latin  translation  of  Aristotle's 
Rhetoric  (1557)  and  a  collection  of  the  fragments  of  Cicero  (1559). 
All  his  greater  productions  are  connected  with  the  history  and 
antiquities  of  Rome.  In  1555,  while  still  at  Venice,  he  published 
his  folio  edition  of  Livy  and  his  Fasti  Consulares,  with  an  ample 
commentary  on  the  latter  in  the  following  year2.  The  last  two 
works  were  the  first  in  which  accurate  criticism  was  applied  to 
the  chronology  of  Roman  history.  Their  author  also  broke  new 
ground  in  his  treatises  on  the  legal  rights  of  the  citizens  of  Rome 
and  the  inhabitants  of  Italy  and  the  Provinces  (1560-7).  Roman 
Antiquities  are  further  represented  in  his  treatises  on  Roman  names, 
and  Roman  law-courts  (1574),  the  latter  work  being  lauded  by 
Gibbon  as  written  'with  much  learning  and  in  a  classic  style'3. 
Moreover,  he  traced  the  fortunes  of  Rome  from  the  days  of 
Diocletian  to  the  end  of  the  Western  Empire  in  a  folio  volume 
consisting  of  twenty  books,  the  first  modern  work  that  fully 
deserves  the  name  of  a  history4.  In  another  stately  volume  he 

1  Cp.,  in  general,  Tiraboschi  vii  840-8. 

2  Both  reprinted  at  Oxford,  1801-2.  3  c.  45  (iv  506  Bury). 
4  ffistoriarum  de  occidental!  imperio  libri  xx,  Bononiae,  15/8. 


144  ITALY.  [CENT.  xvi. 

had  already  told  the  story  of  the  'Kingdom  of  Italy'  from  the 
invasion  of  the  Lombards  (568)  to  1199,  and  afterwards  to 
1286',  a  work  which  was  founded  on  wide  research  in  the  Italian 
archives,  and  has  received  the  highest  eulogy  from  the  competent 
pen  of  the  author's  erudite  biographer,  Muratori2.  He  had  dealt 
more  briefly  with  the  Constitution  of  Athens,  and  with  the  times 
of  the  Athenian  and  the  Spartan  supremacy  (1564-5).  In  the 
former  all  the  Greek  authorities  appear  in  a  Latin  dress,  and 
hardly  any  Greek  words  occur,  a  fact  that  has  been  held  by 
Hallam  to  imply  a  decline  of  Greek  learning  in  Italy,  while  his 
works  on  the  Roman  government  are  regarded  by  the  same  writer 
as  marking  an  epoch  in  that  department  of  ancient  literature3. 

Besides  his  controversy  with  Robortelli,  he  was  involved  in 
a  discussion,  conducted  in  a  better  temper  on  both  sides,  with 
Nicolas  de  Grouchy  of  Rouen,  professor  of  Greek  at  Bordeaux^ 
the  author  of  a  treatise  De  Comitiis  Romanorum  (i555)4.  Late 
in  life  he  was  engaged  in  a  less  creditable  controversy  with  Antonio 
Riccoboni  (1541 — 1599),  who  was  already  known  as  a  commen- 
tator on  the  rhetorical  works  of  Cicero,  and  as  a  translator  of  the 
Rhetoric  of  Aristotle5.  In  1583  a  printer  in  Venice  produced  a 
volume  purporting  to  be  the  Consolatio  of  Cicero,  liber... nunc 
primum  repertus  et  in  lucem  editus6.  It  had  been  seen  through 
the  press  by  one  Francesco  Vianello.  Sigonius  maintained  in 
two  'Orations'  that  it  was  the  work  of  Cicero,  while  Riccoboni 
declared  that  it  was  spurious ;  he  suspected,  indeed,  that  it  was 
the  work  of  Sigonius  himself.  Justus  Lipsius  and  others  agreed 
with  Riccoboni,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  they  were  right. 
Sigonius  did  not  live  to  publish  his  third  'Oratio'  on  the  subject 

1  De  Regno  Italiae,  Ven.  1574,  etc. ;  cp.  Gibbon,  c.  45  ad  fin. 

2  Vita  Sigonii,  p.  ix,  'insigne  profecto  opus  et  monumentorum  copia,  et 
splendore  sermonis,  et  ordine  narrationis,   ex   quo  incredibilis  lux  facta  est 
eruditioni  barbarorum  temporum,   in  ilium  usque  diem  apud  Italos  tenebris 
innumeris  circumfusae'.  3  i  525-64. 

4  The  discussion  related  to  the  question  whether  popular  elections  had  to 
be  confirmed  by  the  comitia  curiata  ;  cp.  Cic.  De  Lege  Agr.  ii  26 — 31. 

8  His  criticisms  on  the  Rhetoric  and  Ethics  were  reprinted  at  Oxford  as  late 
as  1820-1. 

6  There  were  nine  different  editions  in  1 583-4  (Orelli-Baiter,  Onomasticon, 
i  377  f).  It  may  be  seen  in  Nobbe's  Cicero,  p.  1345. 


CHAP.  XL]  PANTAGATO.      PANVINIO.  145 

(1599).  Early  in  1584  he  withdrew  to  his  native  town  of  Modena, 
where  he  had  built  himself  a  villa  that  may  still  be  seen  across  the 
Secchia,  two  miles  distant  from  the  town.  He  there  died  in  the 
same  year,  and  was  buried  in  the  church  of  Sant'  Agostino1. 

An  interest  in  Roman  antiquities  was  aroused  in  Rome  itself 
by  one  of  the  earlier  contemporaries  of  Sigonius, 

.  ,.  .  Pantagato 

Ottavio   Pantagato  of  Brescia  (1494 — 1567),  who 
passed  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in  Rome.     His  high  reputation 
for   learning,   especially   in   the   department   of  Antiquities  and 
Chronology,  is  attested  by  Victorius2  and  by  Paulus  Manutius3. 

A  younger  contemporary  of  Sigonius,  Onofrio   Panvinio,   an 
Augustinian  monk  of  Verona  (1529 — 11568),  printed 

b,.  .  Panvinio 

an  edition  of  the  fasti  Consulares  at  Venice  m  1556, 
and  thus  came  into  friendly  controversy  with  their  recent  editor, 
Sigonius.  Panvinio  spent  most  of  his  time  in  Rome.  During  a 
visit  to  Sicily  in  1568,  he  died  at  Palermo;  he  was  buried  at 
Rome  in  the  church  of  Sant'  Agostino.  In  the  course  of  his 
short  life,  besides  producing  his  edition  of  the  Consular  Fasti, 
he  wrote  on  Roman  names,  on  ludi  circenses  and  saecnlares,  on 
triumphs  and  sacrifices,  on  the  books  of  the  Sibyls  and  the 
portraits  of  the  emperors.  Much  of  his  work  was  founded  on 
his  own  researches  in  Roman  inscriptions.  He  had  collected 
nearly  3000,  and  formed  a  grand  scheme  for  publishing  all  the 
inscriptions  of  the  Roman  world4.  His  collection  has  not  been 
found,  but  it  has  been  surmised  that  it  was  the  same  as  that 
published  at  Antwerp  by  one  of  his  companions  in  Rome,  named 
Martin  Smetius,  whose  work  became  the  foundation  of  that  of 
Janus  Gruter9. 

During  the  life-time  of  Sigonius,  the  study  of  Cicero,  but  not  of 

1  A  complete  edition  of  his  works  in  six  folio  volumes  was  published  at 
Milan,  1/32-7,  with  a  Life  by  Muratori,  and  with  a  fine  portrait  as  frontis- 
piece.    Cp.,  in  general,  Tiraboschi,  vii  831 — 840. 

2  Pref.  to  Cic.  ad  Alt. 

3  Epp.  ii  34,  '  urbem,  a  qua  ceteri  honestantur,  sua  ipse  virtute  nobilitat ' 
etc.     Cp.  Tiraboschi,  vii  882-6. 

4  Fasti,  lib.  ii,    '  magnum  inscriptionum  totius  orbis   opus  adorno,  quod 
quamprimum  Deo  auspice  evulgabitur  ;  in  quo  omnia  singillatim  inscriptionum 
loca  accuratissime  descripta  sunt '.     Cp.  Lanciani  (it.  s.  p.  121),  130-2. 

6  Cp.  Tiraboschi,  vii  825—831  ;  Henzen  in  C./.Z.  VI  (i)  liii ;  Stark,  101. 

S.     II.  10 


146  .  ITALY.  [CENT.  xvi. 

Cicero  alone,  was  well  represented  by  scholars  bearing  the  Latin 
names  of  Nizolius,  Majoragius,  and  Faernus.  The  first 

Nizolius 

of  these,  whose  name  was  Mario  Nizzoli  (1498 — 
1566),  was  born  at  Brescello  in  the  duchy  of  Milan,  and  had  already 
enjoyed  for  thirteen  years  the  generous  patronage  of  Count  Gian- 
francesco  Gambara  of  Brescia,  when  he  published  the  first  edition 
of  his  Observationes  in  Ciceronem,  in  two  folio  volumes  (1535),  with 
references  to  the  pages  of  the  Aldine  text.  This  important  work  of 
reference  was  revised  by  Alexander  Scot  under  the  title  of  Apparatus 
Latinae  locutionis,  with  references  to  the  sections  of  his  edition  of 
the  whole  of  Cicero  (Basel,  1588).  It  was  republished  under  the 
more  intelligible  titles,  Thesaurus  Ciceroniamis,  and  Lexicon  Cicero- 
nianum.  The  latter  was  the  title  adopted  by  Facciolati  in  his 
edition  of  1734-  Later  editions  of  this  valuable  work  are  still 
in  use1.  From  1547  to  1562  he  was  a  professor  at  Parma,  and 
was  brought  into  controversy  with  Majoragius.  The  latter  had 
attacked  the  Paradoxes  of  Cicero  (1546) ;  the  attack  was  met  by 
a  friendly  letter  of  protest  on  the  part  of  Nizolius.  Majoragius 
replied  in  an  Apologia,  and  Nizolius  retorted  in  an  Antapologia, 
whereupon  Majoragius  hurled  forth  two  books  of  Reprehensiones, 
and  soon  found  himself  confronted  by  his  opponent's  Anti- 
barbarus  Philosophicus  (i553)2.  The  author  here  attacks  the 
scholastic  terminology,  which  was  still  predominant  in  the  study 
of  the  logic  and  metaphysics  of  Aristotle,  and  pleads  for  a  wider 
recognition  of  the  best  authors  of  Greece  and  Rome.  The 
treatise  owes  its  reputation  mainly  to  the  fact  that  it  was  reprinted 
by  Leibnitz  in  1670,  with  a  notable  preface  recommending  the 
work  as  a  model  of  philosophical  language  that  was  free  from 
barbarism3.  The  controversy  between  Nizolius  and  Majoragius, 
which  was  waged  with  violence  on  both  sides,  was  viewed  with 
regret  by  the  literary  world  of  Italy,  and  many  attempts  were 
made  to  reconcile  the  disputants.  Oporinus,  who  printed  the 

1  e.g.  ed.  1820  London,  in  three  octavo  vols.     Sir  Philip  Sidney,  in  his 
Apologie  for  Poetrie  (1595),  p.  68  Arber,  mentions  ' Nizolian  Paper-bookes 
of... figures  and  phrases';  cp.  p.  150  infra, 

2  This   is   only   the   popular  abridgement   of    the    true    title : — De  veris 
principiis  et  de  vera  ratione philosophandi  contra  pseudo-philosophos. 

8  Hallam,  ii  17  f*. 


CHAP.  XL]      NIZOLIUS.      MAJORAGIUS.      FAERNUS.  147 

tracts  of  Majoragius  at  Basel,  vainly  intervened  in  a  controversy 
which  was  only  closed  by  the  early  death  of  that  otherwise  blame- 
less and  meritorious  scholar  (1555).  In  1562  the  survivor, 
Nizolius,  became  professor  at  Sabbioneta,  but,  four  years  later, 
he  appears  to  have  died  at  the  place  of  his  birth,  where  a  tablet 
commemorates  him,  not  only  as  the  '  first  author  of  the  Observa- 
tions on  Cicero'  (which  is  true),  but  also  as  'the  sole  restorer  of 
the  Aristotelian  philosophy '  (which  does  not  appear  to  be  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  facts)1. 

His  opponent,  Marcantonio  Majoragio,  assumed  that  name 
in   exchange    for    that    of    Maria   Antonio    Conti 

/  u  .    ik/r    •  •  Majoragius 

(1514 — 1555).  He  was  born  at  Majoragio  near 
Milan,  and  it  was  at  Milan  that  he  held  a  professorship  for  the 
latter  part  of  his  short  life,  being  only  absent  for  a  year  or  more, 
in  1542.  At  that  date  the  war  in  Lombardy  led  to  his  leaving  for 
Ferrara,  where  he  attended  the  lectures  of  Maggi  on  philosophy, 
and  those  of  Alciati8  on  jurisprudence.  He  produced  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Rhetoric  of  Aristotle  (1547)  and  on  the  Orator 
of  Cicero  (1552  etc.);  that  on  the  first  book  of  the  De  Oratore 
(1587)  was  not  published  until  after  his  death.  He  defended 
Cicero  against  the  attack  on  the  De  Offiriis  by  that  versatile 
scholar  and  eager  student  of  Cicero,  Celio  Calcagnini  (1479 — 
1546),  who  had  already  passed  away  before  the  defence  was  pub- 
lished. His  own  attack  on  the  Paradoxes  of  Cicero  (1546) 
brought  him  (as  we  have  seen)  into  a  conflict  with  Nizolius, 
which  was  only  closed  by  the  early  death  of  Majoragius3. 

Another  student  of  Cicero,  Gabriello  Fae'rno  (or  Faernus)  of 
Cremona  (d.   1561),  owed  much  to  the  favour  of 

Faernus 

Cardinal  Carlo  Borromeo  and  to  that  Cardinal's 
uncle,  the  future  Pope  Pius  IV.  It  was  not  until  after  the  death 
of  Faernus  that  the  classical  world  of  Rome  welcomed  the  pub- 
lication of  his  edition  of  Cicero's  Philippics,  with  the  pro  Fonteio, 
pro  Flacco  and  in  Pisonem  (1563),  and  his  recension  of  Terence 
(1565),  both  of  which  works  were  highly  commended  by  Vic- 
torius4.  His  celebrated  rendering  of  a  hundred  Aesopian  fables 

1  Cp.  Tiraboschi,  vii  452,  1510-3. 

2  (1492 — 1550);  portrait  in  Boissard,  n  134. 

8  p.  146  supra.     Cp.  Tiraboschi,  vii  1507-10.  4  Epp.  pp.  112,  129. 

10  —  2 


148 


ITALY. 


[CENT.  xvi. 


Muretus 


into  Latin  verse  was  similarly  published  by  command  of  the  Pope 

(1564)'. 

The  year  that  preceded  the  death  of  Faernus  was  that  of 
the  arrival  of  Muretus  in  Rome.  Marc-Antoine 
Muret  (1526 — 1585),  who  was  born  at  Muret 
near  Limoges,  studied  at  Poitiers,  but  was  mainly  self-taught. 
In  early  life  he  had  a  great  admiration  for  the  elder  Scaliger, 
whom  he  twice  visited  at  Agen.  In  1546  he  began  to  lecture 
at  Poitiers,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Joachim  du 
Bellay,  one  of  the  brilliant  group  of  poets  known  as  the  Pleiad. 
In  the  following  year  he  was  already  lecturing  with  success  at 
Bordeaux.  Montaigne,  who  claims  Muretus  as  one  of  his  private 
tutors,  and  took  part,  as  a  boy,  in  his  play  of  Julius  Caesar, 

1  Tiraboschi,  vii  1409-1  r. 


MURETUS. 
From  Joannes  Imperialis,  Museum  Historicum  (Venice,  1640),  p.  no. 


CHAP.  XL]  MURETUS.  149 

describes  him  as  recognised  by  France  and  Italy  as  the  best 
stylist  of  his  time1.  In  Paris  he  lectured  on  Cicero,  De  Divinatione, 
and  on  Aristotle's  Ethics,  his  notes  on  the  latter  being  printed  in 
1553, — his  first  publication  on  a  Greek  subject.  Thanks  to  Dorat, 
himself  a  native  of  Limoges,  and  to  Joachim  du  Bellay,  he  was 
admitted  into  the  circle  of  young  poets,  to  which  Dorat  and 
Ronsard  then  belonged.  In  1553  he  published  his  French  com- 
mentary on  Ronsard's  Amours,  and  his  Juvenilia,  a  collection  of 
Latin  verse,  including  the  fine  line  : — Pande  oculos,  pande  stellatae 
frontis  honorem*.  In  the  midst  of  his  gay  and  brilliant  life  among 
the  poets  of  Paris,  a  cloud  suddenly  arose  on  the  horizon. 
Mysterious  charges  of  heresy  and  of  immorality  led  to  his 
suddenly  leaving  Paris  for  Toulouse,  where  he  is  said  to  have 
been  condemned  to  death ;  but  one  of  the  two  entrusted  with  the 
execution  of  the  sentence  sent  him  a  slip  of  paper  inscribed  with 
the  Virgilian  phrase,  heu  fuge  crudeles  terras ;  Muretus  at  once 
took  the  hint,  and  was  at  a  safe  distance  by  the  time  when  he  was 
burnt  in  effigy  at  Toulouse.  During  his  flight  across  the  north  of 
Italy,  he  fell  into  a  fever,  and,  in  one  of  the  cities  of  Lombardy, 
found  himself  in  the  hands  of  certain  physicians.  The  coarseness 
of  his  features,  and  the  rustic  garb  of  his  disguise,  led  to  his  being 
mistaken  for  a  tramp.  After  a  consultation,  one  of  the  physicians 
said  to  the  other  in  Latin  : — -faciamus  experimentum  in  anima 
vili,  whereupon  the  patient  rose  in  his  bed,  and  indignantly  ex- 
claimed : —  Vilem  animam  appellas  pro  qua  Christus  non  dedignatus 
est  mori?3.  Escaping  from  this  second  peril,  he  made  his  way 
to  Venice,  where  he  held  a  professorship  of  humanity  for  four 
years  (1555-8).  He  afterwards  took  private  pupils  in  Padua,  and 
lived  for  twelve  years  under  the  patronage  of  the  Cardinal  of  Este 
at  Ferrara  and  elsewhere ;  and,  finally,  he  was  a  professor  in 
Rome  for  more  than  twenty  years  (1563-84).  In  1576  he  was 
ordained  to  the  priesthood,  and  in  1585  he  died,  and  was  buried 
near  the  high  altar  in  the  French  church  of  SS.  Trinita  de'  Monti, 
where  an  inscription  in  his  own  Latin  prose  identifies  his  tomb4. 

1  i  25,  Me  meilleur  orateur  du  temps'. 

2  No.  28;  Dejob,  p.  35.   Pattison,  Essays,  i  127,  compares  the  Tennysonian 
'  star-like  sorrows  of  immortal  eyes'. 

3  Colletet,  ap.  Dejob,  60  ;  Menagiana,  i  302.  4  Dejob,  367. 


ISO  ITALY.  [CENT.  xvi. 

At  Venice,  his  friendship  with  Paulus  Manutius  led  to  his 
publishing  at  the  Aldine  Press  his  editions  of  Catullus,  Horace 
and  Terence,  Tibullus  and  Propertius,  the  Catilinarian  Orations 
of  Cicero,  a  commentary  on  the  first  book  of  the  Tusculan  Dis- 
putations^ and  the  three  lectures  De  Studiis  Litterarum  (1555). 
Early  in  1563,  on  a  visit  to  Paris  in  the  train  of  the  Cardinal 
of  Ferrara  (when  he  was  well  received  by  Turnebus  and  Dorat, 
and  met  the  young  Canter,  besides  coming  into  friendly  relations 
with  Amyot),  he  discovered  a  MS  of  Victorinus1,  and  published 
an  edition  of  Cicero's  Philippics.  During  his  early  time  in  Rome 
he  lectured  on  Aristotle's  Ethics,  and  on  Roman  Law.  Forbidden 
to  lecture  on  Law,  he  discoursed  on  Cicero,  De  Finibus,  and 
on  Plato's  Republic.  Forbidden  to  lecture  on  Plato,  he  took 
refuge  in  expounding  Juvenal  and  Tacitus,  the  De  Offiriis  and  the 
Letters  of  Cicero,  the  De  Providentia  of  Seneca,  and  the  Rhetoric 
and  Politics  of  Aristotle.  His  translation  of  the  first  two  books 
of  the  Rhetoric,  and  his  commentaries  on  the  Ethics,  Oeconomics, 
Topics,  Plato's  Republic  i,  n,  and  his  notes  on  Tacitus  and  Sallust, 
were  afterwards  printed.  Most  of  his  published  works  were  closely 
connected  with  his  lectures.  Far  more  interesting  than  any  of 
these  were  the  Variae  Lectiones,  which  appeared  in  three  in- 
stalments, the  first  eight  books  in  1559,  the  next  seven  in  1580, 
and  the  last  four  in  1585.  One  of  the  most  interesting  passages 
is  that  in  which  he  tells  us  of  the  trap  that  he  laid  for  some  of  the 
ultra-Ciceronians  of  his  day,  who  had  a  singularly  sensitive  ear 
for  any  words,  which,  as  they  supposed,  had  never  been  used  by 
Cicero.  To  these  fastidious  critics  the  touchstone  of  Ciceronianism 
was  the  lexicon  of  Nizolius.  When  some  of  them  were  attending 
Muretus'  lectures  in  Rome,  he  slyly  introduced  into  his  discourse 
some  of  the  words  which  had  been  accidentally  omitted  by  the 
lexicographer.  The  '  Ciceronians '  protested  that  it  was  simple 
torture  to  listen  to  such  barbarisms ;  but,  when  Muretus  actually 
showed  them  his  authority  in  the  pages  of  Cicero,  the  words  that 
had  just  before  been  deemed  harsh  and  rough,  at  once  became 
'  smooth  and  sweet  and  delightful  to  the  ear'2.  Similarly,  the 
superlative  illustrissimus  lay  under  grave  suspicion,  so  long  as  it 

1  Epp.  in  xii. 

*   Var.  Lect.  xv  i;  Harvard  Lectures,  i6gf. 


CHAP.  XL]  MURETUS.  151 

was  supposed  that  the  earliest  authority  for  its  use  was  Gellius  ; 
but,  as  soon  as  it  was  discovered  in  Varro,  it  was  no  longer 
necessary  to  resort  to  the  circumlocution  maxime  illustris^. 
Muretus  was  specially  grateful  to  Cujas  for  bringing  some  of  the 
old  Latin  words  into  use,  ne  lingua  per  se  inops . .  .magis  etiam 
pauperetur 2. 

His  relations  with  Lambinus  were  perfectly  satisfactory  in 
1556,  when  Lambinus  visited  Muretus  in  Venice ;  but  an 
estrangement  arose  in  1559,  when  Muretus  published  in  his 
Variae  Lectiones  some  emendations,  which  he  had  borrowed, 
without  leave,  from  Lambinus.  The  final  and  irreparable  breach 
ensued  two  years  later,  when  Lambinus  published  his  corre- 
spondence with  Muretus,  regardless  of  the  damage  that  was  thus 
inflicted  on  the  good  name  of  the  latter.  Muretus,  who  had 
plagiarised  from  Lambinus,  held  that  he  had  himself  been  similarly 
treated  by  Lipsius,  in  his  edition  of  Tacitus,  but  he  states  his 
grievance  in  the  most  courteous  terms3.  Nevertheless  the  work 
of  Lipsius  on  Tacitus,  like  that  of  Lambinus  on  Horace,  is 
superior  to  any  single  edition  published  by  Muretus.  Scaliger  says 
more  than  once  that  Muretus  thoroughly  understood  Aristotle's 
Rhetoric;  he  adds  that  Muretus  was  a  very  great  man,  that  he 
satirised  the  Ciceronians  and  at  the  same  time  expressed  himself 
in  a  thoroughly  Ciceronian  style,  without  confining  himself  to  that 
style,  like  the  rest4.  As  an  imitator  of  Cicero,  he  was  more 
successful  than  the  younger  Pliny,  or  than  Paulus  Manutius. 
Nature  (says  Ruhnken)  had  given  him  the  same  genius  as  Cicero5. 
He  was  long  regarded  as  a  classic  model  for  modern  Latin  prose. 
But  he  was  himself  fully  conscious  of  the  importance  of  Greek. 
In  his  inaugural  lecture  on  Plato,  he  defended  the  teaching  of 
Greek  against  the  unintelligent  protests  of  the  day,  and  clearly 
pointed  out  the  probable  results  of  a  neglect  of  that  study.  '  All 
that  was  lofty  in  thought'  (he  declared)  'was  enshrined  in  the 
literature  of  Greece  '6.  During  the  twenty  years,  in  which  he 

1  Var.  Lect.  xv.  i;  Harvard  Lectures,  169  f. 

2  Var.  Lect.  xi  17  ;  paupero  itself  is  only  found  in  Flautus. 

3  Var.  Lect.  xi  i.  4  Scaligerana  Sec. 

5  Mureti  Opera,  IV  iii,  ed.  Ruhnken.     Cp.  Hallam,  i  5O44. 

6  Or,   \\    iv   (i    236    Ruhnken),    '  Omnem   elegantem    doctrinam,  omnem 


152  ITALY.  [CENT.  xvi. 

lectured  under  no  small  difficulties  and  restrictions  in  Rome, 
he  foresaw  the  decline  of  learning  in  Italy  and  made  every  effort 
to  arrest  it1. 

Muretus  had  been  forbidden  to  continue  his  lectures  on  Plato. 
It  was  not  until  seven  years  after  his  death  that  the 

Patrizzi  .  .  ... 

prominent  Platonist,  Francesco  Patnzzi  (1529 — 
1597),  was  invited  to  hold  a  professorship  in  Rome.  This  original 
and  versatile  genius  was  at  once  a  philosopher,  mathematician, 
historian,  soldier,  orator,  and  poet.  Born  on  an  island  between 
Istria  and  Dalmatia,  he  was  educated  from  an  early  age  at  Padua, 
where  he  became  the  pupil  and  the  friend  of  Robortelli.  In 
1553  he  published  a  discourse  on  the  different  kinds  of  poetic 
inspiration,  followed,  in  1561,  by  his  dialogues  on  history.  After 
living  abroad  in  Cyprus,  France  and  Spain,  he  produced  the  four 
volumes  of  his  Discussiones  Peripateticae  (1571-81),  in  which  he 
criticises  the  life  of  Aristotle,  declaring  many  of  his  writings  to 
be  spurious  and  violently  attacking  his  opinions.  During  a  second 
visit  to  Spain  he  parted  with  several  of  his  Greek  MSS,  which  are 
now  in  the  Library  of  the  Escurial2.  He  subsequently  spent 
fourteen  years  at  Ferrara  under  the  patronage  of  duke  Alfonso  II. 
It  was  during  this  time  that  he  published  his  remarkable  work 
Delia  Poetica  (1586),  in  which  he  once  more  opposes  Aristotle. 
In  the  historical  division  of  this  work  he  declines  to  follow 
Aristotle  in  founding  the  type  of  the  various  forms  of  poetry  on  a 
few  great  works.  He  surveys  the  history  of  literature  as  a  whole, 
and  thus  produces  the  first  attempt  in  modern  times  to  study 

cognitionem  dignam  hominis  ingenui  studio,  uno  verbo  quicquid  usquam  est 
politiorum  disciplinarum,  nullis  aliis  quam  Graecorum  libris  ac  litteris  contineri'. 
'  Praedicere  possumus,  si  homines  nostri  paulo  magis  Graecas  litteras  negligere 
coeperint,  omnibus  bonis  artibus  certissimam  pestem  ac  perniciem  imminere'. 

1  Dejob,    375.     On  Muretus,  cp.   Dejob,  Marc-Antoine  Miiret,  pp.   496 
(1881),  and  the  literature  there  quoted  (reviewed  in  Pattison's  Essays,  i  124 — 
131).     Opera,  four  vols.,  ed.  Ruhnken  (1789) ;  Epistolae,  Prae/ationes,  Orationes, 
three  vols.,   ed.  Frotscher  (1834-41);   Scripta   Selecta,  two  parts,  ed.   Frey 
(1871-3).     Portrait  in  his  Juvenilia  (1553),  also  in  Phil.  Galleus,  Effigies,  ii 
(1577)  12  ;  Boissard's  /cones,  vin  ///  2;  in  Ruhnken's  ed.  vol.  i,  and  Joannes 
Imperialis,  Museum  Historicum  (Ven.   1640),  p.  no,  reproduced  on  p.  148. 
Cp.  also  De  Nolhac,  La  bibliotheque  d'un  humanists  au  -xvie  s.  (Rome,  1883). 

2  Proclus,  Libanius,  Plotinus,  etc.  (Graux,  Fonds grec  de  f  Escurial,  127-9). 


CHAP.  XI.]  PATRIZZI.      FULVIO   ORSINI.  153 

literary  history  in  a  broad  as  well  as  a  philosophic  spirit.  In  the 
controversial  division  he  attacks  the  Treatise  on  Poetry,  denouncing 
its  teaching  as  '  obscure,  inconsistent  and  entirely  unworthy  of 
credence }l.  As  a  literary  critic  he  is  two  centuries  in  advance  of 
his  time2.  In  his  Nnova  Philosophia  of  1591  he  combined  the 
opinions  of  Plato  with  the  teaching  of  Bernardino  Telesio  of 
Cosenza  (1508 — 1588),  who  united  a  keen  appreciation  of  the 
prae-Socratic  natural  philosophers  with  an  eager  insistence  on  the 
importance  of  the  direct  investigation  of  nature.  The  work  was 
dedicated  to  Gregory  XIV,  formerly  his  fellow-student  at  Padua. 
That  Pope's  successor,  Clement  VIII,  soon  invited  him  to  Rome, 
where  he  was  professor  of  Platonic  philosophy  till  his  death 
in  I5973. 

His  contemporary,  the  enthusiastic  scholar  and  antiquarian, 
Fulvio  Orsini  (1^29 — 1600),  who  was  probably  the 

x    J        .        .        '  '      .    .          Fulvio  Orsini 

natural  son  of  a  condottiere  named  Maerbale  Orsini, 
was  originally  a  chorister  and  ultimately  a  canon  of  the  church  of 
St  John  Lateran.  For  his  interest  in  Greek  and  Latin  and  his 
taste  for  the  study  of  Roman  antiquities  he  was  mainly  indebted 
to  a  canon  of  the  Lateran  church,  Gentile  Delfini,  and  to  the 
president  of  the  Roman  Academy,  Angelo  Colocci.  When  the 
Roman  Fasti  were  discovered  in  the  Forum  (1546-7)  it  was 
Delfini  who  was  entrusted  by  Cardinal  Alessandro  Farnese  with 
the  duty  of  placing  them  in  the  Palace  of  the  Conservatori  on 
the  Capitol.  On  the  death  of  Delfini  (1559),  Orsini  became 
librarian  to  three  of  the  Farnese  cardinals  in  succession,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  formation  of  a  large  collection  of 
manuscripts  and  printed  books,  as  well  as  busts  and  gems  and 
Latin  inscriptions.  He  was  the  centre  of  classical  and  antiquarian 
interests  in  Rome,  and  there  was  hardly  any  edition  of  a  Latin 
author  published  in  his  time  to  which  he  did  not  contribute 
readings  from  his  store  of  MSS.  He  was  thus  brought  into 
relations  with  many  of  the  leading  scholars  in  Italy  and  in  other 
parts  of  Europe.  Among  his  independent  works  were  Greek  illus- 
trations of  Virgil  (1567),  and  selections  from  the  Greek  lyric  poets 
(1568),  as  well  as  an  important  work  on  iconography  entitled 

1  Spingarn,  165  f.  2  Saintsbury,  ii  95 — 102. 

3  Cp.  Tiraboschi,  vii  (i)  458-66;  Hallam,  ii  6  f . 


154  ITALY.  [CENT,  xvi. 

Imagines  et  Elogia  (1570),  and  textual  notes  on  the  whole  of  Cicero 
(1579  f).  He  was  also  in  various  ways  associated  with  Antonio 
Agostino1  in  his  own  work  on  Roman  Families  (1577),  in  his  Festus 
(1581),  in  his  editio princeps  of  the  excerpts  from  Polybius,  which  he 
received  from  his  friend  the  archbishop  of  Tarragona  (1582),  and 
in  his  latest  work,  the  fragments  of  the  Roman  historians  (1595). 
He  bequeathed  his  important  collection  of  MSS  to  the  Vatican 
Library,  which  thus  became  possessed  of  many  treasures  of  the 
highest  value,  including  the  celebrated  MSS  of  Pindar,  Terence 
and  Virgil,  which  had  once  belonged  to  Cardinal  Bembo.  He 
was  buried  at  the  foot  of  the  altar  of  the  chapel,  which  he  founded 
near  the  entrance  to  the  sacristry  of  the  Lateran  church.  He  has 
been  justly  eulogised  by  Baronius  as  rerum  antiquarum  soller- 
tissimus  exploralor^. 

The  briefest  mention  must  suffice  for  the  classical  archaeologists,  Barto- 

lommeo  Marliani  of  Milan,  who  produced  in  1 544  the  second 

Archaeologists     edition    of  his  antiquae   itrbis   Romanae  topographia;    Pirro 

Marliani          Ligorio  (d.  c.  1586),  who  published  a  work  on  the  Antiquities 

Panciroli         of  Rome  in  1553,  and  left  a  vast  collection  of  copies  of  Latin 

inscriptions3  and  ancient  monuments4 ;  Guido  Panciroli  (1523- 

99),  a  professor  of  law  at  Padua,  whose  Descriptio  Urbis  Romae  appeared  in 

*5935 >  Ulisse  Aldrovandi6,  who  printed  in  Venice  a  brief  but  important  account 

of  the  ancient  statues  in  Rome  (1556);  Joannes  Baptista  de  Cavaleriis,  who 

1  p.  160  infra. 

2  Ann.  Eccl.  324  A.D.     See  also  the  eulogy  by  De  Thou,  ap.  Tiraboschi, 
vii  246,  Blount,  Censura,  553,  and  esp.  De  Nolhac,  La  bibliotheque  de  Fttlvto 
Orsini  (1887),  489  pp.,  with  plate  of  autographs  of  Petrarch,  Poggio,  Pomponius 
Laetus,  Politian  and  J.  Lascaris  etc. 

3  Many  of  these  are  spurious:  cp.  C.  I.  L.  VI  (i)  li,  (5)  19* — 213*;  Pref.  to 
IX — x  xlviii. — Under  the  name  of  Annius  of  Viterbo,  the  Dominican  Giovanni 
Nanni  (1432 — 1501)  had  already  published  in  Rome  in  1498  the  'Commen- 
taria  supra  opera  diversorum  auctorum  de  Antiquitatibus  loquentium  confecta', 
including  passages  purporting  to  be  the  remains  of  Berosus,  Manetho,  Megas- 
thenes,  Fabius  Pictor,  and  Cato,  the  genuineness  of  which  was  doubted  by 
Sabellicus  (d.   1506),    Crinitus  (d.    1504),   and    Raphael    Maffei   of  Volterra 
(d.  1521),  and  has  since  been  vainly  defended  by  A.  Florchen  (Hildes.  1759) 
and  G.  B.  Favre  (Viterbo,  1779).     Cp.  Tiraboschi,  vi  666  f,  Hallam,  i  240"*, 
and  R.  C.  Christie's  Selected  Essays,  59  f. 

4  Tiraboschi,  vii  880-2 ;  Stark,  103.    His  collection  was  preserved  at  Turin 
and  Naples.     There  is  a  single  vol.  in  the  Bodleian. 

6  Tiraboschi,  vii  794-8. 

6  Portrait  in  Bullart's  Academic  (Paris,  1682),  ii  109. 


CHAP.  XI.]         ARCHAEOLOGISTS.      PALEARIO.  155 

published  reproductions  of  the  buildings  in  1569,  and  of  the  statues  in  1584 
and  1594;  Antonio  Lafreri,  who  produced  more  than  100  engravings  of  old 
Rome  in  his  Speculum  Romanae  Magnificentiae  (I575)1 ;  and,  lastly,  Flaminio 
Vacca,  who  in  1 594  wrote  a  careful  account  of  the  Roman  Antiquities  discovered 
in  his  day,  and  thus  closed  with  a  work  of  high  merit  the  archaeological  pro- 
ductions of  the  sixteenth  century2. 

During  the  latter  half  of  the  century  the  influence  of  the  In- 
quisition and  the  Index  was  distinctly  unfavourable 
to  classical  scholarship3.  The  scholar  and  poet,  p^^rto 
Aonio  Paleario  (1504 — 157°),  denounces  the  Index 
as  'a  dagger  drawn  from  the  scabbard  to  assassinate  letters'4.  He 
laments  that  'the  study  of  the  liberal  arts  is  deserted,  the  young 
men  wanton  in  idleness  and  wander  about  the  public  squares'5. 
He  complains  that  '  a  professor  was  no  better  than  a  donkey 
working  in  a  mill ;  nothing  remained  for  him  but  to  dole  out 
commonplaces,  avoiding  every  point  of  contact  between  the 
authors  he  interpreted  and  the  burning  questions  of  modern 
life'6.  Paleario  is  well  known  as  the  author  of  the  Latin  poem 
On  the  Immortality  of  the  Soul7,  an  uneven  work  modelled  partly 
on  Lucretius8.  After  holding  a  professorship  of  eloquence  at 
Lucca,  he  succeeded  Majoragius  as  professor  at  Milan  in  1555. 
Fifteen  years  later  he  was  accused  of  heresy,  and  died  a  martyr's 
death  in  Rome9. 

The  influence  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  drama  on  the  Italian 
literature  of  the  sixteenth  century  may  readily  be 
traced  in  the  translations,  or  imitations,  of  Sophocles,     ^"classics0 
Euripides,  and  Seneca10,  as  well  as  of  Plautus  and 

1  Stark,  102.  2  id.  100. 

3  Cp.  Charles  Dejob,  Sur  f  Influence  du  Concile  de  Trente,  49 — 80,  99 — 
102;  Symonds,  vi  219 — 237. 

4  Oratio  pro  se  ipso  (Lyons,   1552),    'sica  districta   in   omnes   scriptores' 
(Symonds,  vi  212).  5  Camb.  Mod.  Hist,  iii  465. 

6  Symonds,  vi  230. 

7  Sel.  Poem.  Ital.  i  211 — 270;  cp.  Symonds,  ii  497  n.  i. 

8  Cp.  J.  C.  Scaliger,  Poet.  796,  ed.  1586. 

9  Cp.  Tiraboschi,  vii  1452-6.     Of  the  treatise  On  the  Benefits  of  Christ's 
Death,  ascribed  to  Aonio  Paleario,  40,000  copies  were  printed  ;  among  the  very 
few  that  survive  are  two  in  Italian  and  one  in  French  in  the  Library  of  St 
John's  College,  Cambridge.    It  was  really  written  by  Don  Benedetto,  a  follower 
of  Flaminio  ;  Lanciani  (u.  s.  p.  121),  208  f. 

10  Gaspary,  Ital.  Lit.  ii  c.  29. 


156  ITALY.  [CENT.  xvi. 

Terence1.  The  representation  of  plays  of  Plautus  had  been 
begun  in  Rome  by  Pomponius  Laetus,  and  was  continued  at 
the  brilliant  court  of  Ferrara  towards  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  It  was  Ferrara  also  that  saw  the  performance  in  1508  of 
the  first  comedy  written  in  Italian,  the  Cassaria  of  Ariosto,  a 
play  of  a  Plautine  type,  which  had  been  composed  ten  years 
previously.  The  author,  in  adopting  the  new  language,  pays  in 
the  prologue  an  interesting  compliment  to  the  old : — 

'  E  ver  che  ne  volgar  prosa  ne  rima 
Ha  paragon  con  prose  antique  o  versi 
Ne  pari  e  1'eloquenza  a  quella  prima '. 

Another  early  Italian  comedy,  the  Calandria  of  Cardinal 
Bibbiena  (first  performed  at  Urbino  in  or  before  1510),  is  founded 
on  the  Menaechmi,  and  similarly  the  Mercator,  Aulularia  and 
Mostellaria  are  imitated  by  Machiavelli  in  the  two  plays  which 
he  produced  in  1536.  But  the  practice  of  performing  Latin  plays, 
or  Italian  translations  of  them,  was  by  no  means  superseded  by 
these  and  other  imitations  of  Latin  originals.  After  the  middle 
of  the  century  we  find  a  performance  of  the  Phormio  of  Terence, 
the  prologue  of  which  was,  on  this  occasion,  written  by  Muretus2. 

The  influence  of  Virgil  may  most  readily  be  traced  in  Tasso, 
whose  Christian  epic  abounds  in  reminiscences  of  the  pagan 
poet.  In  some  of  the  more  exalted  passages  a  certain  incongruity 
has  been  noticed  in  these  reminiscences.  For  example,  the 
Crusaders  at  an  impressive  and  tragic  moment  are  allowed  to 
lapse  into  an  obvious  translation  from  the  dying  words  of  Dido  : — 
'  Noi  morirem,  ma  non  morremo  inulti'.  All  such  incongruity 
vanishes,  however,  in  the  beautiful  renderings  of  the  similes  and 
the  battle-scenes.  Tasso's  models  also  include  Lucretius  and 
Lucan3. 

1  Gaspary,  Ital.  Lit.  ii  c.  30. 

2  Tiraboschi,  vii  1302.     Cp.,  in  general,  Vincenzo  De  Amicis,  Z'  Imitazione 
Latina  nella  Commedia  Italian  a  del  xvi  secolo,  ed.  1897. 

3  See  Symonds,  vii  102-6. 


CHAPTER    XII. 

SPAIN   AND    PORTUGAL. 

IN  tracing  the  influence  of  humanism  beyond  the  bounds  of 
Italy,  we  shall  begin  with  the  Latin  nations,  and 

Spain 

with  the  Iberian  peninsula.  In  Spain  we  find  no 
proof  of  any  influence  on  the  part  of  Petrarch,  while  there  are 
several  points  of  contact  with  Poggio1.  Again,  the  Spanish  noble- 
man, Nugno  Gusmano,  who  visited  Italy  during  the  Council  of 
Florence,  returned  with  Italian  renderings  of  the  Tusculan  Disputa- 
tions and  De  Oratore  of  Cicero,  the  Declamations  of  Quintilian  and 
the  Saturnalia  of  Macrobius2.  Among  early  scholars  in  Spain,  a 
pupil  of  Politian,  Arias  Barbosa,  taught  Greek  at  Salamanca ;  and 
Antonio  of  Lebrixa,  commonly  called  Nebrissensis 

.  .  .  Nebrissensis 

(1444 — 1522),  after  spending  twenty  years  in  Italy, 
returned  in  1473  to  lecture  at  Seville,  Salamanca  and  Alcala,  and 
to  publish  Grammars  of  Latin  and  Greek,  as  well  as  Hebrew3. 
His  Introductiones  Latinae  was  the  first  Latin  Grammar  of  note  in 
Spain4.  The  first  classical  book  printed  in  Spain  was  Sallust 
(Valencia,  1475).  A  College  was  founded  at  Alcala  by  Cardinal 
Ximenes  (1437 — 1517),  but  the  Greek  Testament,  there  completed 
and  printed  early  in  1514  as  the  fifth  volume  of  the  'Complu- 
tensian  Polyglott'  (two  years  before  that  of  Erasmus),  was  not 
licensed  for  publication  until  1520  and  was  not  seen  by  Erasmus 
until  1522.  The  Cardinal  had  died  five  years  before,  and  the 
issue  of  this  important  work  was  not  followed  by  any  public 
patronage  of  Greek  studies  in  Spain.  The  knowledge  of  Greek 

1  Voigt,  ii  3573. 

2  Vespasiano,  Vile,  520;  cp.  Snbbadini's  ScoperU,  195. 

3  McCrie's  Reformation  in  Spain  (Hallam,  i  I733). 

4  A.  Merrill,  in  Prof.  Atner.  Phil.  Assoc.  XXI  (1870)  xxiii  f. 


158  SPAIN.  [CENT.  xvi. 

was  confined  to  a  very  select  class,  who  learned  the  language,  not 
for  its  own  sake,  but  to  aid  them  in  their  other  studies.  By  the 
compact  concluded  by  Charles  V  and  Clement  VII  at  Bologna  in 
1530,  Spain  was  pledged  to  a  reactionary  policy  in  Italy,  and  the 
Revival  of  Learning  was  checked  in  both  countries.  However,  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  fifteenth  and  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century  Spanish  scholars  who  visited  Italy  brought  back  with  them 
a  certain  interest  in  Greek  authors.  Pincianus,  Cardinal  Ximenes, 
and  Francesco  de  Mendoza,  Cardinal  of  Burgos,  had  thus  imported 
Greek  MSS  and  texts;  and  these  volumes  were  accessible  to  scholars, 
while  their  owners  lived,  and  passed  into  public  libraries  on  their 
death1.  In  1548  Aristotle's  Politics  was  translated  into  Latin  by 
the  Spanish  scholar  Sepiilveda,  but  the  translation  was  printed  in 
Paris.  In  1555  Dioscorides  was  translated  into  Spanish  by 
Andrea  Laguna,  a  physician  of  Valencia,  who,  with  the  aid  of 
an  ancient  MS,  corrected  the  text  in  more  than  700  places2. 
Among  the  pupils  of  Barbosa  and  Lebrixa,  we  find  Fernan 
Nunez  de  Guzman  (1471 — 1552),  also  known  as 

Pincianus 

Nonius  Pincianus  (from  Pmtia,  the  ancient  name  of 

Valladolid).     He  taught  Greek  at  Alcala  and   Salamanca.     At 

Alcala  in  1519  he  published  interlinear  Latin  renderings  of  Basil's 

tract  on  the  study  of  Greek  literature,  and  of  the  '  Helen  and 

Alexander'  of  Demetrius  Moschus3.     He  annotated  the  margins 

of  his  MS  of  twelve  unpublished  discourses  of  Themistius,  but  he 

never   published  any  edition.      That   honour  was   reserved   for 

France  and  the  Netherlands4.    In  1536,  however,  he  produced  an 

edition  of  Seneca  that  earned  the  praise  of  Lipsius5,  and,  in  1544, 

a  series  of  able  emendations  of  Pliny's  Natural  History,  which 

were  completely  reproduced  in  the  edition  of  Commelin  (1593) 6. 

Vives,  a  native  of  Valencia  (1492 — 1540),  spent  a  large  part 

of  his  active  life  in  the  Spanish  Netherlands7;  and, 

conversely,   Nicolaus  Clenardus,   or   Cleynaerts,  a 

native  of  Brabant  (1495 — 1542),  taught  Latin  in  Spain  at  Braga 

1  Graux,  Essai  sur  les  origines  des  fonds  grecs  de  FEscurial  (Bibl.  de  V  Ecole 
des  hautes  etudes,  XLVi),  xxxi  +  5^9  pp.  (1880). 

2  Graux,  98.  3  Graux,  9  f. 

4  Graux,  21.  B  Hallam,  i  335*. 

6  Cp.  Graux,  9 — n.  7  chap,  xiv  infra. 


.CHAP.  XII.]      PINCIANUS.      VERGARA.      SANCTIUS.  159 

and  Granada,  publishing  an  excellent  Greek  Grammar  (Louvain, 
I53°)>  which  was  widely  used  and  frequently  reprinted1.     The 
Greek  Grammar  of  Clenardus  was,  however,  surpassed  by  that  of 
Francisco  Vergara  (c.  1484 — 1545),  a  work  produced 
in  I5372,  and  fully  appreciated  by  Scaliger3,  who 
added  that  the  best  parts  had  been  borrowed  by  Canini.     Half 
a  century  later,  Francisco  Sanchez  of  Brozas,  com- 
monly called  Franciscus  Sanctius  Brocensis  (1523— 
1601),   professor  of  Greek  at  Salamanca  in   1554,  won  a  high 
reputation  by  a  celebrated   text-book   on    Latin   Syntax,   called 
Minerva,  seu  de  causis  linguae  Latinae  Commentarius  (1587). 

Sanctius  owed  much  to  the  elder  Scaliger's  work  De  linguae  Latinae 
causis.  While  he  constantly  cites  the  ancient  and  modern  grammarians,  he 
nevertheless  regards  them  with  a  scorn  that  is  almost  ludicrous.  He  is  led 
astray  by  comparing  Latin  with  Hebrew  and  Arabic.  He  insists  on  a  rigid 
uniformity  in  Latin  Grammar.  Rules  were  to  have  no  exceptions  ;  every  word 
was  to  have  one  construction  only.  The  author  constantly  takes  refuge  in 
'ellipse',  when  he  is  confronted  by  any  syntactical  difficulty.  But  the 
ultimate  success  of  his  Minerva  was  unbounded.  He  was  regarded  by  Haase 
as  having  done  more  for  Latin  Grammar  than  any  of  his  predecessors,  and 
Sir  William  Hamilton  even  held  that  the  study  of  Minerva,  with  the  notes  of 
the  editors,  was  more  profitable  than  that  of  Newton's  Principia.  The  peculiar 
and  uncommon  constructions  that  are  here  collected  doubtless  make  the  book 
useful  as  a  work  of  reference.  It  is  at  any  rate  written  in  good  Latin.  The 
author  shows  a  familiarity  with  the  whole  range  of  Latin  literature,  as  well  as 
with  Aristotle  and  Plato.  He  edited  Virgil's  Bucolics  and  Horace's  Ars 
Poetica,  with  Persius,  the  Ibis  of  '  Ovid ',  the  Gryphus  of  Ausonius,  and  the 
Sylvan  of  Politian4. 

A  contemporary  of  'Sanctius',  named  Pedro  Juan  Nunez,  or 
Nunnesius,  of  Valencia,  who  studied  in  Paris,  and 

r  r  /-i        i        *_    -n  i  /  i         /-       \  Nunnesius 

was  professor  of  Greek  at  Barcelona  (d.   1602),  is 

best  remembered  as  an  editor  of  Phrynichus  (i58o)5.     He  was 

also  the  author  of  an  interesting  little  Greek  Grammar  (1590), 

1  Hallam,  i  33O4;  R.  C.  Christie's  Selected  Essays,  92 — 123. 
"  Paris,    Morel,    1557,    'ad   Complutensem   ed.    excusum   et  restitutum ', 
438  pp.,  including  100  on  Syntax. 

3  Scaligerana  Sec.',  Hallam,  i  493. 

4  A.  Merrill,  /.  c. 

5  Described  in  Lobeck's  ed.,  p.  Ixxv,  as  '  non  indoctus  sane,  ut  ilia  erant 
tempora ' ;  and  his  notes  as  '  philologiae  sibi  proludentis  crepundia '. 


160  SPAIN.  [CENT.  xvi. 

which  differs  little  from  those  now  used  in  schools1.  We  are  sorry 
to  add  that  the  great  Greek  Thesaurus  of  H.  Stephanus  was  not 
appreciated2  either  by  Nunnesius  or  by  the  eminent  scholar  who 
will  next  engage  our  attention. 

Archaeological  studies  were  well  represented  in  Antonio 
Agostino  of  Saragossa  (1517 — 1586),  who  was 
educated  at  Salamanca,  and  (under  Alciati)  at 
Bologna,  where  he  continued  the  study  of  law,  combining  with 
it  the  study  of  Greek,  which  was  then  a  somewhat  rare  accom- 
plishment. He  taught  law  at  Padua,  and  at  Florence,  where  he 
questioned  the  accuracy  of  Politian's  collation  of  the  famous  MS 
of  the  Pandects3.  He  studied  MSS,  inscriptions,  and  ancient 
monuments  in  Rome,  where  he  was  a  member  of  the  papal 
tribunal  (1544-54),  while  he  was  in  constant  communication 
with  the  scholars  of  the  time,  and  rejoiced  in  the  old  associations 
of  the  eternal  city4.  In  1554  he  published  at  Rome  an  edition 
of  Varro,  De  Lingua  Latina,  in  which  he  followed  the  interpolated 
MSS  and  banished  every  archaism  from  the  text,  a  process  that  met 
with  protests  from  Turnebus  and  Scaliger.  In  1559  he  was  more 
successful  in  editing  certain  fragments  of  Verrius  Flaccus,  and 
Festus,  making  good  use  of  the  Farnese  MS  at  Naples,  and  intro- 
ducing many  corrections5.  After  holding  the  see  of  Lerida,  he 
became  archbishop  of  Tarragona  for  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life 
(1576-86).  In  1583  he  published  a  treatise  on  Roman  laws  and 
Senatus  consulta,  which  was  twice  reprinted  before  the  end  of  the 
century.  His  masterpiece  in  classical  archaeology  was  his  book 
of  dialogues  on  coins,  inscriptions  and  other  antiquities,  posthu- 
mously published  in  1587,  and  subsequently  translated  into  Latin6. 

He  breathes  the  spirit  of  the  Italian  humanists  when  he  writes 
with  rapture  to  his  Roman  friend  Orsini,  telling  him  of  the 

1  Rutherford's  New  Phrynichtis,  504.  2  Graiix,  16,  17. 

3  p.  84  supra. 

4  Andreas  Schott,  laudatio  funebris,  '  vixit  jucunde  in  hac  urbe  propter 
antiquitatis  Romanae  impressa  vestigia,  theatrum  circum  titulos  nummos  et 
inscriptiones,  quibus   referta   urbs  est,   ut   et   moenia   omnia  Romane  loqui 
videantur '  (Stark,   106). 

6  K.  O.  Miiller,  pref.  to  Festus,  p.  xxxvi. 

6  By  Andreas  Schott  (1617);  cp.  Stark,  106 ;  De  Nolhac,  La  bibliothtque 
de  Fulvio  Orsmi,  43 — 48. 


CHAP.  XII.]  AGOSTINO.      CIACCONIUS.  l6l 

discovery  of  the  Excerpts  on  Legations  from  the  Encyclopaedia 
of  Constantius  Porphyrogenitus : — 

Somewhere  in  Spain  a  Greek  MS  has  been  found  containing  the  fairest 
fragments  of  the  ancient  historians.  I  have  a  large  part  of  them  in  my  hands  at 
the  present  moment,  while  the  rest  are  being  promptly  copied.  If  they  were 
pearls  or  rubies  or  diamonds,  they  could  not  be  more  precious.  The  most 
ancient  of  these  belong  to  Polybius...!  have  also  in  my  hands  some  beautiful 
fragments  of  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  fragments  as  lucid  as  crystal,  and 
well-nigh  as  bright  as  the  stars1. 

The  MS  that  aroused  this  enthusiasm  was  the  gem  of  the 
collection  of  Greek  MSS  belonging  to  Juan  Paez  de  Castro,  the 
chaplain  of  Philip  II,  who  had  addressed  to  the  king,  in  the 
early  part  of  his  reign,  a  memoir  'on  the  utility  of  founding  a  good 
library '.  The  monastery  of  the  Escurial,  near  Madrid,  was  built 
in  1563-84;  the  library  was  founded  in  1566-87,  and  this  MS 
formed  part  of  its  treasures,  but  the  text  was  not  published  by 
any  Spanish  scholar2.  The  MS  was  more  than  once  transcribed 
by  the  Greek  copyist  Darmarius ;  and  the  transcripts  made  by  the 
latter  were  the  source  of  the  editions  of  Orsini  in  1582  and  of 
Hoeschel  in  1603,  and  of  the  fragments  in  Casaubon's  Polybius 
(1609).  The  original,  and  one  of  the  transcripts,  perished  in  the 
Escurial  in  the  disastrous  fire  of  1671;  but  another  of  the 
transcripts  still  survives  in  that  library3. 

The  study  of  Roman  Antiquities  and  Latin  texts  was  mean- 
while represented  by  a  modest  and  industrious 

.  Ciacconius 

scholar  named  Pedro  Chacon,  Petrus  Ciacconius  of 
Toledo  (1525 — 1581),  who  was  employed  by  Gregory  XIII  on 
learned  researches  in  Rome  and  was  called  the  Varro  of  his  age. 
His  antiquarian  treatises  were  published  after  his  death,  and  were 
partially  reprinted  in  the  Thesaurus  of  Graevius.  He  is  cele- 
brated for  his  works  on  the  Roman  triclinium  and  on  the  columna 
rostrata  of  Duilius.  His  namesake  Alfonso  Chacon  (1540 — 1599), 
a  native  of  Granada,  who  died  in  Rome,  wrote  a  treatise  on  the 
Column  of  Trajan,  and  left  behind  him  many  drawings  of  Roman 
Antiquities. 

1  Letter  to  Fulvio  Orsini,  from  Lerida,  26  Sept.  1574,  in  Antonii  Augnstini 
opera,  vii  256,  ed.  Lucca;  Graux,  15,  93 — 97. 

2  Graux,  20.  3  Graux,  95 — 97. 

S.     II.  II 


1 62  .'     SPAIN.      PORTUGAL.  [CENT.  XVI. 

The  Jesuit,  Juan  Luigi  de  la  Cerda  of  Toledo  (c.  1560 — 1643), 
produced  at  Madrid  in  three  folio  volumes  an  edition 
of  Virgil  (1608-17),  reprinted  in  Lyons  and  Cologne. 
The  only  other  names  that  need  here  be  noted  are  those  of  the 
historian  Enrique  Florez  (1693—1773),  and  the  expert  in  numis- 
matics and  epigraphy,  Francesco  Perez  Bayer  (1711 — I794)1- 

Among  the  public  institutions  of  Spain  the  Library  founded  by 
Philip  II  at  the  Monastery  of  the  Escurial  between  1566  and  1587 
is  celebrated  for  its  Greek  Mss2.  The  monastery  is  a  vast  and 
lonely  palace  amid  the  mountains  north  of  Madrid.  The  collection 
formed  by  Mendoza  (1503 — 1575),  the  envoy  of  Charles  V  in 
Venice,  was  acquired  for  the  Library  in  I5763,  and  that  of  Antonio 
Agostino  in  1587*;  but  a  large  number  of  the  MSS  were  destroyed 
by  the  fire  of  1671 5.  The  classical  MSS  in  the  Biblioteca  National 
at  Madrid  include  the  collection  made  by  another  Mendoza  (i  508 — - 
'1:566),  the  cardinal  bishop  of  Burgos6.  They  also  include  the 
Greek  MSS  of  Constantine  Lascaris7,  and  several  important  Latin 
MSS  formerly  belonging  to  Poggio,  (i)  Manilius  and  the  Silvae  of 
Statius,  and  (2)  Asconius  and  Valerius  Flaccus,  (i)  having  been 
copied  by  a  scribe  in  his  employ,  and  (2)  by  Poggio  himself8. 
The  MSS  of  Poggio  and  Lascaris  are  an  interesting  link  between 
Spain  and  Italy. 

Portugal,  as  well  as  Spain,  took  a  keener  interest  than  France 
in  the  works  of  Poggio,  who  wrote  a  letter  congratu- 

Portugal  ...„.  »T       •  i  •  i  • 

latmg  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator  on  his  exploration 

of  'Ocean's  utmost  shores'9.     The  restoration  of  learning  in  that 

country   is    ascribed    to   the   historian   and    poet, 

Resende  ,  .  .  .  „,        .. 

Resende  (1498 — 1573),  who  was  instructed  in  Greek 
by  Barbosa  and  Lebrixa,  published  his  Latin  Grammar  in  1540, 
and  taught  at  Lisbon  and  Evora.  He  there  counted  among  his 

1  C.  I.  L.  ii  p.  xxi.  2  Miller,  Catalogue  (Paris,  1848). 

8  Graux,  163  f.  4  il>.  280  f. 

6  ib.  32of.  6  ib.  60  f. 

7  Included  in  catalogue  by  Iriarte,  Madrid,    1769;  cp.  Graux,  Rapport, 
1878,  p.   124;  and  p.  77  supra. 

8  A.  C.  Clark  in  Cl.  Rev.  xiii  119  f.      These  MSS  formerly  belonged  to  the 
Conde  del   Miranda.     For  a  facsimile  from  Poggio's  Valerius  Flaccus,  see 
p.  24  supra. 

9  Epp.  ix  35  (1448-9);  Voigt,  ii  3573f. 


CHAP.  XII.]      CERDA.     RESENDE.     STATIUS.    OSORIO.          163 

pupils  Achille  Esta9O,  or  'Achilles  Statius'  (1524 — 1581),   who 

afterwards   won  a   high  reputation  in   Rome,  not 

only  by  a  work  on   ancient  portraits  (1569),   but          statius8 

also  by  studies  on  the  viri  illustres  of  Suetonius, 

which  were  highly  praised  by  Casaubon1.   The  Portuguese  bishop, 

Jeronymo  Osorio  (1506 — 1-580),  who  was  educated 

at  Salamanca,  Paris,  and  Bologna,  has  been  described 

by  Dupin  as  the  Cicero  of  Portugal2.     He  owes  his  reputation  as 

a  Latinist  to  his  treatise  on  Glory  and  to  his  History  of  the  reign  of 

Emanuel,  but  Bacon  has  severely  said  of  him  that  his  vein  was 

weak  and  waterish 3.     The  Jesuit,  Emanuel  Alvarez 

of  Lisbon  (1526 — 1583),  produced  in  1572  a  Latin 

Grammar,  which  has  been  extolled  as   the  first   in  which   the 

fancies  of  the  ancient  grammarians  were  laid  aside4.     It  was  the 

text-book  in  all  the  Jesuit  schools,  and  has  often  been  reprinted, 

the  latest  edition  being  that  of  Paris  in  1879. 

1  '  Statius'  commented  on  the  Ars  Poetica  of  Horace  (1553)  and  on  Catullus 
and  Tibullus  (1566-7),  after  he  had  already  been  associated  with   Muretus' 
edition  of  Propertius  (1558). 

2  Niceron,  ed.  Baumgarten,  vol.  ii  308. 

3  'The  flowing  and  watery  vein  of  Osorius'  (Advancement  of  Learning,  I 
iv  2  p.  29  Aldis  Wright);   cp.   Ascham's  Scholernaster,   no,   129 — 131,    233, 
239,  ed.  Mayor;  and  Hallam,  i  5O74.     Opera  in  4  folio  vols.  1592. 

4  Morhof,  i  831,  ed.  1747. 


BUDAEUS. 

From  the  engraving  in  Andre  Thevet,  Portraits  et  vies  des  hommes  illustres 
(Paris,  1584),  p.  551.      Cp.  p.    \ioiinfra. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

FRANCE    FROM    1360  TO    1600. 

IN  France,  where  the  early  stages  in  the  Revival  of  Learning 
were  mainly  marked  by  Italian  influence,  the  chief  centres  of 
intellectual  life  were  the  Royal  Court,  and  the  University  of  Paris. 
Petrarch,  who  was  unfamiliar  with  French,  and  consequently 
never  felt  quite  at  home  in  Paris,  wrote  a  letter  in  1367  con- 
gratulating Urban  V  on  exchanging  Avignon  for  Rome.  He  there 
praises  Italy  at  the  expense  of  France,  and  even  describes  the 
French  as  a  barbarous  people1.  The  letter  naturally  aroused  the 
indignation  of  a  champion  of  France  identified  as  Jean  de  Hesdin, 
who  in  his  reply  gives  proof  of  his  familiarity  with  the  Latin 
Classics  in  general  and  with  the  historians  in  particular2. 

Among  the  constant  companions  of  Petrarch  during  the  three 
months  that  he  spent  in  Paris  in  1361,  was  Pierre 

Bersuire 

Bersuire  (d.    1362),   the   French  priest  who  trans- 
lated for  king  John  the  Good  all  the  books  of  Livy  that  were 
then  known.    Under  that  king's  son,  Charles  the  '  Wise '  (who  was 
familiar   with  Latin),   Sallust,  Suetonius,  Seneca,   Vegetius,   with 
Lucan  and  parts  of  Ovid,  were  translated  into  French.     A  French 
rendering  of  the  Latin  translation  of  the  Politics,  Economics,  and 
Ethics  of  Aristotle  was  produced  by  Nicole  Oresme 
(d.  1382),  chaplain  to  the  king,  and  dean  of  Rouen, 
who,  after  his  promotion  to  the  bishopric  of  Lisieux,  produced 
a  translation  of  Aristotle  De   Cae/o3.     As  a  translator,  he  intro- 
duced into  French  a  large  number  of  words  of  Greek   origin, 
which  were  then  new,  such  as  aristocratic,  democratic,  oligarchic, 

1  Epp.  Sen.  ix  i.  2  Voigt,  ii  333:if. 

3  Fr.  Meunier,  Essai  (1857)  84 — 117. 


i66  FRANCE.  [CENT.  xv. 

demagogue  and  sophiste,  and  even  mttaphore,  poete  and  fobne'1. 
While  Oresme  belongs  in  spirit  to  the  Middle  Ages,  a  certain 
sympathy  with  the  Revival  of  Learning  is  shown  by  Laurent  de 
Premierfait,  a  priest  of  Troyes,  who  died  in  Paris  in  1418.  He 
translated  the  De  Senectute  and  the  De  Amidtia  of  Cicero  for 
an  uncle  of  Charles  the  'Wise'2. 

The  library  of  king  Charles  included  Lucan,  Boethius,  por- 
tions of  Ovid  and  Seneca,  Latin  translations  of  Plato's  Timaeus, 
and  of  parts  of  Aristotle,  with  French  translations  from  Aristotle, 
Valerius  Maximus3,  Sallust  and  Vegetius.  'Virgil  is  conspicuously 
absent'4.  But  Virgil's  Eclogues  (as  well  as  Pliny  and  Terence) 
were  to  be  found  in  the  library  of  the  king's  brother,  John,  duke 
of  Berry5. 

The  influence  of  the  University  is  exemplified  in  the  text- 
books prescribed  for  the  academic  course.  In  the  fourteenth 
century  they  included  authors  such  as  Virgil,  Ovid,  Juvenal, 
Terence,  with  Sallust  and  Livy,  as  well  as  Cicero,  Seneca  and 
Quintilian6.  Of  the  two  foremost  representatives  of  the  Uni- 
versity, Pierre  d'Ailly  (d.  1425)  and  Jean  Charlier  de  Gerson 
(d.  1429),  the  latter  was  far  more  familiar  with  classical  authors, 
his  speeches  and  sermons  including  quotations  from  Virgil  and 
Terence,  Horace  and  Statius,  Cicero  and  Seneca,  as  well  as 
Caesar,  Sallust,  Livy,  Suetonius  and  Valerius  Maximus.  But 
his  Latin  style  is  obscure,  and  teems  with  Gallicisms  and  with 
scholastic  terminology7. 

The  earliest  genuine  humanist  in  France  was  Jean  de  Mon- 

treuil  (1354 — 1418),  secretary  to  the  Pope  and  the 

Montrexiii  Dauphin,  as  well  as  to  the  dukes  of  Burgundy  and 

Orleans,  and  ultimately  chancellor  to  Charles  VI. 

He  regarded  Petrarch  as  the  most  famous  of  moral  philosophers ; 

1  Fr.  Meunier,  I.e. ;  Egger,  Hellenisms  en  France,  i  128  f;  Voigt,  ii  339s  f. 

2  Voigt,  ii  34O3. 

3  The   translation   begun   by  Simon   de   Hesdin  for  Charles  the  'Wise' 
(1375),  and  completed  by  Nicolas  de  Gonesse  for  John,  duke  of  Berry  (1401), 
was  adorned  with  fine  miniatures  by  Jean  Fouquet  (c.  1475)  for  Philippe  de 
Comines  (reproduced  from  two  Harleian  MSS  in  1907). 

4  Cp.  Delisle,  Cabinet  des  MSS,  i  18 — 46,  iii  115—170,  335  f,  quoted  in 
Tilley's  Essay  on  the  preludes  of  the  French  Renaissance  (1885),  139. 

5  Tilley,  I.e.  1391".  6  Voigt,  ii  342*.  7  ~ib.  ii  3433f. 


CHAP.  XIII.]  JEAN    DE   MONTREUIL.  l6/ 

he  had  a  special  admiration  for  the  Remedia  Utriusque  Fortunae, 
but  his  model  in  Latin  style  was  Salutati,  'the  father  of  Latin 
eloquence'.  As  envoy  of  his  king  in  1412,  he  spent  some  time 
in  Rome,  where  Leonardo  Bruni  gave  him  an  introduction  to 
Niccoli  in  Florence.  He  thus  obtained  transcripts  of  plays  of 
Plautus  and  certain  books  of  Livy,  with  Varro  De  Re  Rustica, 
being  apparently  the  first  Frenchman  who  derived  classical  learning 
from  Italy.  In  his  letters  he  is  fond  of  quoting  Virgil  and  Terence, 
with  Cicero,  Sallust  and  Seneca ;  he  is  the  first  in  France  to  follow 
the  example  of  Petrarch  in  adopting  the  classical  second  person 
singular,  instead  of  the  plural,  in  addressing  Popes  and  Princes ; 
he  even  urges  the  Pope  to  imitate  the  actions  recorded  in  the 
ancient  history  of  Rome1.  Among  his  most  intimate  friends  was 
Nicolas  de  Clemanges2  (1360 — c.  1440),  who  taught  the  rhetoric 
of  Cicero  and  Aristotle  in  the  schools  of  Paris,  and  was  an  eager 
student  of  the  Latin  Classics,  especially  Quintilian  and  Cicero, 
from  whose  speeches  (he  assures  us)  he  learnt  many  more  lessons 
in  eloquence  than  from  his  rhetorical  works3.  He  spent  some 
twelve  years  at  Avignon  as  the  only  humanist  among  the  papal 
secretaries,  was  made  a  Canon  of  Langres,  and  late  in  life 
resumed  his  lectures  on  Rhetoric  in  Paris.  Among  the  Classics 
familiar  to  him  were  several  that  were  then  imperfectly  known  in 
Italy,  such  as  Persius,  Cicero,  De  Oratore  and  Pro  Arc/iia,  and 
the  Letters  Ad  Familiares*. 

The  Revival  of  Learning  in  France  was  promoted  by  the 
introduction  of  printing.  In  1470  Michael  Freyburger  of  Colmar, 
Ulrich  Gering  of  Constance,  and  Martin  Crantz,  were  invited  by 
Guillaume  Fichet  and  Jean  Heynlyn  to  set  up  a  press  in  the 
precincts  of  the  Sorbonne.  The  first  book  printed  in  France  by 
these  German  printers  was  the  work  of  an  Italian  humanist, — 
the  model  Letters  of  Gasparino  da  Barzizza5.  The  prefatory 
epistle,  with  its  reference  to  Heynlyn  as  'prior'  and  Fichet  as 

1  Ep.   19  in  Epp.  Set.,  Martene  and  Durand,  Vet.  Script,  et  J\fon,  Am- 
plissima.  Cvllectio,  Paris,  1724,  ii  1311 — 1465;  Voigt,  ii  344-9^.     Eight  new 
letters  in  A.    Thomas,   De  Joannis  de  Monsterolio   vita   et  oferibus,   Paris, 
1883. 

2  Or  Clamanges.  3  Ep,  43. 

«  Voigt,  ii  349— 3553.  5  p.  23  supra. 


168  FRANCE.  [CENT.  xv. 

'doctor',  determines  the  date  as  1470.  In  the  next  year  the 
editio  princeps  of  Florus  was  produced  by  the  same  printers  ;  their 
Sallust  (1471)  was  soon  followed  by  Terence,  and  by  Virgil's 
Eclogues  and  Georgics,  Juvenal  and  Persius,  Cicero,  De  Oratore, 
Tusculan  Disputations  and  De  Officiis  (1472),  and  Valerius 
Maximus '. 

ne  ab  onibus  te  defertu  efte  iudiccs/  ego 
(quern  forte  in  numero  amicoy  no  habe/ 
bas)polliceot  tibt  opera  mca*  d(qd  illi 
non  fine  fcelere  negkxerut)ego  paratus 
fum  defenfione  tuam  fufciperc  «  Tu  uero 
admonebts/quibus  adiumentis  opus  tibt 
fit«d  ego  nec|  pecunWnecg  confilio  tibi 
deero  t  Vale  ; 

Foeltx  Eptay  Gafpatint  f  bis; 

CONCLUSION  OF  THE  EPISTOLAE  GASPARINI. 

The  first  book  printed  in  France  (1470);    part  of  facsimile  in  British 
Museum  Guide  to  the  King's  Library  (1901),  p.  40. 

The  study  of  Greek  was  slow  in  making  its  way  in  France. 

The  Council  of  Vienne  (1311)  had  decreed  the  appointment  of  two 

Lecturers  in  Greek,  as  well  as  Hebrew,  in  the  University  of  Paris, 

no  less  than  in  those  of  Bologna,  Salamanca,  and  Oxford,  but 

the  decree,  which  was  passed  in  the  interest  of  theological  rather 

than  classical  learning,  remained  a  dead  letter2.     It  was  not  until 

1430   that   a   stipend   was   assigned   to  teachers   of  Greek   and 

Hebrew  in  Paris3,  and  not  until  1456  that  Gregorio 

Tifernas,  who  was  born  at  Citta  di  Castello  about 

1  Cp.  Tilley,  Essay  (1885),  155  f,  and  the  earlier  authorities  there  quoted  ; 
also  A.  Claudin's  First  Paris  Press  (Bibliogr.  Soc.  1898),  and  Hist,  de  /'/;//- 
primerie  en  France,  i  (1900),  with  illuminated  facsimile  of  Gasparino  p.  i, 
and  colophon,  facing  p.  22 ;  and  P.  Champion,  Les  plus  anciens  monuments 
de  la  typographic  parisienne  (1904),  86  planches. 

2  vol.  i  5841,  6o72.  3  Bulaeus,  Hist.  Univ.  Paris,  v  393. 


CHAP.  XIII.]   TIFERNAS.     HERMONYMUS.     ALEANDER.     169 

1415  and  had  lived  in  Greece  and  had  taught  Greek  in  Naples, 
Milan  and  Rome,  applied  for  permission  to  teach  it  in  Paris1. 
The  permission  was  granted  and  a  salary  assigned,  on  condition 
that  the  lecturer  charged  no  fees  and  that  he  lectured  daily  on 
Rhetoric  as  well  as  on  Greek.  He  continued  to  lecture  for  four 
years,  and  then  left  for  Venice,  where  he  died  in  1466. 

About  1476  another  teacher  of  Greek  appeared  in  the  person 
of  a  skilful  copyist2,  George  Hermonymus  of  Sparta, 

.  .  „  ,      Hermonymus 

the  somewhat  incompetent  instructor  of  Erasmus15 
and  Budaeus  and  Reuchlin4.  Lectures  in  Greek  were  occa- 
sionally given  by  John  Lascaris,  who  was  invited  to  France  in 
1495  by  Charles  VIII,  aided  Louis  XII  in  organising  the  library 
at  Blois,  and  joined  Budaeus  in  doing  similar  service  to  Francis  I, 
when  the  library  at  Blois  was  transferred  in  1544  to  Fontainebleau5. 
A  more  regular  and  continuous  course  of  instruction  was  supplied 
by  the  Italian,  Jerome  Aleander,  who  arrived  in 

.  .  Aleander 

1508,  armed  with  an  introduction  from  Erasmus  . 
In  and  after  that  year,  he  lectured  on  Greek  as  well  as  Latin, 
and  perhaps  also  on  Hebrew.  He  became  Rector  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  in  1512;  on  his  return  to  Rome,  in  1517,  he 
was  appointed  librarian  to  the  Vatican,  and,  as  Cardinal  Aleander, 
he  became  prominent  in  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  the  age7. 

It  was  with  the  aid  of  Aleander  that  the  text  of  three  treatises 
from  Plutarch's  Moralia  was  printed  in  Paris  in  1509,  doubt- 
less to  serve  as  text-books  for  Aleander's  pupils. 

Gourmont 

I  he  printer  was   Gourmont,  who  had  established 

the  first  Greek  press  in  Paris,  producing  in  1507  a  little  volume 

1  The  dates  in  Crevier,   Hist,  de  F  Univ.   de  Paris,  iv   243  f,  are    1458 
or  1470. 

2  Omont,  Mem.  Soc.  Hist.  (Paris,  1885). 

3  Catal.  Lucubr.  in  Pref.  to  Leyden  ed.  i,  Graece  balbutiebat... ;  neque 
potuisset  docere  si  voluisset ;  neque  voluisset,  si  potuisset. 

4  Cp.   Egger,  i   146  f;  Omont,  in  Mem.  de  la  Soc.   d'histoire  de  France, 
xii  65 — 98  ;  Tilley,  Essay,  146  f. 

6  Removed  to  Paris  under  Henri  IV  (1595).     Cp.  Omont,  Cat.  des  MSS 
frees  de  Fontainebleau,  1889;  also  (in  general)  Tilley,  Essay,  148  f. 

6  Cp.  De  Nolhac,  in  Revue  des  Etudes  grecques,  i  61  f ;  and  Lefranc,  Hist, 
du  College  de  France,  29  f. 

7  Tilley,  Essay,  149  f. 


i/o  FRANCE.  [CENT.  XVL 

of  extracts  from  the  gnomic  poets  called  the  liber  gnomagyricus, 
the  first  Greek  book  printed  in  France.  In  the  course  of  a 
brief  preface  the  editor,  Francois  Tissard,  insists  on  the  im- 
portance of  Greek: — nemini  dubium  est...quanti  sit  Latinis  eru- 
ditio  Graeca  in  hac  praedpue  tempestate  aestimanda.  He  also 
describes  the  difficulty  with  which  he  had  induced  the  printers 
to  put  a  Greek  work  into  type  by  appealing  to  their  sense  of 
honour,  their  ambition,  their  public  spirit,  and  their  hope  of 
personal  profit1.  In  the  same  year,  Gourmont  printed  the  Frogs 
and  Mice  of  '  Homer ',  the  Works  and  Days  of  Hesiod,  and  the 
Erotemata  of  Chrysoloras.  He  also  printed  Musaeus  and  Theo- 
critus, and  (in  1528)  the  Ecclesiazusae  of  Aristophanes,  and 
Demosthenes  and  Lucian2.  The  text  of  the  whole  of  Sophocles 
was  completed  by  Simon  Colinaeus  on  Dec.  i6th,  I5283. 

The  following  year  was  the  date  of  the  publication  of  the  cele- 
brated Commentarii  Linguae  Graecae  of  Budaeus4. 
Guillaume  Bude  (1467 — 1540),  who  was  born  in 
Paris,  was  the  son  of  a  wealthy  civilian  who  had  a  considerable 
collection  of  books.  After  spending  three  years  in  studying  law 
with  little  success  at  Orleans,  he  returned  to  Paris  and  gave 
himself  up  to  the  pleasures  of  the  chase,  a  pursuit  on  which  he 
long  afterwards  wrote  a  dialogue  by  the  command  of  Charles  IX. 
It  was  not  until  the  age  of  24  that  he  became  a  serious  student 
and  began  to  form  his  Latin  style  on  the  study  of  Cicero.  His 
letter  to  Cuthbert  Tunstall  assures  us  of  the  little  Greek  that  he 
ever  learned  from  Hermonymus  of  Sparta5.  He  derived  far  more 
profit  from  the  occasional  instructions  of  the  busy  Greek  diplo- 
matist, Janus  Lascaris.  Budaeus  rose  to  be  secretary  to  Louis  XII 
and  a  Maitre  des  Requetes;  he  was  charged  with  diplomatic  missions 
to  Julius  II  and  Leo  X;  and  in  1520  was  present  at  the  interview 
between  Francis  I  and  Henry  VIII  in  the  '  Field  of  the  Cloth 
of  Gold '.  Under  Francis  I  and  Henry  II  his  fame  as  a  Greek 
scholar  was  one  of  the  glories  of  his  country.  In  1502-5  he 

1  Egger,  Helltnisme  en  France,  i  1 54-7. 

2  Cp.  Didot's  Aide  Manuce,  596  f ;  Lefranc,  College  de  France,  29 — 33. 

3  Th.  Renouard,  Bibl.  de  Simon  de  Colines,  1894,  p.  128. 

4  Ed.  Badius,  1529;  ed.  R.  Estienne,  1548. 

5  Of  era,  1362(1557)- 


CHAP.  XIII.]  GOURMONT.      BUDAEUS.  I/ 1 

produced  a  Latin  rendering  of  three  treatises  of  Plutarch  ;  in  his 
'Annotations'  on  the  Pandects  (1508)  he  opened  a  new  era  in  the 
study  of  Roman  law;  and,  in  1515  (N,  s.),  he  broke  fresh  ground 
as  the  first  serious  student  of  the  Roman  coinage  in  his  treatise 
De  Asse.  It  was  the  ripe  result  of  no  less  than  nine  years  of 
research,  and  in  twenty  years  passed  through  ten  editions.  Its 
abundant  learning  is  said  to  have  aroused  the  envy  of  Erasmus, 
and  its  dry  erudition  was  preferred  by  one  of  the  author's  par- 
tisans to  the  rich  variety  and  the  sparkling  wit  of  the  Adagio1. 
The  collection  of  letters  which  he  published  in  1520  included 
several  in  Greek,  and  thenceforth  he  held,  by  the  side  of 
Erasmus,  the  foremost  rank  as  a  scholar.  The  original  aim  of 
his  Commentarii  was  the  elucidation  of  the  legal  terminology  of 
Greece  and  Rome,  and,  amid  all  the  miscellaneous  information 
here  accumulated,  that  aim  remains  prominent2.  The  author's 
learning  was  generously  recognised  by  Scaliger3,  and  much  of 
the  material  stored  in  his  pages  was  incorporated  in  the  Greek 
Thesaurus  of  Henri  Estienne.  .  The  little  volume  De  Philologid 
(1530)  is  a  plea  for  the  public  recognition  of  classical  scholarship, 
in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between  Budaeus  and  Francis  I.  In 
his  far  more  extensive  work  De  Trdnsitu  Hellenismi  ad  Christian- 
ismum  (1534)  he  describes  the  philosophy  of  Greece  as  a  prepa- 
ration for  Christianity,  and  defends  the  study  of  Greek  from  the 
current  imputation  of  '  heresy '.  His  French  treatise,  De  V  Insti- 
tution du  Prince,  written  in  1516,  was  not  printed  until  1547. 
He  here  declares  that  'every  man,  even  if  he  be  a  king,  should 
be  devoted  to  philology',  which  is  interpreted  as  'the  love  of 
letters  and  of  all  liberal  learning'.  Such  learning,  he  adds,  can 
only  be  attained  through  Greek  and  Latin,  and  of  these  Greek  is 
the  more  important4. 

Besides  two  villas  in  the  country,  he  owned  a  house  in  the 
Rue  Saint-Martin  (no.  203),  which  in  the  seventeenth  century  still 
bore  the  motto  selected  by  Budaeus  himself : — 

'  Summum  crede  nefas  animam  praeferre  pudori. 
Et  propter  vitam  vivencli  perdcre  causas '. 

1  Hallam,  i  I'jS4  f.  2  Quarterly  Review,  vol.  xxii  (Hallam,  i  3294). 

3  Scaligcrana,  39,  $a  este  le  pins  grand  Grec  de  PEurope. 

4  Woodward,  Renaissance  Education,  127-^138. 


172  FRANCE.  [CENT.  xvi. 

In  1503  he  married  the  daughter  of  an  ancient  Norman  house, 
and  it  is  said  that,  on  his  wedding-day,  by  an  exceptional  act 
of  self-denial,  he  limited  his  time  of  study  to  three  hours  only. 
In  his  studies  he  was  aided  in  every  possible  way  by  the  devotion 
of  his  wife.  Once,  when  he  was  busy  reading  in  his  library,  one 
of  the  servants  suddenly  rushed  in  to  inform  him  that  the  house 
was  on  fire.  The  scholar,  without  lifting  up  his  eyes  from  his 
book,  simply  said  to  his  informant : — allez  avertir  ma  femme ; 
vous  savez  bien  que  je  ne  irfoccupe  pas  des  affaires  du  menage!^ 
His  health  was  seriously  impaired  by  his  prodigious  industry, 
and  the  surgeons  of  the  day  vainly  endeavoured  to  cure  him  of 
his  constant  headaches  by  applying  a  red-hot  iron  to  the  crown 
of  his  head2.  Happily  he  was  enabled  to  find  a  safer  remedy 
by  taking  long  walks  and  by  cultivating  his  garden3.  When  he 
died  in  1539,  he  had  a  simple  burial  in  the  church  of  Saint- 
Nicolas-des-Champs4.  The  contrast  between  this  great  Greek 
scholar  and  his  contemporary,  the  admirable  Latinist,  Erasmus, 
has  been  felicitously  drawn  by  M.  Egger : — 

'  Bude  ne  sut  jamais  emprunter  a  son  ami  les  charmes  d'une  latinite  facile  et 
amusante.  II  dit  lourdement  des  choses  souvent  neuves,  toujours  sensees, 
quelquefois  profondes,  sur  1'efficacite  des  etudes  helleniques  et  sur  1'utilite  de 
leur  alliance  avec  1'esprit  chretien.  II  n'a  du  reformateur  que  le  savoir  et  les 
convictions  serieuses;  il  n'en  a  point  le  talent'5. 

Perhaps  his  most  important,  certainly  his  most  permanent, 
service  to  the  cause  of  scholarship  was  his  prompting  Francis  I 
to  found  in  1530  the  Corporation  of  the  Royal  Readers.  It  had 
no  official  residences,  or  even  public  lecture-rooms.  //  eta  it  bati 
en  hommes*.  It  was  many  years  before  it  attained  the  dignity  of 
a  local  habitation7  and  the  name  of  the  College  de  France.  In 
front  of  the  present  buildings  of  that  centre  of  eloquent  and 
inspiring  teaching  the  place  of  honour  is  justly  assigned  to  the 

1  Eugene  de  Bude,  Vie  de  Guillaume  Bnde,  22. 

2  ib.  23.  3  ib.  i87f. 

4  Cp.  Saint-Gelais,  i  120,  quoted  by  Tilley,  i  19. 

5  Hellenisme  en  France,  i  173. 

8  Etienne  Pasquier,  (Euvres,  i  923. 

7  The  first  stone  was  laid  28  Aug.  1610  (Lefranc,  235),  and  the  fabric 
finished  about  1778  (ib.  266  f). 


CHAP.  XIII.]    BUDAEUS.   CORDIER.   ROBERT  ESTIENNE.    173 

statue  of  Budaeus '.  In  his  own  age,  Calvin  had  proudly  described 
him  as  primum  rei  literariae  decus  et  columen,  cuius  beneficio 
palmam  eruditionis  hodie  sibi  vindicat  nostra  Gallia.  It  was 
mainly  owing  to  Budaeus  that  the  primacy  in  scholarship  had 
passed  from  Italy  to  France2. 

The    foundation    of    the    royal    readerships  had    been    opposed    by    the 
obscurantists  in  the  University,  but  lectures  in   Greek  were  already   being 
given  in  several  of  the  Colleges,  and,  in  the  College  of  Sainte- 
Barbe,  Maturin  Cordier  (1479 — 1564)  had  been  active  as  an 
educational  reformer  for  the  sixteen  years  immediately  preceding  the  publication 
of  his  treatise  attacking  the  barbarous  Latin  of  the  day3.     Among  his  pupils  at 
another  College  was  Calvin,  who  afterwards  invited  him  to  Geneva,  where  he 
taught  in  1536-38,  and  in  1559-64,  and  where  he  published  his  celebrated 
Colloquies  ( 1 564) 4. 

The  year  1527  was  memorable  as  that  in  which  the  famous 
printer  and  scholar,  Robert  Estienne,  or  Stephanus 
(I5°3 — 1559)>  first  assumed  an  independent  position        Estienne 
as  a  publisher.     His    Thesaurus  Linguae  Latinae, 
published  in  a  single  volume  in  1532,  as  a  reprint  of  Calepinus' 
(1502),  became  in  its  final  form  an  entirely  new  work  in  three 
folio  volumes  (i543)5.     It  was  not  until  1544  that  he  turned  his 
attention   to   Greek,    and    produced   a    series   of  eight   editiones 
principeS)  beginning  with  Eusebius  (1544-6)  and  going  on  with 
Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  (1546-7),  Dio  Cassius  (1548)",  and 

1  On    Budaeus   cp.    Vita   by  Louis   le   Roy  1540-1 ;    Rebitte,    Guillaume 
Bude,  restaurateur  des  Etudes  grecques  en  France  (1846) ;  and  Eugene  de  Bude, 
Vie  de  Guillaume  Bade",  Fondateur  du  College  de  France  (1884) ;  M.  Triwunatz, 
in  Miinchener  Beitrage,  no.  28  (1903);  also  Egger,  i  161  — 173;  Lefranc,  Hist, 
du  College  de  France,  46  f,  102-6;  and  A.  A.  Tilley,  Literature  of  the  French 
Renaissance,  1904,  i  14 — 19.     Portrait  on  p.  164  supra. 

2  Tilley,  i  19.     On  Germanus  Brixius  and  Nicolas  Berauld,  who  ranked 
next  to  Budaeus  as  Greek  scholars,  and  on  Pierre  du  Chastel,   one  of  his 
successors,  see  ib.  i  20  f. 

3  Corderius,  De  corrupti  serrnonis  apud  Gallos  et  loquendi  latine  rationc 
libellus,  1530. 

4  E.  T.  1614,  1657;    latest  ed.  London,   1830.     Cp.   E.   Puech,  Maturin 
Cordier,  1895;    Tilley,  i  17  f;   and  Woodward,  Renaissance  Education,  154 — 
1 66. 

6  Cp.  Christie's  Etienne  Dolet,  235  n. 

6  The  words  in  the  preface,  locos  mutilos  intactos  reliquimus,  give  proof  of 
a  more  cautious  and  critical  spirit  than  that  of  the  Italian  humanists. 


ROBERTVS  STEPHAN  v  £. 

E  R  T  KAf  cernis  STE  PHA  JfVM  >  qufmGallicus  or  Ins 


C?*ic04r4pyA 

Quipius  et  cwcftiisprocudii  Scripts  ptorum . 

*~-   «£n  /  /•-  /  /      .  .-£*•-£. 

vow  ?tiu  twn  vwmfttiL  fcrrz  ~uirun  •. 


ROBERT  EsxrENNE. 

From  a  photograph  of  one  of  Croler's  reproductions  of  the.  original  engraving  by 
Leonard  Gaultier  (copied  in  Renouard's  Anndles,  p.  74).  Cabinet  des  .E^tampes, 
Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris. 


CHAP.  XIII.]    ROBERT   AND   HENRI   ESTIENNE.  1/5 

Appian  (^i)1.  These  books  were  printed_in  a  magnificent  type 
designed  in  1541  by  the  last  of  the  professional  calligraphers, 
Angelo  Vergecio2,  executed  by  the  first  French  engraver  of  the 
day,  Claude  Garampnd,  and  finally  cast  at  the  expense  of  the 
royal  treasury.  In  this  type  the  complex  ligatures  and  contractions 
used  by  calligraphers  were  skilfully  imitated.  The  first  book  in 
which  all  the  three  alphabets  of  the  new  type  were  used  was  the 
folio  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament  (i5so)3.  This  Testament 
had  already  been  printed  in  duodecimo  in  1546  and  1549,  and 
long  remained  the  standard  text,  being  ultimately  even  described 
as  the  textus  receptus  in  the  Elzevir  edition  of  1633.  In  1551 
persecutions  arising  from  his  printing  of  this  text  compelled 
Robert  Estienne  to  take  refuge  in  Geneva,  where  he  died  in 

I5594- 

As  a  printer  and  a  scholar  he   was  even  surpassed  by  his 
son,  Henri  Estienne  (11528— -?i5 — 1598),  who,  in  the 

...  •      r     i          H.  Estienne 

early  part  of  his  career,  spent  several  years  in  Italy 
(1547-9),  and  also  visited  Florence,  Brabant,  and  England.  A 
second  visit  to  Italy  led  to  his  discovery  of  ten  new  books  of 
Diodorus,  printed  in  1559,  the  year  in  which  he  succeeded  to 
his  father's  business  at  Geneva.  His  editions  of  ancient  authors 
amounted  to  no  less  than  58  in  Latin  and  74  in  Greek,  18  of  the 
latter  being  editiones  principes.  He  was  specially  attracted  to  the 
Greek  historians6.  He  ruined  himself  over  the  publication  of 
his  Thesaurus  Graecae  Linguae  (1572)  and  his  Plato  (1578).  The 

1  Completed  by  his  younger  brother,  Charles. 
8  Egger,  i  148,  150. 

3  A.  Bernard,  Les  Estienne  et  les  types grecs  de  Francois  I  (1856,  and  1867) ; 
Pattison's  Essays  ii  85 — 89;  W.  Meyer,  Henricus  Stephanus  ilber  die  Regii 
Typi,  mil  i  7'afeln  (Gottingen  Abhandl.  vi  2  (1902)  32  pp.)-     The  same  type 
was  used  at  Paris  by  Morel  and  Turnebus,  and  also  at  Heidelberg  and  Basel. 
It  was  not  until  1662  that  a  simpler  type  (with  40  instead  of  400  characters) 
•was  first  used  by  Wetstein  at  Antwerp.     The  Typi  Regii  are  reproduced  in 
Omont's    Gk    Catalogues   of    Fontainebleau    (1889);    cp.    Proctor's  Essay  r, 
95—108. 

4  Cp.  Mark  Pattison's  Essays,  i  70 — 89.     Portrait  on  p.  174. 

5  1528  is  the  traditional  date,  given  by  Maittaire  and  Renouard;  but  1531 
is  supported  by  the  evidence  of  Henri  himself  and  his  uncle  Charles,  and  is 
preferred  by  L.  Clement,  Henri  Estienne  et  son  ceuvre  fraitfaise  (1899),  463  f. 

6  Pulcherrimum  scriptorum  genus  (Pref.  to  Diodorus,  1559). 


FRANCE.  [CENT.  xvi. 

former,  in  five  folio  volumes,  is  his  greatest  work ;  it  was  a  Thesaurus 
that  (as  the  publisher  bitterly  remarked)  made  him  poor  instead 
of  rich ;  its  sale  was  damaged  by  the  publication  of  an  abridge- 
ment in  a  single  volume,  prepared  by  his  disloyal  assistant,  Scapula 
(1579).  The  original  work  has  been  re-edited  in  modern  times1, 
and,  as  a  Greek  lexicon  on  a  large  scale,  it  is  still  unsurpassed. 
The  text  of  Plato  held  its  ground  for  two  centuries  until  the 
Bipontine  edition  of  1781-7,  and  it  is  a  familiar  fact  that  all 
modern  references  to  Plato  recognise  the  pages  of  '  Stephanus '. 
;  His  '  Apology  for  Herodotus ',  a  volume  of  600  closely  printed 
pages,  is  an  example  of  his  weakness  and  diffuseness  as  an  author 
and  a  critic2.  His  main  strength  lies  in  a  perfect  mastery  of 
Greek  idiom,  attained  as  the  ripe  result  of  long  and  laborious 
study.  His  first  publication  was  the  editio  princep s  of  'Anacreon  ' 
(1554),  and  the  text  of  that  edition  was  not  superseded  for  three 
centuries.  When  it  first  appeared,  it  was  welcomed  by  the  poet 
Ronsard,  who  passes  from  the  imitation  of  Pindar  to  that  of 
Anacreon  in  the  pretty  lines  addressed  to  his  page-boy  : 

'  Verse  done  et  reverse  encor 
Dedans  ceste  grand'  coupe  d'or : 
Je  vay  boire  a  Henry  Estienne, 
Qui  des  enfers  nous  a  rendu 
Du  vieil  Anacreon  perdu 
La  douce  lyre  teienne'8. 

His  Aeschylus,  edited  by  Victorius  (1557),  was  the  first  to 
include  the  complete  Agamemnon.  His  edition  of  the  '  Planudean 
Anthology'  was  supplemented  by  many  epigrams  recorded  in 
ancient  authors  (1566).  In  his  recensions  of  the  Classics  his 
alterations  of  the  manuscript  readings  were  capricious  and  un- 
critical, and  he  is  accordingly  denounced  with  some  severity  by 
Scaliger  as  a  corrupter  of  ancient  texts4.  It  has  also  been  sup- 
posed that  the  readings,  which  he  describes  as  derived  from  MSS, 
are  sometimes  merely  conjectures  of  his  own,  to  which  he  thus 
attempts  to  lend  an  air  of  fictitious  authority5;  but  his  veracity 

1  London,  1815-28;  Paris,  1831-65.  2  Cp.  Tilley,  i  292  f. 

8  Egger,  Hellenisme  en  France,  i  363;  Tilley,  i  332. 
4  Prima  Scaligerana,  s.v.  Dalechampius,  and  Erotianus. 
6  e.g.  Hermann  on  Eur.  HtL  1410,  1507. 


CHAP.  XIII.]         JULIUS  CAESAR  SCALIGER.  .  177 

has  been  repeatedly  vindicated,  and,  whenever  his  statements 
cannot  be  put  to  the  test,  it  must  be  remembered  that,  during 
his  extensive  travels  in  Italy  and  elsewhere,  he  examined  many 
MSS  in  a  cursory  manner,  and  that,  in  the  case  of  those  in  private 
collections  in  particular,  the  MSS,  from  which  he  states  that  he 
derived  his  readings,  may  easily  have  been  lost1. 

The  Ciceronianus  of  Erasmus  had  appeared  in  1528.  The 
French  were  not  unnaturally  offended  by  the  way  in  which  their 
great  Greek  scholar,  Budaeus,  had  been  rather  unceremoniously 
mentioned  in  the  same  breath  as  the  Parisian  printer,  Badius.  A 
reply  was  prepared  in  the  very  next  year  by  Julius 
Caesar  Scaliger  (1484—1558),  a  scholar  of  Italian  slallg^^ 
origin,  who  had  been  born  at  Riva  on  the  Lago 
di  Garda,  and,  after  spending  42  years  in  Italy,  had  betaken 
himself  to  the  French  town  of  Agen  on  the  Garonne.  During 
his  Italian  days  he  had  seen  service  as  a  soldier ;  he  was  now 
physician  to  the  bishop  of  Agen.  Burning  to  make  himself  a 
name  among  scholars,  he  published,  in  1531,  an  oration  de- 
nouncing Erasmus  as  a  parricide,  a  parasite,  and  a  corrector  of 
printer's  proofs;  defending  Cicero  from  the  attacks  of  Erasmus; 
and  maintaining  that  Cicero  was  absolutely  perfect2.  Erasmus 
treated  this  abusive  tirade  with  silent  contempt ;  he  attributed  it 
to  Aleander ;  he  felt  sure  that  Scaliger  could  not  possibly  have 
had  the  ability  to  write  it.  Stung  with  rage  and  mortification, 
Scaliger  flung  himself  once  more  into  the  fray.  He  prepared  a 

1  Feugere,    Caracteres,   ii    i — 204;    GrautofF's    Program    (Glogau,    1862), 
15 — 17;  Sintenis  in  Philologus,  i  134 — 142,  zur  Ehrenerkliirung fiir  Henricus 
Stcphanus.     On  both  the  Stephani,  cp.  Almeloveen,  de  vitis  Stepkanorunt, 
Amst.  1683;    Maittaire,  Stephanorum  Historia,  London,  1709  (both  include 
a  portrait  of  Robertus);    H.  St.  xxvii  Brief e  an  Crato,  ed.  Passow  (1830); 
Hi  unedierte  Brief  e,  ed.  Dinse,  in  Jahrb.   cl.   Philol.    1864,  843 — 859;   also 
Didot,  Observations  (1824);  GreswelFs  Early  Parisian  Greek  Press  (1833); 
Renouard,  Annales  (\%$i  etc.);  Feugere  (1853  and  1859);  Egger,  Hellenisme 
en  France,  i  198 — 221;  Mark  Pattison,  Essays,  i  67 — 123;  Stein,  Noicvcaitx, 
Documents  sur  les  Estienne  (1895).     On  'Henri  Estienne',  cp.  L.  Clement, 
H.  Estienne  et  son   auvre  francaise  (1899);    Tilley,  i  290-8.     There  is   no 
known  portrait. 

2  J.    Caesaris    Scaligeri    Pro    M.     Tullio    Cicerone,    contra    Desiderium 
Erasmum  Roterodamum,  Oratio  I  (1531),  ed.  1620,  Toulouse. 

S.    II.  12 


178  FRANCE.  [CENT.  xvi. 

still   more    violent   and   vain-glorious  harangue,    which  was   not 

published  until  late  in  1536*;  but,  meanwhile,  in  the  month  of 

July,  Erasmus  had  passed  from  the  scenes  of  earthly  controversy 

'To  where  beyond  these  voices  there  is  peace'. 

A  more  creditable  production  of  Scaliger's  is  his  treatise  De 
Causis  Latinae  linguae  (1544),  an  acute  and  judicious  work  on 
the  leading  principles  of  the  language,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
claims  to  have  corrected  634  mistakes  made  by  Valla  and  his 
other  predecessors.  A  far  more  comprehensive  work  is  his 
Poetice  (1561),  one  of  the  earliest  modern  attempts  to  treat  the 
art  of  poetry  in  a  systematic  manner.  He  here  deals  with 
the  different  kinds  of  poems,  and  the  various  metres,  together 
with  figures  of  speech  and  turns  of  phrase,  criticises  all  the  Latin 
poets  ancient  and  modern,  and  institutes  a  detailed  comparison 
between  Homer  and  Virgil  to  the  distinct  advantage  of  Virgil, 
while  the  epics  of  Homer  are  regarded  as  inferior  to  the  Hero  and 
Leander  of  'Musaeus'2.  He  also  declares  Seneca  'inferior  to 
none  of  the  Greeks  in  majesty  '3.  He  makes  all  literary  creation 
depend  ultimately  on  judicious  imitation4. 

During  the  controversy  raised  by  the  Ciceronianus,  Scaliger 
was  not  alone  in  his  championship  of  Cicero.  He  was  supported 
by  one  who  was  nettled,  not  only  by  the  disrespectful  way  in 
which  Erasmus  was  supposed  to  have  treated  Budaeus,  but  also 
by  his  criticisms  on  the  young  Ciceronian  scholar,  Longolius,  one 
of  whose  devoted  pupils  at  Padua  was  a  friend  of  this  second 
champion  of  Cicero,  Etienne  Dolet  (1509 — 1546). 
Dolet's  'Dialogue  on  the  imitation  of  Cicero' 
takes  the  form  of  an  imaginary  conversation  between  the  pupil 
of  Longolius,  and  Sir  Thomas  More  as  the  representative  of 
Erasmus.  It  was  less  violent  than  Scaliger's  first  oration,  but  it 
was  treated  by  Erasmus  with  the  same  silent  contempt5. 

1  Oratio    II,    ed.    1623,    Toulouse.      Christie's    £tienne    Dolet,    194-6; 
cp.  Hallam,  i  325*. 

2  Hallam,  ii  200-2*.  3  vi  6. 

*  Spingarn,  Literary  Criticism  in  the  Renaissance,  131,  and  passim ;  also 
Saintsbury's  History  of  Criticism,  ii  69 — 80;  cp.  E.  Lintillac,  De  J.  C.  Scali- 
geri  poetice  (Hachette,  Paris,  1887),  and  Tilley,  ii  80  f. 

5  Christie,  £tienne  Dolet,  197  f. 


CHAP.  XIII.]  DOLET.  1/9 

Its  author,  a  native  of  Orleans,  had  eagerly  devoted  himself  \ 
to  the  study  of  Rhetoric  and  Cicero  in  Paris  and  Padua,  and,  on 
returning  to  France,  took  up  his  residence  at  Toulouse  (1532-4), 
where  he  resolved  on  writing  a  great  work  with  a  view  to  proving 
Cicero's  superiority  to  Sallust,  Caesar  and  Livy.  After  making 
many  enemies  by  his  injudicious  and  intemperate  speeches  at 
Toulouse,  he  left  for  Lyons,  where  the  two  folio  volumes  of  his 
'Commentaries"  were  published  by  Gryphius  in  1536-8.  The 
work  has  been  justly  described  as  'one  of  the  most  important 
contributions  to  Latin  scholarship  produced  by  the  sixteenth 
century'2,  and  its  almost  simultaneous  appearance  with  the  second 
edition  of  the  Latin  Thesaurus  of  Robert  Estienne  marks  an 
epoch  in  the  history  of  Scholarship.  The  Thesaurus,  aiming  at 
practical  utility,  naturally  follows  the  order  of  the  alphabet ;  the 
'  Commentaries ',  '  more  scientific  and  critical '  in  their  method, 
follow  the  sequence  of  meaning,  and  are  mainly  concerned  with 
Ciceronian  usage.  The  work  was  enlivened  by  personal  touches 
that  would  certainly  have  been  out  of  place  in  a  dictionary3.  The 
author  also  gives  a  singularly  complete  list  of  the  leading  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Revival  of  Learning,  adding  an  eloquent  eulogy 
on  their  victories  over  barbarism4.  This  great  achievement  was 
soon  followed  by  a  collection  of  Formulae,  or  Ciceronian  phrases 
(1539),  afterwards  printed  as  an  Appendix  to  Nizolius5.  Dolet's 
attack  on  Erasmus  provoked  in  1539  a  rejoinder  by  Franciscus 
Floridus  Sabinus,  who  charged  Dolet  with  plagiarism  in  his 
'Commentaries',  and  even  with  'atheism'6.  Dolet  replied  in 
1540,  and  was  himself  answered  in  the  following  year.  The 
charge  of  plagiarism  is  only  true  to  a  trifling  extent.  As  a 
printer,  from  1538  to  1544,  Dolet  produced  a  French  translation  of 
the  Ad  Familiares  and  the  Tusculan  Disputations  of  Cicero,  and  a 
history  of  the  reign  of  Francis  I  in  Latin  verse  and  prose.  He 
was  for  a  time  a  friend  of  Marot  and  of  Rabelais.  His  Carmina 
were  denounced  as  heretical  in  1538 ;  his  publication  of  the  New 

1  Commentarii  Linguae  Laiinae:  facs.  of  title-page  in  Christie,  243. 

2  Christie.  23.1  f. 


2  Christie,  234  f. 

3  ib.  241. 

5  Edd.  1606,  17; 

6  Christie,  272  f. 


3  ib.  241.  4  ili.  247 — 253. 

5  Edd.  1606,  1734,  1820;  also  in  several  epitomes. 

6  Christie.  272  f. 


12 — 2 


i8o  FRANCE.  [CENT.  xvi. 

Testament  in  French  and  his  translation  of  two  religious  treatises 
by  Erasmus,  with  other  works,  charged  with  'heresy'  in  1542,  led 
to  his  being  prosecuted  in  the  court  of  the  Inquisitor-General  at 
the  instigation  of  jealous  rivals  among  the  printers  of  Lyons.  On 
his  condemnation,  he  appealed  to  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  but 
meanwhile  the  royal  pardon  had  been  obtained  and  he  was  set  at 
liberty.  He  was  the  first  to  translate  any  part  of  Plato,  or  the 
'  Platonic '  writings,  into  French.  His  rendering  of  the  Axiochus 
and  Htpfarchus,  which  was  probably  made  with  the  help  of  a 
Latin  version,  was  published  in  1544.  A  redundant  phrase  in 
a  single  passage  of  his  rendering  of  the  former  dialogue  laid  him 
open  to  the  imputation  of  attributing  to  '  Plato '  a  disbelief  in  the 
immortality  of  the  soul1,  and,  strange  to  say,  this  charge  con- 
tributed in  no  small  degree  to  his  being  condemned  to  death. 
He  was  executed  in  the  Place  Maubert  in  1546.  Julius  Caesar 
Scaliger  ignobly  heaped  insults  on  his  memory,  but  his  fate 
was  lamented  by  Theodore  Beza,  and  his  memory  has  recently 
been  honoured  by  a  bronze  statue  erected  on  the  spot  where  he 
died  as  a  '  martyr  to  the  Renaissance '. 

He  has  been  well  described  as  '  a  sound  Latin  scholar,  as  scholarship  was 
then  understood,  possessed  of  much  learning,  of  strong  classical  feeling,  of 
unwearied  industry,  and  of  both  the  will  and  the  power  to  make  his  learning 
available  for  the  use  and  benefit  of  others'2.  'His  enthusiastic  love  of 
learning  and  his  intense  belief  in  himself  are  his  strongest  characteristics, 
and  both  contributed  in  no  small  degree  to  his  misfortune'3. 

Three  centuries  before  the  death  of  Dolet,  an  oriental  College 
had  been  founded  on  the  southern  bank  of  the  Seine,  not  far  from 
the  Place  Maubert.  It  had  been  suggested  by  a  bull  of 
Innocent  IV  in  the  year  1248.  It  was  afterwards  called  the 
'College  of  Constantinople',  and  its  aim  was  the  theological 
instruction  of  young  Greeks  with  a  view  to  their  being  sent  as 
missionaries  to  the  East.  But  this  Greek  College  was  in  no  sense 
a  College  for  the  teaching  of  Greek.  In  1515  Leo  X  had  founded 
a  Greek  College  under  Lascaris  at  Rome.  In  the  same  year,  the 

1  <ri>  7&p  OVK  &r«,  '  tu  ne  seras  pas  rien  du  tout\  Christie,  445. 

2  Christie,  477. 

8  ib.  480,  ed.  1880  (ed.  2,  1899).  Cp.  Saintsbury,  in  Macmillan,  xliii 
273  f,  and  Tilley,  i  25  f. 


CHAP.  XIII.]        DOLET.      DANES.      TOUSSAIN.  l8l 

university  of  Alcala,  with  its  College  of  St  Jerome  and  its  four 
chairs  of  Greek  and  Hebrew,  had  been  established  by  Cardinal 
Ximenes ;  and  in  1517  the  Collegium  Trilingue  was  constituted  at 
Louvain.  It  was  the  ambition  of  Francis  I  to  found  a  similar 
College  in  France.  In  1517  he  vainly  endeavoured  to  attract 
Erasmus  to  Paris,  while  the  foremost  scholar  of  the  day  declined 
on  the  plea  that  Charles  V  had  the  first  claim  on  his  allegiance. 
Francis  I  afterwards  became  the  prisoner  of  Charles  V,  and,  during 
his  captivity  in  Spain,  actually  saw  in  1525  the  newly-founded 
university  of  Alcala.  The  eloquent  appeal  addressed  in  1529  to 
Francis  in  the  preface  of  the  'Commentaries'  of  Budaeus, 
together  with  the  enlightened  cooperation  of  Lascaris,  led  in  1530 
to  the  foundation  of  the  '  Corporation  of  the  Royal  Readers  u  with 
teachers  of  Greek,  Hebrew  and  Mathematics,  who  were  in  the 
first  instance  five  in  number.  The  College  arose  partly  out  of 
the  hostility  of  the  Sorbonne  to  the  study  of  Greek  and  Hebrew. 
The  lawyer  Conrad  of  Heresbach  states  in  1551  that  he  once 
heard  a  monk  vehemently  declaring  in  the  pulpit,  '  they  have 
recently  discovered  a  language  called  Greek,  against  which  we 
must  be  on  our  guard.  It  is  the  parent  of  all  heresies.  I 
observe  in  the  hands  of  many  persons  a  work  written  in  that 
language  called  the  New  Testament.  It  is  a  work  teeming  with 
brambles  and  vipers.  As  for  Hebrew,  all  who  learn  it  immedi- 
ately become  Jews'2. 

The  first  two  teachers  of  Greek  were  Pierre  Danes,  '  Danesius ' 
(1497 — 1577),  a  member  of  an  ancient  and  wealthy 
family  in  Paris,  who  afterwards  produced  editions 
of  Justin  and  Pliny,  became  bishop  of  Lavaur,  took  an  important 
part  in  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  was  buried  in  St  Germain-des- 
Pres  ;    and  Jacques  Toussain    (c.    1498 — 1547),    a 

...  Toussain 

less  pretentious  and  far  more  industrious  scholar, 
the  compiler  of  a  Greek  and  Latin  Dictionary,  whose  portrait  in 
Beza's  Icones3  suggests  austerity  of  life  and  energy  of  character. 
Among  their  first  pupils  were  two  whose  paths  diverged  widely  in 

1  p.  172  supra. 

8  De   laudibiis   Graecarum  literanim  oralio,  Argentorati,   1551,  p.    26  f; 
Eugene  de  Bude,  Vie  de  Btide,  43  f. 
3  Facing  p.  v.  ij. 


1 82  FRANCE.  [CENT.  xvi. 

after  life, — Ignatius  de  Loyola,  and  Calvin  (1509 — 1564),  whose 
earliest  work  was  a  commentary  on  Seneca  De  dementia  (1532), 
and  who  owed  much  to  his  mastery  of  Latin1.  It  is  probable 
that  their  lectures  were  also  attended  for  a  short  time  by 
Rabelais. 

Frai^ois  Rabelais  (c.  1490 — 1553)1  the  son  of  an  avocat,  was  born  at  or 

near  Chinon  in  Touraine.     He  was  educated  at  the  Cluniac 
Rabelais  ..  _      ... ,         ,     r 

monastery  of  Seuille,  and  afterwards  at  a  Franciscan  convent 

near  Angers.  He  subsequently  became  a  Friar  of  the  strictest  order  of  the 
Franciscans  at  the  convent  of  Fontenay-le-Comte  in  Poitou;  where  he  laid 
the  foundation  of  his  wide  erudition  (1509-24).  His  friend  Pierre  Lamy  was 
a  protege  of  Budaeus,  who  encouraged  the  brethren  in  their  Greek  studies. 
Rabelais  translated  Herodotus,  and  read  largely  in  Lucian.  The  less  scholarly 
inmates  of  Fontenay  were  alarmed  by  the  publication  of  Erasmus'  Commentaries 
on  the  New  Testament ;  Greek  was  denounced  as  heretical,  and  the  students 
of  Greek  deprived  of  their  books.  Lamy  fled  at  the  first  opportunity,  while 
Rabelais  was  considerately  transferred  by  Clement  VII  to  the  Benedictine 
abbey  of  Maillezais  near  Liguge,  then  under  the  refined  and  enlightened 
bishop,  Geoffroi  d'Estissac.  He  was  here  welcomed  by  a  circle  of  learned 
men,  mostly  jurists,  e.g.  Andre  Tiraqueau,  Jean  Bouchet,  and  Almaric  Bouchard. 
But,  before  long,  he  left  for  the  French  universities,  studying  law  at  Bourges, 
and  medicine  in  Paris  (1528-30).  In  December,  1530,  he  graduated  as 
Bachelor  in  Medicine  at  Montpellier.  After  lecturing  there  with  great 
success,  he  went  to  Lyons  early  in  1532,  with  a  view  to  his  lectures  on  parts 
of  Hippocrates  and  Galen  being  published  by  Sebastian  Gryphius,  an  excellent 
Latin  scholar  and  printer  of  handy  editions  of  the  Latin  classics.  Rabelais 
almost  certainly  acted  for  Gryphius  as  corrector  of  the  press.  In  October  he 
became  physician  to  the  local  hospital,  and,  to  amuse  his  patients,  composed 
Les  grandes...Croniques  du  geant  Gargantua,  in  which  the  adventures  of  that 
beneficent  giant  are  combined  with  those  of  Merlin  and  Lancelot  of  the  Lake. 
The  success  of  this  work  prompted  him  to  publish  his  Paniagruel,  which 
combines  giant-stories  of  the  Carolingian  cycle  with  humanistic  learning,  with 
satires  on  legal  and  scholastic  studies  and  on  the  disputations  in  the  Sorbonne, 
and  with  attacks  on  the  Mendicant  Orders.  He  here  borrows  from  the 
Commentaries  on  the  Pandects  and  the  De  Asse  of  Budaeus,  from  More's 
Utopia,  as  well  as  from  Homer,  Hippocrates,  Galen,  and  Diogenes  Laertius, 
with  Virgil,  Ovid,  and  Gellius,  and  from  translations  from  Lucian  and  Plutarch 
by  Erasmus  and  Budaeus. 

After  a  visit   to   Rome   in   company   with   the    future   Cardinal,   bishop" 
Jean  du  Bellay,  he  produced  at  Lyons  an  edition  of  Marliani's  Topographia 
Romae  Antiquae  (i534)2.     In  the  next  year  his  Grandes  Croniques  were  super- 
seded by  his  Gargantua,  a  work  of  wider  outlook  and  more  extensive  erudition. 

1  Tilley,  i  230.  2  p.  154  supra. 


CHAP.  XIII.]  RABELAIS.  183 

The  suggestions  made  in  Pantagruel1  are  here  expanded  into  a  complete 
system  of  moral,  intellectual  and  physical  education2,  which  even  now 
commands  respect, — a  system  probably  partly  inspired  by  that  of  Vittorino. 
The  giant-stories  are  dropped,  but  we  have  much  about  medicine  and  classical 
learning,  and  many  traces  of  indebtedness  to  the  Adagia  of  Erasmus.  Erasmus 
is  doubtless  the  source  of  the  learned  allusion  to  the  images  of  the  Sileni  in 
the  prologue,  and  the  series  of  references  to  Hippocrates,  Plautus,  Varro  and 
Pliny  is  really  derived  from  Gellius3. 

After  a  second  visit  to  Rome  with  the  Cardinal  (July  1535  to  March  1536), 
he  returned  to  Paris,  completed  his  medical  degrees  at  Montpellier,  and 
wandered  about  the  South  of  France  till  late  in  1539,  when  he  took  service 
with  the  Cardinal's  brother,  Guillaume  du  Bellay,  Viceroy  of  Piedmont4. 
A  stay  at  Orleans  was  succeeded  by  his  residence  at  the  Benedictine  priory 
of  St  Maur  des  Fosses  near  Paris,  under  Cardinal  du  Bellay.  Here  he  seriously 
took  up  classical  studies  and  completed  his  Third  Book.  This,  his  most 
finished  production,  is  concerned  almost  entirely  with  various  systems  of 
divination  on  the  prospects  of  the  marriage  of  Panurge.  The  wealth  of 
classical  reference  is  more  profuse  than  ever,  including  Homer,  Diodorus, 
Strabo,  Pausanias  and  Diogenes  Laertius5,  with  Ovid,  Suetonius,  Gellius,  and 
the  '  Scriptores  Historiae  Augustae',  Lucian  and  Philostratus,  Catullus  and 
Terence.  Under  the  inspiration  of  the  library  of  St  Maur6,  he  carefully 
studied  Plutarch's  Moralia7,  the  De  Divinatione  and  the  moral  treatises  of 
Cicero,  Pliny's  Natural  History  (especially  on  points  of  botany),  Ovid's 
Metamorphoses  and  Fasti,  and  (above  all)  Virgil,  with  the  commentary  of 
Servius8  and  the  elucidations  of  Macrobius.  The  renaissance  scholars  laid 
under  contribution  include  Politian  and  Valla,  Budaeus  and  Erasmus,  with 
Tiraqueau9,  Johannes  Nevizanus10,  and  Cornelius  Agrippa11. 

On  the  publication  of  the  Third  Book  (1546)  he  retired  to  Metz,  where  he 
soon  became  physician  to  the  hospital,  and  wrote  part  of  his  Fourth  Book  with 
the  aid  of  a  few  texts  such  as  Ovid's  Fasti  and  Valerius  Maximus.  The  Book 
was  finished  in  Rome  during  his  third  visit  in  the  company  of  the  Cardinal 
(1548-50),  when  he  added  to  his  authorities  the  Antiquae  Lectiones  of  Caelius 
Rhodiginus,  formerly  Greek  Professor  at  Milan  (d.  1525).  The  Fourth  and 
the  posthumous  Fifth  Book  are  entirely  taken  up  with  the  Voyage  of  Pantagruel 
and  his  companions  to  consult  the  oracle  in  Northern  India  or  Cathay, 
whither  they  proceed  by  the  famous  North- West  passage12.  Rabelais  is 

I  c.  8.  2  c.  23  and  24. 
3  iii  16.  4  d.  Jan.  1543. 

5  Also  Herodotus  and  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus. 

6  Lib.  iv,  Ep.  Ded. 

7  Cp.    P.  P.  Plan,  in  Melanges  a"  Archeologie   et  d"  Histoire,  xxvi  (1906), 
195—249. 

8  W.  F.  Smith,  in  Revue  des  Etudes  rabelaisiennes,  iv  4  (1906),  22  pp. 

9  De  legibus  connubialibus.  10  Silva  Nttptialis. 

II  De  occulta  philosophia  and  de  vanitate  scientiarum.  12  iv  c.  i. 


i&4  FRANCE.  [CENT.  xvi. 

femarkable  for  his  interest  in  voyages  of  discovery.     Hence  his  fondness  for 
the  Odyssey,  and  for  Lucian's  Vera  Historia. 

After  the  publication  of  the  Fourth  Book  (1552),  in  which  the  Decretals 
are  ridiculed,  he  resigned  his  cure  of  Meudon  early  in  1553,  and  died  in  the 
same  year1. 

Toussain  counted  not  only  Rabelais,  but  also   Ramus   and 

Turnebus  among  his  pupils.     In    1547  (the  year  of  the  death 

of  Francis  I)  Toussain  was  succeeded  as  lecturer  in  Greek  by 

Turnebus,  while   Ramus  became  a  professor  in    1551.      For  a 

quarter  of  a  century  Ramus,  or  Pierre  de  la  Ramee 

.      Ramus  ' 

(1515 — 1572),  was  the  most  prominent  teacher  in 
Paris.  He  was  already  celebrated  as  the  resolute  opponent  of  the 
exclusive  authority  of  Aristotle.  In  1536  he  had  maintained  the 
thesis  that  everything  written  by  Aristotle  was  false,  and  in  1543 
he  had  severely  attacked  the  Aristotelian  logic.  This  attitude  had 
naturally  made  him  many  enemies.  Nevertheless  in  1551  a 
special  chair  of  '  eloquence  and  philosophy '  was  instituted  on  his 
behalf2.  He  lectured  with  great  success  on  Cicero  and  Virgil. 
He  substituted  humanistic  methods  of  teaching  for  the  scholastic 
methods  that  had  long  prevailed ;  he  encouraged  the  study  of 
Greek,  and  he  improved  the  study  of  Latin.  In  the  very  first 
year  of  his  lectureship  he  was  entangled  in  a  petty  controversy 
with  the  Sorbonne  as  to  the  proper  pronunciation  of  quisquis  and 
quanquam.  The  Royal  Reader  pronounced  the  vowel  u  in  both 
words  ;  the  Sorbonne  pleaded  for  its  suppression ;  Parliament 
decided  to  leave  it  an  open  question3.  With  his  colleague, 
Galland,  he  had  a  dispute  on  the  merits  of  Quintilian,  of  which 
Rabelais  has  said  in  the  'new  preface'  to  the  fourth  book  of 
Pantagruel : — '  What  shall  we  do  with  this  Ramus  and  this 
Galland,  who  are  setting  by  the  ears  the  whole  University  of 
Paris  ?'  As  a  protestant,  Ramus  was  unhappily  one  of  the  victims 
of  the  massacre  of  St  Bartholomew  in  1572*. 

1  This  account  of  Rabelais  is  abridged  from  a  sketch  written  on  my  behalf 
by  my  friend,  Mr  W.  F.  Smith,  Fellow  of  St  John's,  translator  of  Rabelais 
(1893).  '.  Cp.  Tilley,   i   165—223,   with  the   bibliography  there  quoted,   and 
Brunetiere,   Hist,   de    la   lift.  fran(aise  dassique,  i   (1904),   105 — 164;   also 
C.  Whibley,  Literary'  Portraits  (1904),   i — 108. 

2  Pasquier,  Recherches  de  la  France,  ix  18.  3  Lefranc,  21  r  n. 

4  On  Ramus,  cp.  Ch.  Waddington  (Paris,  1855);  Desmaze,  1864;  Ziegler, 


CHAP.  XIII.] 


RAMUS;      TURNEBUS. 


I85 


The  Royal  Readers  in  Greek  included  Turnebus  (from  1547 
to    1565),   Dorat   (1559   to    1588)   and  Lambinus 
(1561   to   1572).      The   first   of  these,    'Adrianus 
Turnebus'1  of  Andelys  in  Normandy  (1512 — 1565),  was  sent  at 
the  age  of  twelve  to  be  educated  in  Paris  under  Toussain  and 


TURNEBUS. 
No.  127  of  De  Leu's  Pourtraictz  (c.  1600)  ;    Print  Room,  British  Museum. 

others,  whom  he  astonished  by  his  marvellous  memory  and  his 
rare  acumen.  In  1545  he  became  a  professor  at  Toulouse,  and, 
on  the  death  of  Toussain,  was  appointed  to  succeed  him  in  Paris. 
Toussain  had  been  (like  Budaeus  and  Rabelais)  a  man  of  marked 

Gesch.  der  Piidagogik  (1895),  107  f;  and  see  Tilley,  i  273  f;  portrait  in  Bois- 
sard,  II  96. 

1  This  is  the  form  found  on  the  title-page  of  his  Aeschylus.  In  the 
Letters  prefixed  to  that  ed.,  and  to  his  Sophocles,  the  name  is  spelt  Toi//>- 
ve/3oj,  as  also  in  the  Greek  Epitaph  by  Henr.  Stephanus,  who  in  another 
epigram  calls  him  TcwpcTj/Sos  (Maittaire,  Stephanorum  Vitae,  112  f).  The 
Latin  epitaphs,  by  Stephanus  and  Jean  Mercier,  have  Turnebus.  His 
own  contemporary,  Estienne  Pasquier  (GLuvres  choisies,  Ep.  i)  addresses  him 
in  1552  as  M.  de  Tournebu,  and  the  form  Tournebou  is  given  in  the  Bibliotheque 
Britannique,  vii  154  f;  Tournebus  is  found  in  Paris  accounts  of  1550-1 
(Lefranc's  College  de  France,  404),  and  is  the  form  adopted  by  Legay  (Caen, 
1828),  and  by  Tilley,  i  280,  who  describes  'Tournebus'  as  Latinised  into 
Turnebus,  and  then  Gallicised  back  into  Turnebe.  The  suggestion  that  the 
original  French  form  was  Touvnebceuf,  and  that  this  was  derived  from  the 
Scottish  name  of  Turnbull  (a  suggestion  due  to  Dempster),  is  rightly  regarded 
as  doubtful  by  Eckstein,  Nomencl.  Philol.  s.v.  Cp.  L.  Clement  (1899),  p.  7. 


r86  FRANCE.  [CENT.  xvi. 

erudition,  '  a  living  library ' ;  Turnebus  was  more  of  a  specialist  in 
Greek  textual  criticism.  From  1552  to  1556  he  was  Director  of 
the  Royal  Press,  and,  in  that  capacity,  published  a  series  of  Greek 
texts,  including  Aeschylus  (1552),  and  Sophocles  with  the  scholia 
of  Triclinius  (1553).  He  also  edited  Cicero's  Laws,  and  Philo 
and  Oppian;  and  commented  on  Varro  and  the  elder  Pliny. 
Late  in  life  he  completed  his  most  important  work,  the  thirty 
books  of  his  Adversaria,  in  which  a  large  number  of  passages  in 
ancient  authors  are  judiciously  explained  or  boldly  emended. 
De  Thou  describes  them  as  aeternitate  digna.  Scaliger's  verdict 
on  the  Adversaria  is  vague.  He  admires  the  author's  learning, 
but  regards  the  work  as  immature1;  at  the  same  time,  he  con- 
siders that  there  is  more  in  a  single  book  of  Turnebus  than  in  the 
37  books  of  the  Variae  Lect tones  of  Victorius2.  Montaigne,  his 
junior  by  21  years,  speaks  with  no  uncertain  sound: — 

'  I  have  seen  Adrianus  Turnebus,  who  having  never  professed  any  thing 
but  studie  and  letters,  wherein  he  was,  in  mine  opinion,  the  worthiest  man  that 
lived  these  thousand  years,... notwithstanding  had  no  pedanticall  thing  about 
him  but  the  wearing  of  his  gowne,  and  some  external  fashions,  that  could  not 
well  be  reduced  and  incivilized  to  the  courtiers  cut...  For  his  inward  parts, 
I  deeme  him  to  have  been  one  of  the  most  unspotted  and  truly  honest  minds 
that  ever  was.  I  have  sundry  times  of  purpose  urged  him  to  speake  of 
matters  furthest  from  his  study,  wherein  he  was  so  cleare-sighted,  and  could 
with  so  quicke  an  apprehension  conceive,  and  with  so  sound  a  judgment 
distinguish  them,  that  he  seemed  never  to  have  professed  or  studied  other 
facultie  than  warre,  and  matters  of  state  '3. 

Another    of    the    Royal    Readers    in    Greek,    Jean    Dorat4 

(c.  1502 — 1588),  was  born  at  Limoges.     Francis  I 

made  him  tutor  to  the  royal  pages,  and  Charles  IX 

gave  him  the  title  of  '  Poet  Royal '.     He  is  said  to  have  published 

more  than  50,000  Greek  and  Latin  verses,  and  15,000  of  these 

1  Scaligerana  s.v.  2  Scaligerana  Sec.  s.v. 

3  Essayes,   I   c.  xxiv,  Of  Pedantisme   (in  Florio's   transl.);    cp.  n  c.  xii, 
1  Adrianus  Turnebus,  a  man  who  knew  all  things '.     Cp.  in  general  L.  du 
Chesne's  Funeral  Oration  in  Opera  (Arg.,  1600);  Legay  (Paris,  1893),  51  pp.; 
L.  Clement,  De  Adriani  Turnebi . . .praefationibus  et  poemalis  (1899),  152  pp. 
with  bibliography. 

4  His  father's  name  was  Dorat ;  the  son  Latinised  this  as  Auratus ;  and 
his   contemporaries   called   him   Daurat  as  well   as   Dorat  (Tilley,    i    309 ; 
cp.   Pattison's  Essays,  i  206  n.). 


CHAP.  XIII.] 


DORAT. 


I87 


are  preserved  in  his  Poematia.  '  No  book  was  written  but  Auratus 
composed  a  poetic  eulogy  of  the  author ;  no  person  of  quality 
died  but  Auratus  wrote  an  elegy  in  verse'.  He  represents  the 
'  moment  in  French  literature,  when  Greek  learning  was  in 
alliance  with  public  taste  and  polite  letters ' 1.  Scaliger,  who  can 
only  describe  him  as  '  bonus  poe'ta ',  because  he  could  write  verses 


DORAT. 
No.  108  of  De  Leu's  Pourtraictz  (c.  1600) ;    Print  Room,  British  Museum. 

on  any  subject,  is  more  emphatic  when  he  calls  him  '  Graecae 
linguae  peritissimus '.  Ten  years  before  his  appointment  as  one 
of  the  Royal  Readers,  he  published  his  edition  of  the  Prometheus 
Vinctus  (1549).  Among  his  pupils  at  the  College  de  Coqueret 
was  the  future  poet  Ronsard.  Dorat,  'foreseeing  that  Ronsard 
would  one  day  be  the  Homer  of  France,  and  desiring  that  his 
spirit  should  be  nursed  with  appropriate  aliment',  took  him  and 
read  to  him  the  whole  of  the  Prometheus.  '  Why  is  it,  master ', 
cried  Ronsard,  '  that  you  have  hidden  such  riches  from  me  for  so 
long?'2  The  gratitude  of  Dorat's  poetic  pupils  enrolled  their 
master's  name  in  the  '  Pleiad ' ;  and  the  Greek  spirit  that,  under 
the  influence  of  Dorat,  began  to  breathe  in  the  poems  of  Ronsard, 
aroused  an  interest  in  all  that  was  Greek3.  Apart  from  the  edition 
of  the  Prometheus,  Dorat  left  behind  him  conjectural  emendations 
on  other  plays  of  Aeschylus,  which  give  proof  of  learning, 


1  Pattison,  i  207. 

3  Egger,  Hellenisme,  lefon  x. 


2  Binet's  Life  of  Ronsard. 


i88  FRANCE.  [CENT,  xvi. 

acumen,  and  poetic  taste.     Hermann  preferred  him  to  all  the 
critics  on  Aeschylus1. 

Dolet  had  translated  the  Letters  of  Cicero  ;  Masures,  the  whole  of  Virgil ; 
.  Habert,  the  Metamorphoses  of  Ovid,  and  Pelletier,  the  Ars 

Poetica  of  Horace.  The  number  of  these  translations 
multiplied  to  such  an  extent  that  a  protest  was  raised  by  one  of  the  '  Pleiad ', 
J.  du  Bellay,  who  urged  the  duty  of  imitating  and  assimilating  the  ancients 
instead  of  translating  them.  The  poets  in  particular,  he  declared,  should  not 
be  translated,  except  at  the  command  of  princes  and  great  noblemen*.  Never- 
theless, he  afterwards  translated  Aeneid  IV  and  vi,  while  the  Epistles  of  Ovid 
were  published  in  French  by  a  lady  of  high  birth,  Madeleine  de  l'Aubespine3. 
Literary  criticism  in  France  began  with  the  publication  of  Pelletier's 

French  version  of  the  Ars  Poetica  of  Horace  (1545),  and  the 
Criticism  ^rs*;  reference  to  the  corresponding  work  of  Aristotle  in  the 

critical  literature  of  France  is  to  be  found  in  du  Bellay's 
Defense  et  Illustration  de  la  Langue  frattfaise  (1549).  An  edition  of  Aristotle's 
treatise  was  produced  in  1 555  by  the  learned  printer,  Guillaume  Morel  (i  505-64) ; 
and  the  dramatic  law  of  the  '  Unity  of  Time',  ascribed  to  Aristotle  by  Italian 
writers  such  as  Minturno  and  Castelvetro,  was  accepted  in  France  by  Ronsard 
(1565),  and  by  Jean  de  la  Taille  (i572)4. 


LAMBINUS. 

The  third  of  the  above-mentioned  Royal  Readers  in  Greek 
was  Denys  Lambin,  or  Dionysius  Lambinus  (1520 — 

i  Lambinus  .  1-1         "\  •  /- 

1572),  who  won  his  laurels  mainly  in  the  field  of 
Latin  scholarship.  Born  at  Montreuil-sur-mer  in  Picardy,  he  was 
educated  at  Amiens,  and,  after  spending  some  years  on  the  study 
of  the  best  Greek  and  Latin  authors6,  entered  the  service  of  the 

1  On  Agam.  1396.      Cp.  Vitrac's  Eloge  (1775);  Robiquet,  De  J.  Aurati 
vita  (1887) ;  and  Pattison's  Essays,  i  206,  210. 

2  Defense,  1.  i.  3  Feugere,  Cdraeteres,  i  7. 

.     *  Spingarn,  171,  177,  184,  206;  Saintsbury,  ii  113,  117;  Tilley,  ii  82. 

8  Preface  to  Cicero,  '  cum  in  optimo  quoque  scriptore  et  Graeco  et  Latino 
evolvendo  ac  legendo  aliquot  annos  in  Gallia  consumpsissem,  in  Italiam 
profectus  sum '. 


.CHAP.  XIII.]  LAMBINUS.  189 

Cardinal  de  Tournon,  whom  he  accompanied  on  two  visits  to  Italy. 
.During  the  first  of  these  visits  he  lived  in  Rome  for  four  years 
(1549-53).  After  staying  for  a  year  or  two  in  Paris,  he  returned 
to  Italy  for  five  years  (1555-60),  which  he  spent  in  Rome,  Venice 
and  Lucca.  In  one  of  his  letters  he  describes  himself  as  having 
passed  twelve  years  in  a  vita  motoria  et  turbulenta^.  But  he  was 
thus  brought  into  contact  with  scholars  such  as  Faernus,  Muretus 
and  Fulvius  Ursinus,  and  had  those  opportunities  of  collating  MSS 
in  the  Vatican  and  elsewhere,  which  proved  of  signal  service  in 
his  subsequent  editions  of  the  Latin  Classics.  In  1561  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  Royal  Readers  in  Latin,  but  was  soon 
transferred  to  a  readership  in  Greek.  At  that  time  he  had 
already  published,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Cardinal  de  Tournon, 
a  Latin  translation  of  Aristotle's  Ethics  (1558),  which  was  followed 
(in  1567)  by  one  of  the  Politics,  while,  in  the  last  year  of  his  life, 
he  published  a  discourse  on  the  utility  of  Greek,  and  on  the 
proper  method  of  translating  Greek  authors  into  Latin  (1572). 
Meanwhile,  he  had  won  a  wide  reputation  by  his  great  editions  of 
Latin  authors.  The  first  of  these  was  his  Horace  (1561).  He 
had  been  preceded  by  unimportant  commentators  on  the  Ars 
Poetica,  such  as  Achilles  Statius  (1553)  and  Francesco  Luisini 
(1554),  and  by  others  whose  names  are  now  forgotten;  he  had 
gathered  illustrations  of  his  author  from  every  source ;  and  he  had 
collated  ten  MSS,  mainly  in  Italy.  The  text  was  much  improved, 
while  the  notes  were  enriched  by  the  quotation  of  many  parallel 
passages,  and  by  the  tasteful  presentment  of  the  spirit  and  feeling 
of  the  Roman  poet".  Within  the  next  two  years  he  had  completed, 
in  November  1563,  his  masterly  edition  of  Lucretius  (1564).  He 
had  founded  his  text  on  five  MSS  ;  three  of  these  he  had  collated 
in  Rome,  a  fourth  was  lent  by  his  friend,  Erricus  Memmius,  and 
the  fifth,  collated  on  his  behalf  by  Turnebus,  was  that  in  the 
monastery  of  St  Berlin  in  Saint-Omer,  and  is  now  known  as  the 
'  Leyden  quarto  '.  He  had  also  examined  the  earlier  editions,  and 

1  Letter  to  Erricus  Memmius,  Epp.  Bruti,  p.  435. 

'2  Preface,  to  .Cicero,  'ibidem  (in  Italia)  Q.  Horatium  Flaccum  cum 
exemplaribus  antiquis,  quorum  magna  est  in  eis  locis  copia,  comparavi, 
eosque  duces  et  auctores  secutus,  multos  in  eo  poe'ta  locos  et  mendosos 
emendavi  et  implicates  explieavi '. 


190  FRANCE.  [CENT.  xvi. 

had  studied  the  old  Latin  grammarians  ;  while,  with  a  view  to  his 
commentary,  he  had  ransacked  the  Greek  and  Latin  Classics. 
For  his  author  he  had  a  peculiar  admiration  :  of  all  the  surviving 
Latin  poets,  Lucretius  was,  in  his  opinion,  not  only  elegantissimus 
et  purissimus,  but  also  gravissimus  atque  ornatissimus.  He 
dedicates  the  whole  work  to  Charles  IX,  and  the  several  books 
to  individual  scholars,  such  as  '  Memmius',  Ronsard,  Muretus, 
Turnebus,  and  'Auratus'.  He  claims  to  have  restored  the  true 
reading  in  800  passages,  and  we  are  assured  on  the  best  authority 
that  the  superiority  of  his  text  over  those  of  all  his  predecessors 
'  can  scarcely  be  exaggerated '. 

'  The  quickness  of  his  intellect,  united  with  his  exquisite  knowledge  of  the 
language,  gave  him  great  power  in  the  field  of  conjecture,  and,  for  nearly  three 
centuries,  his  remained  the  standard  text '.  '  His  copious  explanatory  and 
illustrative  commentary  calls  for  unqualified  eulogy,  and  has  remained... the 
great  original  storehouse,  from  which  all  have  borrowed  who  have  done 
anything  for  the  elucidation  of  their  author '.  '  His  reading  is  as  vast  as  it 
is  accurate,  and  its  results  are  given  in  a  style  of  unsurpassed  clearness  and 
beauty.  His  notes  observe  the  mean  between  too  much  and  too  little  :  he 
himself  calls  them  brief,  while  his  thankless  countrymen,  thinking  however 
more  perhaps  of  his  Horace  than  his  Lucretius,  have  made  lambin  or  lambiner 
classical  terms  to  express  what  is  diffuse  and  tedious '. 

The  learning  accumulated  in  this  edition  was  shamelessly  pillaged  by 
Giphanius  (1566).  In  1570  Lambinus  published  his  third  edition.  'In 
a  preface  of  great  power  and  beauty  of  style  he  states  his  wrongs ;  there  and 
throughout  his  commentary  the  whole  Latin  language,  rich  in  that  department, 
is  ransacked  for  terms  of  scorn  and  contumely'1. 

To  the  preparation  of  his  brilliant  edition  of  the  whole  of 
Cicero,  which  appeared  in  1566,  he  gave  only  two  years  and  a 
half,  and  some  of  his  alterations  of  the  text  are  regarded  as 
unduly  bold.  In  1569  he  edited  Cornelius  Nepos.  He  had 
already  completed  his  commentary  on  twelve  of  the  plays  of 
Plautus,  and  was  beginning  the  thirteenth,  when  the  shock  caused 
by  the  news,  that  his  colleague  Ramus  had  been  put  to  death  in 
the  massacre  of  St  Bartholomew,  hastened  his  own  end.  Scaliger, 
who  observes  that  Lambinus  possessed  very  few  books2,  admires 
the  excellence  of  his  spoken  and  written  Latin  style3;  and  it  has 

1  Munro's  Lucretius,  pp.  14 — 163. 

2  Scaligerana.  3  Prima  Scaligerana. 


CHAP.  XIII.]     LAMBINUS.      PASSERAT.      DANIEL.  19 1 

been  well  remarked  by  Munro,  that  '  his  knowledge  of  Cicero  and 
the  older  Latin  writers,  as  well  as  the  Augustan  poets,  has  never 
been  surpassed  and  rarely  equalled". 

During  his  second  sojourn  in  Italy,  Lambinus  had  been 
assisted  by  Muretus  in  deciphering  the  readings  in 
certain  MSS  of  Lucretius,  and  had  shown  his  assistant 
part  of  his  future  commentary  on  Horace.  In  1559, 
on  receiving  from  Muretus  a  copy  of  the  Variae  Lectiones,  Lambinus 
discovered  that  his  own  notes  on  Horace  had  been  appropriated. 
He  wrote  in  temperate  terms  to  expostulate,  and,  in  1561,  printed 
the  whole  of  the  correspondence,  in  which  (as  it  happened)  there 
were  several  other  items  detrimental  to  the  moral  character  of 
Muretus2.  The  latter  had  afterwards  the  satisfaction  of  noticing 
in  the  margin  of  a  copy  of  Lambinus'  Horace  some  of  the  minor 
mistakes  in  that  important  work3.  The  career  of  Muretus  has 
already  been  traced  in  connexion  with  the  land  of  his  adoption4. 

In  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  we  note  the  name  of 
the  poet  and  professor,  Jean  Passerat  (1534 — 1602), 
who  succeeded  Ramus  as  Royal  Professor  of 
Eloquence  in  1572.  He  is  said  to  have  published  nothing  before 
the  age  of  sixty,  when  he  wrote  the  French  verses  at  the  close  of 
the  Satire  Menippee  (1594).  In  Latin,  his  favourite  author  was 
Plautus,  whom  he  is  said  to  have  read  through  forty  times.  He 
lost  his  sight  five  years  before  his  death.  He  is  best  known  for 
two  of  his  posthumous  works: — a  treatise  De  literarum  inter  se 
cognatione  ac  permntatione  (1606),  and  an  annotated  edition  of 
Catullus,  Tibullus  and  Propertius  (i6o8)5. 

In  this  century  there  were  three  notable  scholars  in  France, 
who  published   classical    texts   from  MSS  formerly 
in    monastic   libraries.     Pierre    Daniel   of  Orleans          Daniel, 
(1530 — 1603)   produced   the    first   edition  of    the          Pithou 
Querolus  (1564),  and   of   the    fuller  form   of   the 

1  Lucretius,  p.    i43.     Cp.,  in  general,  P.  Lazerus  in  Orelli's  Onomaslicon 
Tullianitm,  1478 — 491  ;  and,  for  opinions  of  early  scholars,  Blount's  Cetisura, 
504  f. 

2  Muretus,  Opera,  eel.  Ruhnken,  i  395  f,  where  the  rest  of  the  correspondence 
is  reprinted. 

3  Lazeri,  u.s.  p.  486  f.  *  p.  148  supra. 
5  Cp.  Tilley,  ii  54. 


192  FRANCE.  [CENT,  xvi 

commentary  of  Servius  (I6OO)1.  Pierre  Pithou,  '  Petrus  Pithoeus  ' 
of  Troyes  (1539 — 1596),  General-Procurator  in  Guienne  and  at 
Paris,  had  a  fine  library  including  an  important  collection  of  MSS. 
He  produced  the  first  important  text  of  Juvenal  and  Persius  (1585) 
founded  on  the  '  codex  Pithoeanus '  formerly  in  the  Benedictine 
abbey  of  Lorsch,  and  now  at  Montpellier2,  and  the  editio  princeps 
of  Phaedrus  (Autun,  1596),  the  Pervigilium  Veneris  (1577), 
Salvianus  (1580),  and  the  Edict  of  Theodoric  (1579).  He  also 
produced  an  improved  edition  of  Petronius3.  He  narrowly  escaped 
death  in  the  massacre  of  St  Bartholomew  (1572),  and  became  a 
Catholic  in  the  following  year.  When  Scaliger  left  for  Leyden  in 
1593,  Pithou  was  perhaps  the  ablest  scholar  in  France;  but  a 
decline  in  Greek  scholarship  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  Scaliger 
describes  Pithou  as  'nothing  of  a  Greek  scholar'4. 

The  Protestant,  Jacques   Bongars  of  Orleans  (1554 — 1612), 
who  received  part  of  his  early  education  in  Germany, 

Bongars  .,..„,.  _, 

and  was  afterwards  a  pupil  of  Cujas  at  Bourges, 
edited  Justin  in  1581,  a  collection  of  Dacian  Inscriptions  in  1600, 
and  the  Gesta  Dei  per  Francos,  early  histories  of  the  French 
Crusades,  in  1611.  He  held  diplomatic  positions  abroad,  and  in 
the  course  of  his  travels  visited  Constantinople  in  1585,  and 
Cambridge  in  1608.  In  1603-4  he  bought  a  large  part  of  the 
libraries  of  Pierre  Daniel  and  of  Cujas,  and  subsequently  be- 
queathed all  his  books  and  MSS  to  the  son  of  Rene  Grausset, 
the  Strassburg  banker.  The  son  presented  them  to  Bern,  the 
native  city  of  his  wife  (1632).  The  most  important  items  in  the 
collection  are  the  MSS  of  Virgil,  Horace5,  and  Lucan.  The 
collection  included  part  of  the  literary  treasures  of  Fleury,  which 
had  been  dispersed  in  15 62". 

1  Hagen,   Zur  Gesch.  der  Philol.  i  f  (Bern,   1873) ;    L.  Jarry,  Une  corre- 
spondance  litteraire  (1876);  history  of  his  library  in  Moreri,  Grand  Diet.  Hist. 

2  Facs.  in  Chatelain,  Pal.  no.  127. 

3  A.  Collignon,  Petrone  en  France  (1905),  24 — 28. 

4  Scaligerana  Altera.     Cp.  Boivin,  vita  etc.  1716;  Grosley  (1756);  Briquet 
de  Laraux  (1768);  O.  Jahn,  Ber.  sacks.  Geselhch.  iv  278;  and  Tilley,  i  294, 
ii  234.     A  fine  portrait  engraved  by  Vanschuppen  (also  by  Morin,  in  Lacroix, 
xviie  siecle,  1882,  fig.  55,  p.  149).  6  Chatelain,  Pa!,  pi.. 76,  77. 

6  Hagen,  /.  c.  .53  f,   and  Schultess,  in  Beitrage.zur   Gelehrten-Geschichte 
des  xvii  fahrh.t  Hamburg,  1905,  103 — 206;  also  vol.  i  625*,  n.  8, 


CHAP.  XIII.]  JURISTS.  193 

In   the   same   age  law  and   archaeology  were  admirably  re- 
presented in  France.     The  study  of  jurisprudence 
had  been  introduced  by  the  Italian,  Andrea  Alciati      DC  Grouchy 
(1492 — 1550),    who   lectured   for   a   few   years   at      Hotman 
Bourges  (1528-32) 1.    Nicolas  de  Grouchy,  of  Rouen      Doneau 
(1520—1572),  taught  at  Bordeaux,  Paris,  Coimbra      Godefroy 
and  Rochelle,  and  (besides  his  numerous  transla- 
tions from  Aristotle)  distinguished  himself  by  his  learned  disserta- 
tion De  Comitiis  Romanorum  (1555).     Jacques  Cujas,  or  Cujacius, 
of  Toulouse  (1522 — 1590),  who  taught  at  Cahors,  Valence,  Paris, 
and  Bourges,  was  the  founder  of  the  historical  school  of  juris- 
prudence.    He  was  famous  as  the  author  of  an  extensive  series 
of  learned   'Observations  and   Emendations'  (1566),   while  the 
fullest  edition  of  his  works  extends  to  eleven  folio  volumes.     The 
professors  in  certain  German  universities  were  wont  to  raise  their 
caps  whenever,  in  the  course  of  their  lectures,  they  mentioned 
the  name  of  Cujas  or  of  Turnebus2.     Francois  Hotman  (1524 — 

1590)  was  the  author  of  'Observations'  on  Roman  Law,  and  of 
Commentaries  on  Cicero's  Speeches.     His  political  pamphlet,  the 
Tigre  (1560),  which  has  been  described  as  a  'succession  of  pistol- 
shots  fired  point-blank  '  at  the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine,  was  modelled 
on  the  Catilinarian  orations3.     He  also  produced  an  important 
political  treatise  in  Latin,   the  Franco-Gallia   (15 73)4.     Hugues 
Doneau,    or    'Donellus'   (1527 — 1591),    was    the    author    of   a 
systematic  work  on   Civil  Law5.     The  massacre  of  1572  drove 
Doneau   and  Hotman    to    Geneva.      Barnabe    Brisson    (1531— 

1591)  was  the  writer  of  celebrated  treatises  on  the  terminology  of 
the  Civil  Law  (1557)  and  on  the  legal  formulae  of  the  Romans 
(X5^3)-     He  was  forced  by  the  partisans  of  the  League  to  act  as 
first  President  of  their  Parliament  in  1589,  and  was  put  to  death 
by  the  faction  of  the  Sixteen  in  1591".     Lastly,  Denys  Godefroy, 

1  Portrait  in  Boissard,  n  134. 

2  Pasquier,   Recherches,  ix  c.    18   (Tilley,  i   281).      Portrait  in   Boissard, 
vn  ff. 

3  Tilley,  ii  229. 

4  ib.  ii  231  ;  portrait  in  Boissard,  in  140. 

5  Portrait  in  Boissard,  in  290. 

6  Molles,  Diss.  de  Brissonio,  Altd.  1696  ;  Conrad  in  his  ed.  of  De  Formulis 
(1/81). 

S.     II.  13 


194  FRANCE.  [CENT.  xvi. 

'  Gothofredus  '  (1549 — 1621)',  distinguished  himself  as  the  editor 
of  the  Corpus  Juris  Civilis,  while  his  son  Jacques  (1587 — 1652) 
edited  the  Theodosian  Code.  The  treatise  on  Government,  Six 
livres  de  la  Republique,  written  in  French  and  also  in  Latin  by 
Jean  Bodin  (1530 — 1596),  may  here  be  noted,  in  so  far  as  it  is 
founded  on  the  teaching  of  Plato  and  Aristotle2.  The  learned 
lawyers  above  mentioned  are  among  the  glories  of  France.  An 
interesting  picture  of  their  scholarly  industry  is  preserved  by 
one  of  the  legal  luminaries  of  the  time,  Antoine  Loisel,  who  tells 
us  that,  after  supper,  Pithou,  Cujas  and  himself  used  to  meet  in 
the  library  every  evening,  and  continued  to  work  there  until  three 
o'clock  in  the  morning3. 

During  this  age  classical  masterpieces  were  translated  with  a  marked  effect 

on  the  literature  of  France.     In  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
Translators 

centuries  the  most  popular  Latin  poet  was  Ovid,  whose  Meta- 
morphoses had  been  popularised  by  the  paraphrase  and  commentary  of 
Pierre  Bersuire  (d.  1362).  The  Epistles  were  translated  in  1 500,  the  Remedium 
Amoris  in  1509,  and  the  first  two  books  of  the  Metamorphoses  (by  Marot)  in 
1532.  Among  the  translations  of  Virgil  may  be  mentioned  the  first  Eclogue 
by  Marot  (1512)  and  the  first  Georgic  by  Peletier  (1547),  who  also  translated 
the  Ars  Poetica  of  Horace  (1544),  which  partly  inspired  the  Art  Poelique  of 
Sibilet  (1548),  the  first  French  translator  of  the  Iphigeneia  at  Anlis  (1549). 
Terence's  Andria  was  competently  rendered  by  Charles  Estienne  (1542). 

Estienne  Dolet's  translations  of  Cicero,  ad  Familiares,  and  Tusculan 
Disputations,  I — in  (1542-3),  were  frequently  reprinted.  The  De  amicilia 
and  De  seneclute,  the  De  legibus  and  Somnium  Scipionis  were  rendered  by 
Jean  Colin  (1537-9),  an(^  ten  °f  ^  Speeches  by  Macault  (1548).  Meigret 
translated  the  De  Offidis,  and  Sallust,  and  three  books  of  the  elder  Pliny.  Old 
translations  of  Caesar  were  revised.  Bersuire 's  Livy  held  its  ground  till  1582, 
but  a  new  rendering  had  been  begun  in  1548,  which  was  also  the  date  of  the 
beginning  of  a  translation  of  Tacitus  completed  in  1582.  Vitruvius  was 
translated  by  Martin  in  1547. 

Translations  from  the  Greek  poets  opened  a  new  era  in  French  literature 
in  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  The  Electra  of  Sophocles  and  the  Hecuba  of 
Euripides  were  indifferently  rendered  by  Lazare  de  Baif  (1537-44),  ar|d  the 
first  ten  books  of  the  Iliad  and  the  first  two  of  the  Odyssey  were  translated  in 
verse  by  Salel  and  Peletier  respectively  (1545-7)-  With  the  aid  of  Janus 
Lascaris,  several  of  the  Greek  historians  were  translated  by  Claude  de  Seyssel, 
bishop  of  Marseilles  and  afterwards  archbishop  of  Turin,  and  were  published 

1  Portrait  in  Boissard,  vn  ff  2. 

2  Feugere,  Caracteres,  i  p.  xxxii,  ii  432-5. 

3  ib.     Cp.  Tilley  in  Camb.  Mod.  Hist,  iii  58  f. 


CHAP.  XIII.]  TRANSLATORS.      AMYOT.  195 

after  his  death  (1520)  by  command  of  the  king1.  The  title-page  of  Macault's 
translation  of  the  first  three  books  of  Diodorus  shows  us  the  king's  secretary 
and  valet  de  chambre  presenting  his  work  to  Francis  I  (1535).  There  were 
also  translations  of  Herodian  and  Polybius,  I  — v,  Dion  Cassius  and  Xenophon's 
Cyropaedeia.  These  were  surpassed  in  popularity  by  Pierre  Saliat's  Herodotus 
(i556)2.  The  above  translation  from  Diodorus  was  printed  by  Tory,  who 
himself  translated  thirty  dialogues  of  Lucian  (1529),  and  the  Oecononiicus  of 
Xenophon  (1531).  The  Hipparchus  of  Plato  and  the  spurious  Axiochus  were 
rendered  by  Dolet  (1544),  and  we  know  of  versions  of  part  of  the  Symposium, 
and  of  the  Ion,  Crito,  and  Lysis.  Oresme's  translations  of  Aristotle's  Ethics  and 
Politics  still  held  the  field.  Two  renderings  of  Aesop  in  French  verse  were 
published  in  1542-7.  Parts  of  Plutarch's  Moralia  and  eight  of  the  Lives 
appeared  in  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  With  regard  to  these  translations  in 
general,  it  must  be  noticed  that  they  were  made  from  Latin  versions,  with  the 
rarest  possible  reference  to  the  original  Greek3. 

Pindar,  whose  text  was  first  published  in  1513,  doubtless  presented  serious 
difficulties  even  to  Dorat,  the  best  Greek  scholar  in  the  Pleiade,  but  he  found 
imitators  such  as  Ronsard,  one  of  whose  odes  even  surpasses  the  Fourth 
Pythian  in  length4.  It  was  apparently  with  a  sense  of  relief  that  Ronsard 
welcomed  the  easier  task  of  imitating  Anacreon5. 

The  title  of  prince  of  translators  was  won  by  Jacques  Amyot 
(1513 — 1593),  who  made  Plutarch  speak  the  French 
language6.  He  was  lectured  on  Greek  by  Danes 
and  Toussain,  and  was  appointed  professor  at  Bourges.  He 
published  his  translation  of  the  Greek  novel  of  Heliodorus  in 
1547,  and,  in  recognition  of  this  rendering  and  of  his  version  of 
some  Lives  from  Plutarch  that  was  still  unpublished,  was  made 
abbot  of  Bellozane,  one  of  the  last  acts  of  Francis  I.  For  the 
next  four  years  he  worked  in  the  Libraries  of  St  Mark  and  the 
Vatican.  In  the  Vatican  he  discovered  a  better  MS  of  Heliodorus  ; 
at  Venice  he  found  five  of  the  lost  books  of  Diodorus  (xi-xv), 

1  Thuc. ,  Xen.  Anab.,  Diodorus  18 — 20,  Eusebius  and  Appian  (1527-44). 

2  Ed.  Talbot  (1864). 

3  Cp.  Tilley,  i  35 — 40 ;  and,  for  translations  from  Greek  and  Latin  poets, 
Goujet's  Bibliothequefran$aise,  iv — vin,  and,  from  Latin  and  Italian  generally, 
J.  Blanc's  Bibliographic  ilalieo-frattfaise  (Milan,  1886)  quoted  ib.  i  39  ;  also  a 
popular  sketch  by  J.  Bellanger,  Hist,  de  la  Traduction  en  France,  131  pp.  (no 
index),  1903. 

4  Egger,  i  351-8. 

5  ib.  363  ;  Sainte-Beuve,  Anacreon  au  xvie  s.  (in  Tableau  de  la  poesie  fr.) ; 
Delboulle's  Anacreon,  1891  ;  and  Tilley,  i  330  f. 

6  Montaigne,  ii  10. 

13—2 


FRANCE.  [CENT.  xvi. 

which  he  published,  with  the  next  two,  in  1554.  In  1559  he 
produced  his  rendering  of  the  Daphnis  and  Chloe  of  Longus,  and 
completed  that  of  the  Lives  of  Plutarch,  which  he  dedicated  to 
Henry  II.  Henry's  successor,  Charles  IX,  made  him  Grand 
Almoner  of  France  (1560)  and  bishop  of  Auxerre  (1570). 
Amyot's  translation  of  the  Moralia  appeared  in  1572.  His 
translation  of  Plutarch  was  practically  a  new  and  '  original  work'1, 
and  a  living  force  for  two  and  a  half  centuries2.  In  his  own  age, 
'  I  am  grateful  to  Amyot  above  all  things '  (says  Montaigne),  '  for 
having  had  the  wit  to  select  so  worthy  and  so  suitable  a  work  to 
present  his  country.  We  ignorant  folk  had  been  lost,  had  not  this 
lifted  us  out  of  the  mire ;  thanks  to  it,  we  now  dare  speak  and 
write,  and  ladies  give  lessons  out  of  it  to  schoolmasters ;  'tis  our 
breviary'3.  The  dignity  and  grace  of  Amyot's  rendering  were 
lauded  by  the  translator's  friend  and  publisher,  Morel ;  his  version 
of  the  Lives >  in  the  English  dress  of  Florio,  became  Shakespeare's 
Plutarch.  Minor  flaws  have  been  found  in  its  pages  by  Muretus4, 
and  in  the  seventeenth  century  by  Meziriac,  and,  early  in  the 
nineteenth,  by  Paul  Louis  Courier;  but  its  smooth  and  flowing 
charm,  and  its  literary  merits  in  general,  have  been  more  generously 
appreciated  by  later  critics5. 

Louis  Le  Roy  (1510 — 1577)  attended  the  lectures  of  the  new 
royal  professors  in  1530,  a  year  or  two  later  than 
Amyot.  He  wrote  a  life  of  Budaeus  in  excellent 
Latin,  and,  after  spending  nearly  twenty  years  in  translating  Greek 
prose  authors,  succeeded  Lambinus  as  professor  of  Greek  (1572). 
His  translations  consist  of  the  Olynthiacs  and  Philippics  of 
Demosthenes  ;  Plato's  Timaeus,  Phaedo,  Symposium  and  Republic ; 
Aristotle's  Politics,  and  some  treatises  of  Isocrates  and  Xenophon. 
He  is  recognised  as  a  '  competent  translator ',  whose  style  '  some- 
times strikes  a  higher  note'.  In  the  first  of  his  lectures  on 
Demosthenes,  which  were  delivered  in  French  (1576),  after 

1  Joseph  Joubert,  ed.  K.  Lyttelton  (1898),  188. 

2  O.  Greard,  De  la  morale  de  Plutarque,  328  f  (ed.  1874). 

3  ii  4  init.  *  Journal  de  Montaigne,  ii  152  (ed.  1774). 

5  A.  Pommier,  £loge  <f  Amyot  (1849) ;  Blignieres,  Amyot  et  les  traducleurs 
franfais  au  xvi  s.  (1851) ;  Feugere,  Caracteres,  i  487 — 506  ;  Egger,  Hellenisme, 
i  261-4;  Bellanger,  Hist,  de  la  Traduction  en  France,  13,  25 — 28;  and  Tilley, 
i  280 — 289. 


CHAP.  XIII.]  LE   ROY.      MONTAIGNE.  197 

paying  a  tribute  to  the  ancient  languages,  he  attacks  '  those 
scholars  who  entirely  neglected  their  native  language  and  all 
modern  topics'1. 

Michel  de  Montaigne  (1533—92)  preserves  a  perfect  silence  as 
to  Saliat,  the  translator  of  Herodotus,  from  whom 

„     ,  .  .  ..  ....  Montaigne 

all  his  quotations  from  that  historian  are  bor- 
rowed. He  is  personally  acquainted  with  Amyot,  '  the  great 
Almoner  of  France'2;  the  books  that  he  reads  for  profit  as  well  as 
pleasure  are  'Plutarch  (since  he  spake  French)  and  Seneca'3; 
and  he  confesses  that  his  book  is  completely  built  up  with 
the  spoils  of  these  two  authors4.  The  other  Classics  that  he 
cites  most  frequently  are  Cicero,  Lucretius,  Horace  and  Virgil5. 
As  his  '  familiar  tutors '  he  names  '  Nicholas  Gruchy,  who 
hath  written  De  comitiis  Romanorum;  William  Guerente,  who 
hath  commented  Aristotle ;  George  Buchanan,  that  famous 
Scottish  Poet,  and  Marke  Antonie  Muret,  whom  (while  he  lived) 
both  France  and  Italic  to  this  day,  acknowledge  to  have  been  the 
best  orator'6.  He  also  quotes  'our  late  most  famous  writer 
Lipsius,  in  his  learned  and  laborious  work  of  the  Politikes'7.  His 
eulogy  of  Turnebus  has  been  already  noticed8.  There  is  no 

1  Tilley,  i  289  f ;  cp.  A.  H.  Becker,  Lays  Le  Roy,  1896. 

2  i  c.  23  ;  p.  196  supra.  3  ii  c.  10. 

4  ii  c.  32 ;  i  c.  25 ;  cp.  Tilley,  ii  160-2,  and  in  Canib.  Mod.  Hist,  iii  69. 

8  For  a  list  of  authors  read  by  Montaigne,  with  his  judgements  on  them,  see 
Miss  Grace  Norton's  Studies  in  Montaigne  (1904),  p.  265  f.  The  authors  read 
before  1580  include  Aristotle,  Caesar,  Gellius,  Horace,  Manilius,  Martial, 
Ovid,  the  elder  Pliny,  Plutarch,  Suetonius,  Terence,  Valerius  Maximus;  those 
read  chiefly  in  1580-8,  Catullus,  'Cornelius  Callus',  Curtius,  Juvenal,  Lucan, 
Lucretius,  Persius,  Propertius,  Tacitus,  Virgil;  after  1588,  Diodorus,  Herodotus, 
Livy,  Plato,  Quintilian,  Xenophon ;  and,  in  all  years,  Cicero,  Diogenes 
Laertius,  and  Seneca  (pp.  267 — 286  f).  Besides  these  50  authors,  he  uses  125 
others,  e.g.  Stobaeus ;  Florilegium  Epigraminatuin  (1531);  Poetae  Gnomici 
(1561-9);  '  Publius  Syrus'  (1516  or  1560).  Montaigne  is  'one  of  the  most 
original  of  authors,  though  he  helped  himself  to  ideas  in  every  direction ;  but 
they  turn  to  blood  and  coloring  in  his  style,  and  give  a  freshness  of  complexion 
that  is  forever  charming'  (Lowell,  on  Montaigne  as  a  Reader,  and  Student  of 
Style).  Cp.  C.  Whibley,  Literary  Portraits  (1904),  181 — 221. 

6  i  c.  25  (Florio's  transl.);  p.   149  supra. 

7  ib.,  cp.  latest  ed.  of  ii,  c.  12.     He  had  corresponded  with   Lipsius  in 
1589  (Tilley,  ii  149). 

8  p.  1 86  supra. 


I9§  FRANCE.  [CENT.  XVI. 

writer  of  this  age  who  is  so  thoroughly  saturated  with  the  wisdom 
of  the  ancients  or  who  so  frequently  applies  quotations  from  the 
Classics  to  the  conduct  of  life.  He  is  proud  of  the  honorary 
title  of  '  Citizen  of  Rome ' ;  and  he  represents  the  final  and  the 
ripe  result  of  the  Revival  of  Learning  in  France. 

With   Montaigne   we    may   associate   his   short-lived    friend, 
Estienne   de   La  Boetie  (i^o — is6i),   whom  he 

La  Boetie 

so  warmly  admired  for  his  bold  protest  against 
tyranny1.  La  Boetie's  interest  in  Greek  is  proved  by  his  translation 
of  the  Oeconomicus  of  Xenophon  and  of  part  of  the  Economics  of 
Aristotle,  as  well  as  Plutarch's  Praecepta  Conjugalia  and  Consolatio 
ad  Uxorem.  His  skill  in  Latin  verse  is  exemplified  in  the  poems, 
which  he  composed  at  the  prompting  of  the  elder  Scaliger,  whose 
death  he  commemorated  in  a  pathetic  passage  in  which  he  foresees 
the  approach  of  his  own  end2. 

The  French  civilian  and  poet,  Estienne  Pasquier  (1529 — 1615), 

who  was  born  before  Montaigne  and  his  friend,  and 

Pasquier  .  .  ... 

survived  them  both,  agreed  with  Montaigne  in  his 
admiration  of  Horace,  and,  at  a  time  when  Du  Perron  preferred  a 
single  page  of  Quintus  Curtius  to  thirty  of  Tacitus,  insisted  on 
the  superiority  of  the  author  of  the  Annals,  and  sent  one  of  his 
correspondents  a  happy  rendering  from  that  historian's  pages3. 

His  friend   Scevole  de  Sainte-Marthe  of  Loudun 

Sainte-Marthe 

(1536—1623),  a  member  of  a  noble  house,  and  a 
pupil  of  Muretus,  Turnebus  and  Ramus,  was  distinguished  as  a 
Latin  poet.  Two  of  his  works  deserve  mention: — (i)  a  didactic 
poem  on  the  education  of  children,  called  by  one  of  his  medical 
contemporaries  the  divinum  carmen  Paedotrophicum*;  and  (2)  A 
book  of  eulogies  in  Latin  elegiacs  on  no  less  than  150  Frenchmen 
distinguished  for  their  learning,  who  had  died  during  the  author's 
life-time,  beginning  with  Lefevre  d'Etaples  (d.  1536)  and  ending 
(in  its  final  form)  with  Estienne  Pasquier  (d.  1615)*.  Among  those 

1  Essais,  i  c.  27 ;  cp.  Hallam,  ii  36*. 

2  Feugere,  Caracttres,  i  i — 125,  esp.  115. 

3  ib.  i  227-9.     See  also  Tilley,  i  299 — 304. 

4  Feugere,  i  435  n.,  translated  into  English  verse,  with  life,  by  H.  W.Tytler, 
M.D.,  1757  ;  cp.  Tilley,  ii  23  f. 

8  Gallorttm  doctrina  illustrium,  qui  nostra  patrumque  memoria  floruerunt, 
elogia  (Poitiers,  1598,  1602),  Paris,  1630. 


CHAP.  XIII.]   LA  BOETIE.   PASQUIER.    SAINTE-MARTHE.    199 

commemorated  are  Budaeus,  Longolius,  Montaigne,  Ramus, 
Turnebus,  Amyot,  Muretus,  Lambinus,  Auratus,  and  Henri 
Estienne.  Aureolus  Elogiorum  libellus  is  the  phrase  applied  in  the 
Letters  of  Balzac1  to  this  brief  and  epigrammatic  survey  of  more 
than  a  century  of  French  Scholarship2.  The  characters  of  the 
leading  scholars  who  died  between  1545  and  1607  are  admirably 
summed  up  in  the  obituary  notices  that  adorn  the  great  Latin 
History  of  De  Thou  (1553 — i6i7)3. 

Of  the  foremost  scholars  of  France  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
Turnebus  died  some  years  before  the  eventful  date  of  St  Bartho- 
lomew (1572);  Ramus  perished  in  the  massacre,  Lambinus  died 
of  fright,  while  Hotman  and  Doneau  fled  to  Geneva,  never  to 
return.  Joseph  Justus  Scaliger  withdrew  to  the  same  city  for  two 
years,  and,  when  he  returned,  the  only  great  scholars  who  survived 
from  the  former  age  were  Dorat  and  Cujas4.  Scaliger,  who  is  one 
of  the  glories  of  the  later  age,  spent  the  last  sixteen  years  of  his 
life  at  Leyden,  but,  for  the  first  fifty-three  years  of  his  life,  he 
belongs  to  France. 

Joseph  Justus  Scaliger  (1540 — 1609)  was  of  Italian  descent. 
At  Agen  on  the  Garonne,  he  was  the  constant  com- 

.  .  .  .  .  Scaliger 

panion  of  his  father,  Julius  Caesar  Scaliger,  during 
the  last  four  years  of  that  father's  life.  Between  the  ages  of 
fourteen  and  eighteen,  he  was  required  to  produce  daily  a  short 
Latin  declamation,  and  also  to  keep  a  written  record  of  the  peren- 
nial flow  of  his  father's  Latin  Verse.  It  was  thus  that  he  acquired 
his  early  mastery  of  Latin.  But  he  was  already  conscious  that  'not 
to  know  Greek,  was  to  know  nothing'5.  Hence,  on  his  father's 
death,  he  went  to  Paris  to  attend  the  lectures  of  Turnebus;  but, 
finding  these  too  advanced  for  his  purpose,  he  was  compelled  to 
be  his  own  teacher.  With  the  aid  of  a  Latin  translation,  he  worked 
through  the  whole  of  Homer  in  twenty-one  days;  and,  in  four 
months,  he  perused  all  the  Greek  poets.  During  his  four  years 
in  Paris,  he  became  intimate  with  Canter,  and  with  Dorat,  who 
introduced  him  to  a  nobleman  of  Poitou,  Louis  Chasteigner,  Lord 

1  xxii  17.  -  Feugere,  i  461 — 482. 

3  Extracted  in  Teissier's  Eloges  (Geneva,  1683),  and  in  Blount's  Censara, 
passim. 

4  Tilley,  i  294.  8  Scaliger,  Epp.  p.  51  (L.B.  1627). 


JOSEPH  JUSTUS  SCALIGER. 

From  the  frontispiece  of  the  monograph  by  Bernays ;  portrait  copied  from 
the  oil-painting  in  the  Senate-House,  Leyden  ;  autograph  from  Appen- 
dix ad  Cyclometrica  in  the  Royal  Library,  Berlin. 


CHAP.  XIII.]  JOSEPH   JUSTUS   SCALIGER.  2OI 

of  La  Roche-Pozay.  With  this  nobleman  Scaliger  travelled  for 
four  years  in  Italy,  paying  two  visits  to  Rome,  where  he  saw  much 
of  Muretus,  and  staying  for  a  time  in  Naples  and  Venice,  and  at 
Verona,  which  he  regarded  with  reverence  as  the  home  of  his 
ancestors.  In  Italy,  his  main  attention  appears  to  have  been  given 
to  inscriptions,  but  a  whole  winter  was  devoted  to  Thucydides, 
and,  on  returning  to  France,  the  scholar  was  wont  to  discourse  on 
Polybius  during  his  rides  with  his  patron.  In  that  patron's  family 
he  lived  from  time  to  time  for  thirty  years  (1563-93),  moving  from 
castle  to  castle  in  Poitou  and  Limousin.  During  all  that  period 
he  was  serving  his  long  apprenticeship  to  learning,  but  his  studies 
were  repeatedly  interrupted  by  the  disturbed  state  of  the  country. 
Shortly  after  his  tour  in  Italy,  he  visited  Edinburgh,  and,  although 
he  failed  to  find  any  Greek  MSS  in  the  libraries  of  the  British  Isles, 
he  afterwards  borrowed  a  transcript  of  the  Lexicon  of  Photius  from 
Richard  Thomson  of  Clare1.  In  1570  he  studied  Roman  Law 
at  Valence  under  Cujas,  who,  in  his  commentary  on  the  Digest, 
accepted  one  of  his  pupil's  emendations2.  At  Valence  he  also 
began  a  friendship,  that  was  to  last  for  thirty-eight  years,  with  the 
great  historian  De  Thou.  Two  years  later  he  left  Valence;  and, 
on  the  fatal  night  of  St  Bartholomew,  he  was  safe  at  Lausanne. 
For  the  next  two  years  he  remained  at  Geneva,  lecturing  with  some 
reluctance,  but  with  marked  success,  on  Cicero,  De  Finibus,  and 
on  Aristotle's  Organon.  He  then  returned  to  his  patron  in  Poitou. 
Scaliger  had  already  given  early  proof  of  his  study  of  Varro 
(1565),  and  had  edited  the  Catalecta  of  Virgil  (1573).  These  were 
followed  by  his  editions  of  Ausonius  (1574),  of  Festus  (1575),  and 
of  Catullus,  Tibullus,  and  Propertius  (i577)3.  He  regarded  the 
Italian  type  of  Scholarship,  with  its  fancy  for  the  imitation  of  the 
ancients,  as  a  frivolous  pursuit,  and  he  had  no  sympathy  with 
Italian  scholars  in  their  hap-hazard  alterations  of  classical  texts. 
He  was  the  first  to  point  the  way  to  a  sounder  method  of  emen- 
dation founded  on  the  genuine  tradition  of  the  MSS;  but,  when  he 
had  made  his  mark  as  a  textual  critic  by  his  editions  of  Festus  and 
the  Latin  poets  above  mentioned,  he  left  the  path,  that  he  had 

1  Scaliger,  Epp.  p.  503.  2  Eernays,  144. 

3  His  transpositions  in  Propertius  and  Tibullus  are  severely  criticised  in 
Haupt's  Opusc.  iii  34 — 36. 


202  FRANCE.  [CENT.  XVI. 

struck  out,  for  a  profound  and  protracted  study  of  ancient  history 
and  the  subject-matter  of  the  Classics.  The  transition  is  marked 
by  his  Manilius  (1579),  where  his  interest  in  textual  criticism  is 
thrown  into  the  shade  by  his  study  of  the  astronomy  of  the 
ancients.  His  Manilius  thus  serves  as  an  introduction  to  the 
comprehensive  system  of  chronology  set  forth  in  his  folio  volume 
De  Emendatione  Temporum  (1583).  The  publication  of  this  work 
placed  him  at  the  head  of  all  the  living  representatives  of  ancient 
learning.  In  1590,  Justus  Lipsius,  who  had  for  the  last  twelve 
years  been  the  leading  professor  at  Leyden,  applied  for  leave  of 
absence,  and,  during  that  absence,  became  a  Catholic.  After 
some  delay,  Scaliger  consented  to  fill  the  vacant  place,  and  the 
stores  of  learning,  that  he  had  accumulated  for  thirty  years  as  a 
native  of  France,  were  surrendered  to  the  service  of  the  Northern 
Netherlands.  His  disinclination  to  lecture  was  duly  respected ; 
all  that  the  authorities  at  Leyden  desired  was  his  living  and  inspir- 
ing presence  in  that  seat  of  Protestant  learning.  His  laborious 
study  of  ancient  chronology  and  history  was  no  longer  broken,  as 
of  old,  by  constant  changes  of  residence,  or  by  alarms  arising  from 
religious  wars  in  the  provinces  of  France.  As  a  groundwork  for 
the  study  of  primitive  tradition,  he  selected  Jerome's  translation 
of  the  Chronicle  of  Eusebius. 

From  the  fragments  of  the  Eusebian  text,  he  divined  that  the  Chronicle,  in 
its  original  form,  must  have  consisted  of  two  books  ;  that  the  second  alone, 
with  its  chronological  tables,  was  represented  in  Jerome's  translation,  while 
the  first  had  comprised  extracts  from  the  Greek  authorities  on  the  ancient 
history  of  the  East.  He  resolved  on  reconstructing  the  original  Greek  text  of 
both  books.  In  1601  he  came  on  the  track  of  a  manuscript  chronicle  by  a 
Greek  monk,  Georgius  Syncellus,  and,  in  1602,  he  ultimately  succeeded  in 
getting  a  MS  of  this  Chronicle  sent  from  the  Paris  Library  to  Leyden,  when  he 
found  that  it  largely  consisted  of  transcripts  from  Eusebius.  In  1605  he  heard 
from  Casaubon  that  in  the  Paris  Library  there  was  a  chronological  list  of  all 
the  Olympic  victors  down  to  the  249th  Olympiad.  He  was  convinced  that 
this  must  at  one  time  have  formed  part  of  the  work  of  Eusebius,  and  that  it 
was  originally  compiled  by  Julius  Africanus.  He  obtained  a  transcript,  and 
with  the  aid  of  all  the  extant  Greek  evidence,  drew  up  a  complete  list  in  Greek, 
which  has  sometimes  been  erroneously  regarded  by  scholars  as  an  original 
Greek  document.  He  was  thus  enabled  to  restore  the  Greek  Eusebius,  which 
he  printed  as  part  of  his  great  Thesaurus  Teiiiponini  (1606).  His  conjecture 
as  to  the  character  and  contents  of  the  first  book  of  Eusebius  was  confirmed 


CHAP.  XIII.]  JOSEPH   JUSTUS   SCALIGER.  2O3 

long  afterwards  by  the  discovery  of  an  Armenian  version  (1818),  which  also 
included  the  Olympic  lists  of  Julius  Africanus. 

The  Jesuits  had  captured  Muretus  and  Lipsius,  and  had  hopes 
of  securing  the  timid  and  wavering  Casaubon.  Their  attack 
against  the  apparently  impregnable  Scaliger  was  directed,  not 
from  France,  but  from  Flanders  and  Germany.  It  was  opened  at 
Gratz  in  1601  by  Martin  Delrio,  formerly  of  Liege  and  Louvain, 
who  denounced  Scaliger  for  denying  the  genuineness  of  the  writings 
ascribed  to  Dionysius  the  Areopagite.  It  was  continued  at  Antwerp 
in  the  coarse  production  called  the  Amphitheatrum  Honoris  (1605), 
and,  at  Mainz,  by  criticisms  on  Scaliger's  knowledge  of  Hebrew, 
and  by  the  polished  and  pungent  pages  of  the  Scaliger  Hypobo- 
limaeus  of  the  Latin  stylist  Caspar  Scioppius  (1607).  Scaliger  had 
inherited  from  his  father  a  profound  belief  in  his  descent  from  the 
Delia  Scalas  of  Verona1.  It  was  this  claim  that  was  denounced 
by  Scioppius.  In  the  Confutatio  Fabulae  Burdomim  (1608), 
Scaliger  produced  a  vigorous  and  triumphant  reply,  which  more 
than  convinced  his  friends,  Casaubon  and  Daniel  Heinsius,  but 
was  disregarded  by  his  foes  and  by  the  general  public. 

During  his  fifteen  and  a  half  years  at  Leyden,  apart  from  his 
great  Thesaurus  Temporum  he  produced  editions  of  Apuleius  (1600) 
and  Caesar  (1606),  and  went  on  correcting  the  text  of  Polybius  to 
the  very  end  of  his  life.  Early  in  1609,  he  fell  asleep  in  the  arms 
of  his  favourite  pupil,  Daniel  Heinsius.  That  pupil  honoured  his 
master's  memory  by  a  funeral  oration  in  Latin  prose  and  by  a 
Latin  poem.  Of  Scaliger's  productions  in  Latin  verse,  two  thirds 
are  translations,  including  a  Latin  rendering  of  the  whole  of  the 
Ajax  of  Sophocles2  and  the  Cassandra  of  Lycophron,  and  many 
Greek  versions  from  Catullus  and  Martial.  His  original  Latin 
verse  is  marked  by  a  high  degree  of  moral  force3.  He  was  praised 
by  Bentley  as  an  expert  in  prosody4.  His  chronological  labours 
were  also  warmly  appreciated  by  Selden  in  England,  and  by 
Calvisius  at  Leipzig ;  he  aided  the  literary  labours  of  David 
Hoeschel  in  Augsburg,  and  of  Sylburg  and  Gruter  at  Heidelberg, 
devoting  no  less  than  ten  months  to  producing  a  masterly  index  to 

1  Epp.  pp.   i — 58  (1594),  ed.  1627,  '  De  Vetustate  Gentis  Scaligerae  '. 

2  Cp.  Scaligcrana  Sec.  s.v.  Muretus.  3  ed.  2,  1864. 
*  Menatider,  p.  67,  '  nemo  in  arte  metrica  Scaligero  peritior'. 


204  FRANCE.  [CENT.  XVI. 

the  Inscriptions  edited  by  the  latter1.  He  foresaw  the  future 
greatness  of  Grotius.  De  Thou  describes  his  friend,  Scaliger,  as 
the  foremost  scholar  of  his  age2.  Scaliger  says  that  'Lipsius  is 
nothing  in  comparison  with  Muretus',  while  Lipsius  compares 
Scaliger  to  'an  eagle  in  the  clouds'3,  the  symbol  adopted  in  the 
vignette  to  the  funeral  oration.  Lastly,  Casaubon  says  of  Scaliger : — 
'nihil  est  quod  discere  quisquam  vellet,  quod  ille  docere  non 
posset;  nihil  legerat,  quod  non  statim  meminisset'4.  He  had  no 
sympathy  with  the  fashion  of  publishing  Miscellanea  or  Adversaria, 
which  had  been  set  by  Politian  and  Victorius,  by  Turnebus  and 
Muretus;  he  preferred  to  deal  with  the  exposition  and  criticism 
of  each  author  as  an  undivided  whole5.  He  not  only  exhibits  a 
remarkable  aptitude  for  the  soundest  type  of  textual  emendation; 
but  he  is  also  the  founder  of  historical  criticism.  His  main  strength 
lay  in  a  clear  conception  of  antiquity  as  a  whole,  and  in  the 
concentration  of  vast  and  varied  learning  on  distinctly  important 
works6. 

Isaac  Casaubon  (1559 — 1614),  who  was  eighteen  years  younger 
than   Scaliger,  was  born  at  Geneva  of  Huguenot 

Casaubon 

parents,  who  had  fled  from  Gascony.  At  the  age 
of  nine  he  could  speak  and  write  Latin.  He  was  learning  Greek 
from  his  father,  with  Isocrates,  ad  Demonicum,  as  his  text-book, 
when  the  news  of  the  massacre  of  St  Bartholomew's  drove  them 
to  the  hills,  where  the  lessons  in  Greek  were  continued  in  a  cave 
in  Dauphind  Till  the  age  of  nineteen  his  father,  who  was  a 
Huguenot  pastor,  was  his  only  instructor.  The  son  describes 

1  Epp.  p.  381  ;  cp.  Bernays,  p.  186. 

2  Hist.  lib.  xxi,  '  in  re  literaria  principem  sine  controversia  locum  tenet '. 

3  Epp.  Misc.  Cent,  i  6. 

4  Praef.  to  Scaliger's  Opusc.     For  other  eulogies,  see  Blount's  Centura. 

5  Ep.  i,  p.  52,  Bernays,  164. 

8  The  materials  for  the  life  of  Scaliger  include  his  Epistolae  (1627),  and 
Lettres  Intdites  (1879)  5  his  opinions  are  reproduced  in  the  Scaligerana  prima 
{Vertuniani,  1574-93),  and  secunda  (Vassanorum,  1603-6),  best  ed.  1740. 
The  Poemata  (1615)  were  reprinted  in  1864.  The  account  in  Nisard's 
Triumvirat  Litttraire  (1852)  is  superseded  by  the  learned  monograph  of 
Bernays  (1855),  and  by  Pattison's  Essays,  i  132 — 243.  Cp.  Urlichs,  59 — 6i2. 
(Bernays  is  regarded  as  unduly  laudatory  by  Lucian  Miiller,  Philologie  in  den 
Niederlanden,  35,  222-7,  anc*  by  Haupt,  Oj>uscula,  iii  30  f.) 


CHAP.  XIII.]  CASAUBON.  20$ 


himself  as  o\j/ifj.aO^  and  auroSiSaKTos.  He  hardly  began  any  con- 
secutive study  until  the  age  of  twenty,  when  he  was  sent  to  Geneva, 
there  to  remain  for  the  next  eighteen  years  (1578-96).  At 
Geneva  he  read  Greek  with  the  Cretan,  Franciscus  Portus,  whom 
he  succeeded  as  'professor'  in  1582.  His  second  wife  (1586)  was 
a  daughter  of  Henri  Estienne,  who  jealously  prevented  his  son-in- 
law  from  having  access  to  his  MSS,  and  hardly  ever  lent  them:  'he 
guards  his  books'  (writes  Casaubon)  'as  the  griffins  in  India  do 
their  gold'1.  But,  when  Estienne  died  in  loneliness  at  Lyons, 
Casaubon  inscribed  in  his  journal  a  few  feeling  lines  lamenting  his 
loss2.  Meanwhile,  he  read  all  the  Greek  texts  that  he  could  find, 
besides  buying  transcripts  of  unpublished  MSS  from  the  Greek 
copyist,  Darmarius.  Even  at  a  place  where  literary  interests  were 
almost  dead,  he  carried  out  his  own  ideal  of  classical  learning.  In 
an  exhaustive  course  of  reading  he  made  a  complete  survey  of  the 
ancient  world.  Among  his  foremost  friends  in  Geneva  was  the 
venerable  Beza;  his  correspondents  in  France  included  De  Thou 
and  Bongars.  In  1594  he  writes  to  Scaliger  at  Leyden:  —  'I  never 
take  up  your  books  or  those  of  your  great  father,  without  laying 
them  down  in  despair  at  my  own  progress'3;  and,  on  hearing  of 
Scaliger's  death  in  1609,  he  notes  in  his  diary,  that  he  had  lost 
'the  guide  of  his  studies,  the  inseparable  friend,  the  sweet  patron 
of  his  life'.  Scaliger  himself  had  said  of  Casaubon:  'he  is  the 
greatest  man  we  now  have  in  Greek';  'his  Latin  style  is  excellent, 
terse,  not  diffuse  Italian  Latin'4. 

In  1596  Casaubon  left  Geneva  for  Montpellier,  where  there 
was  a  greater  interest  in  the  Classics,  the  medical  course  including 
Hippocrates  and  Galen.  His  entry  into  Montpellier  was  nothing 
short  of  a  triumphal  progress.  For  three  years  he  lectured  to 
students  of  mature  years  on  Roman  law  and  history,  on  Plautus 
and  on  Persius,  on  Homer  and  Pindar,  and  on  Aristotle's  Ethics. 
Though  Latin  was  the  theme  of  most  of  his  public  lectures,  his 
private  reading  was  mainly  Greek. 

In  1598  he  paid  his  first  visit  to  Paris,  where  he  was  welcomed 
by  a  group  of  scholars,  which  had,  only  two  years  previously,  lost 
its  presiding  genius,  Pierre  Pithou.  The  group  included  the  elegant 

1  Ep.  41.  2  Ephcm.  1598.  3  Ep.  17. 

4  Scaligerana  Sec.  s.v.  Casaubon. 


206 


FRANCE. 


[CENT,  xvi  f 


Latin  versifiers,  Passerat  and  Rapin,  and  their  customary  place  of 
meeting  was  the  house  of  the  learned  historian  De  Thou,  with 
whom  Casaubon  had  been  in  correspondence  for  many  years.  He 
had  heard  much  of  De  Thou's  library1,  but  it  surpassed  his  expec- 
tation, and  his  heart  sank  at  the  thought  of  the  little  that  he  knew. 
He  returned  to  Montpellier  in  October,  1598. 

1  Engraving   in    Lacroix,   xviie  siecle,   fig.  54   (frontispiece  of  Bibliotheca 
;  portrait  in  Boissard,  vm  kkk  4. 


ISAAC  CASAUBON. 

From  a  photograph  of  an  engraving  in  the  Cabinet  des  Estampes, 
Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris. 


CHAP.  XIII.]  CASAUBON.  2O? 

Early  in  1599  he  was  invited  to  Paris  by  the  king,  who  desired 
his  aid  in  a  proposed  'restoration'  of  the  university.  Bidding  a 
sad  farewell  to  Montpellier,  he  waited  on  the  way  for  more  than  a 
year  at  Lyons,  while  he  superintended  the  printing  of  his  'Animad- 
versions' on  Athenaeus.  At  Paris  he  had  the  title  of  Ledeur  du 
Roi,  but,  owing  doubtless  to  his  remaining  true  to  his  Protestant 
principles,  he  was  not  appointed  to  an  actual  professorship  either 
in  the  University  of  Paris  or  in  the  College  de  France.  In  the 
latter  the  Chair  of  Latin  was  filled  by  Federic  Morel,  who  has  far 
less  claim  to  distinction  as  a  professor  of  Latin  than  as  a  printer 
of  Greek,  the  finest  of  his  editions,  in  point  of  typography,  being 
the  Libanius  of  1606.  The  Chair  of  Greek,  which  ought  to  have 
been  assigned  to  Casaubon,  was  given  to  a  youthful  protege  of 
Cardinal  Du  Perron.  In  1604  Casaubon  was,  however,  appointed 
sub-librarian  to  De  Thou  in  the  Royal  Library.  In  that  capacity 
he  supplied  materials  to  Scaliger  and  Heinsius  at  Leyden,  Gruter 
at  Heidelberg,  Hoeschel  at  Augsburg,  and  Savile  at  Eton,  while 
his  own  works  prove  how  eagerly  he  ransacked  the  Royal  MSS. 
His  ten  years  in  Paris  were  the  happiest  period  of  his  life. 

After  the  assassination  of  Henry  IV  (1610),  the  Ultramontane 
party  gained  new  power,  and  Casaubon  was  urgently  pressed  to 
become  a  Catholic.  His  own  feelings  were  in  favour  of  the  via 
media  of  the  Anglican  Church,  and  he  accepted  from  archbishop 
Bancroft  an  invitation  to  England,  where  he  was  welcomed  by 
James  I,  and  was  assigned  a  prebendal  stall  in  Canterbury  with  a 
pension  of  ^£300  a  year.  Writing  from  England  to  Salmasius, 
Casaubon  gratefully  exclaims: — 'This  people  is  anything  but  bar- 
barous; it  loves  and  cultivates  learning,  especially  sacred  learning'1. 
Casaubon  was  compelled  to  give  most  of  his  time  to  the  refutation 
of  the  Annals  of  Baronius.  He  discovered  that  the  errors  of 
Baronius  were  errors  of  scholarship,  for  Baronius  knew  neither 
Hebrew  nor  Greek.  Casaubon  paid  visits  to  Cambridge  and  Oxford, 
and  was  delighted  with  both.  His  host  at  Oxford  was  Sir  Henry 
Savile,  then  Warden  of  Merton  as  well  as  Provost  of  Eton,  but, 
although  they  had  the  common  ground  of  an  interest  in  Greek, 
they  were  separated  by  the  strongest  contrast  of  character  :— 
1  Casaubon,  insignificant  in  presence,  the  most  humble  of  men, 

1  Ep.  837. 


208  FRANCE.  [CENT.  XVI  f 

but  intensely  real,  knowing  what  he  knew  with  fatal  accuracy,  and 
keeping  his  utterance  below  his  knowledge';  Savile,  'the  munifi- 
cent patron  of  learning,  and  devoting  his  fortune  to  its  promotion, 
with  a  fine  presence,  polished  manners  and  courtly  speech',  not 
devoid  of  'swagger  and  braggadocio'1.  Casaubon  was  hospitably 
entertained,  but  succeeded  in  reserving  many  hours  of  each  day 
for  his  studies  in  the  Bodleian,  a  pleasure  for  which  he  paid  the 
penalty  during  the  second  week  in  a  sudden  sense  of  giddiness 
which  seized  him  on  his  way  to  the  library2.  His  stay  in  England 
lasted  only  for  three  years  and  eight  months;  and,  in  his  strenuous 
labours  in  the  refutation  of  Baronius,  he  sometimes  sighed  over  his 
unfinished  Polybius.  He  looked  upon  England  as  'the  island  of 
the  blest'3,  but  it  was  in  that  island  that  his  life  of  long-continued 
labour  and  of  late  vigils  came  to  a  premature  end  at  the  age  of  55. 
The  martyr  of  learning  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey,  and  the 
epitaph,  added  at  a  later  date  by  Morton,  bishop  of  Durham, 
begins  and  ends  as  follows  : — 

'  O  Doctiorum  quidquid  est  assurgite 
Huic  tarn  colendo  Nomini'... 

'  Qui  nosse  vult  Casaubonum 
Non  saxa  sed  chartas  legat 
Superfuturas  marmori, 
Et  profuturas  posteris'4. 

His  earliest  work  was  concerned  with  Diogenes  Laertius  (1583). 
His  father  had  recommended  him  to  read  Strabo,  and  the  son 
produced  a  commentary  on  that  author  in  1587,  which  is  still 
unsuperseded.  This  was  followed  by  the  editio  princeps  of 
Polyaenus  (1589),  and  by  an  ordinary  edition  of  the  whole  of 
Aristotle  (1590).  It  is  not  until  we  reach  his  commentary  on  the 
Characters  of  Theophrastus  (1592),  that  we  find  a  work  that  is 
marked  by  his  distinctive  merit,  an  interpretation  of  a  text  of  the 
most  varied  interest  founded  on  wide  reading  and  consummate 
learning5.  It  was  a  work  that  won  the  highest  praise  from  Scaliger6. 
The  number  of  Characters  in  this  edition  is  raised  from  23  to  28 

1  Pattison,  3552.  2  Eph.  p.  984.  3  Ep.  703. 

4  Blount,  Censura,  622.  Wolf,  Kl.  Schriften,  ii  1185-8,  prefers  Casaubd- 
nus  to  Casaubonus. 

6  Pattison,  4332.  6  Ep.  35,  with  Casaubon's  reply,  Ep.  19. 


CHAP.  XIII.]  CASAUBON.  2OQ 

by  the  addition  of  five  from  the  Heidelberg  Library.  His  notes  on 
Suetonius  (1595)  continued  to  be  reprinted  in  extenso  down  to 
1736.  Though  generally  destitute  of  poetic  feeling,  he  admired 
Theocritus;  he  calls  the  27th  poem  a  'mellitissimum  carmen'; 
and  his  Lectiones  Theocriteae  formed  part  of  an  edition  published 
in  1596.  One  of  his  greatest  works  was  his  Athenaeus;  his  text 
of  1597  was  followed  by  his  'Animadversions'  of  1600,  the  whole 
of  which  were  reproduced  by  Schweighauser  in  1801.  Casaubon 
would  indeed  have  rejoiced,  if  he  could  have  foreseen  this  fact 
when  he  wrote  to  Camerarius  in  1594:  'I  am  deep  in  Athenaeus, 
and  I  hope  my  labour  will  not  be  in  vain.  But  one's  industry  is 
sadly  damped  by  the  reflexion  how  Greek  is  now  neglected  and  de- 
spised. Looking  to  posterity,  or  the  next  generation,  what  motive 
has  one  for  devotion  to  study?'1  But  the  absence  of  ethical  motive 
led  to  the  editor  feeling  a  lack  of  interest  in  this  author,  and  he 
was  more  strongly  attracted  to  biography  and  to  history.  In  the 
preface  to  the  Historiae  Attgustae  Scriptores  (1603)  he  holds  that 
'political  philosophy  may  be  learned  from  history,  and  ethical 
from  biography'2.  The  ethical  interest  is  strong  in  his  Persius 
(1605),  on  which  he  had  lectured  at  Geneva  and  Montpellier, 
and  his  commentary  on  the  Stoic  satirist,  of  which  Scaliger  said 
that  the  sauce  was  better  than  the  meat3,  was  reprinted  in  Germany 
as  late  as  1833,  and  has  been  ultimately  merged  in  Conington's 
edition.  Casaubon  was  interested  in  the  practical  wisdom  of 
Polybius,  and  his  edition  of  that  author,  promised  in  1595,  was 
published  in  1609,  with  a  preface  of  36  folio  pages  of  masterly 
Latin  prose  addressed  to  Henry  IV,  urging  the  importance  of 
classical  history  as  a  subject  of  study  for  statesmen.  The  four 
years  spent  on  this  work  were  mainly  devoted  to  the  Latin  trans- 
lation, the  aim  of  which  was  to  make  the  ancient  historian  accessible 
to  the  modern  world4.  A  small  volume  of  notes  was  posthumously 
published  in  1617.  Casaubon  lives  in  his  Letters*  and  in  his 
Ephemerides6,  a  Latin  journal  largely  interspersed  with  Greek, 
recording  his  daily  reading  and  his  reflexions  for  the  last  seventeen 
years  of  his  life.  When  he  has  read  continuously  for  a  whole  day, 

1  Ep.  996  (Pattison,  52'-').  2  Pattison,  44O2.  3  Ep.  104. 

4  Cp.  Pattison,  197 — ioy.  5  Ed.  Almeloveen,  Rotterdam,  1709. 

6  Ed.  J.  Russell,  Oxford,  1850. 

S.     II.  14 


210  FRANCE.  [CENT.  XVI  f 

from  early  morn  till  late  at  night,  he  gratefully  records  the  fact  in 
the  words :  hodie  vixi.  Here  and  in  his  Letters,  the  Latin  is  that 
of  a  perfect  master  of  the  language,  though  it  fails  to  attain  '  the 
verve  and  pungency'  of  the  style  of  Scaliger1.  The  only  two  mots 
attributed  to  him  illustrate  the  attitude  of  the  humanist  towards  an 
expiring  scholasticism.  Once  when  he  was  shown  the  old  hall  of 
the  Sorbonne,  his  guide  exclaimed : —  Voila  une  sale  oil  il y  a  quatre 
cens  ans  qiton  dispute;  and  Casaubon  replied  with  the  question: — 
Qu'a-t-on  decide"?  Again,  after  listening  to  a  long  disputation  in 
that  home  of  mediaeval  lore,  he  remarked  that  'he  had  never 
heard  so  much  Latin  spoken  without  understanding  it'2.  The 
'Casauboniana'  printed  by  J.  C.  Wolf  in  1710  are  merely  extracts 
from  the  60  volumes  of  Adversaria  and  other  papers  deposited  in 
the  Bodleian  by  his  son.  The  Adversaria  themselves  consist 
almost  entirely  of  rough  memoranda  of  his  own  reading,  and  the 
only  item  that  can  here  be  quoted  is  the  precept  that  supplies  us 
with  the  motive  that  inspired  this  vast  collection: — 'quicquid  legis 
in  excerptorum  libros  referre  memineris.  Haec  unica  ratio  labanti 
memoriae  succurrendi.  Scitum  enim  illud  est,  Tantum  quisque 
scit,  quantum  memoria  tenet'3. 

His  good  name  was  attacked  by  his  foes  and  was  vindicated  by 
his  son  Meric  (1599 — \^i\\  who  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
Oxford,  and  held  preferment  in  England.  He  is  known  as  a 
translator  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  an  annotator  on  Terence,  as 
well  as  on  Hierocles,  Epictetus  and  Cebes. 

The  sixteenth  century  in  France  closes  with  the  name  of  Josias 

Mercier,  or  Mercerius,  who  was  born  in  Languedoc, 

was  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Henry  IV,  and 

produced  editions  of  the  Ibis  of  Ovid  (1568),  the  dictionary  of 

Nonius  Marcellus  (1583,  etc.),  the  Letters  of  Aristaenetus,  and  the 

treatise  of  Apuleius,  De  Deo  Socratis  (1625).     Mercier  marks  the 

transition  from  the  sixteenth  to  the  seventeenth  century.     Three 

years  before  his  death  in  1626,  his  daughter  was  married  to  one  of 

the  leading  scholars  of  the  seventeenth  century,  Claudius  Salmasius. 

1  Pattison,  882.  2  ib.  4262. 

3  Tom.  16  (Pattison,  4292).  On  Isaac  Casaubon,  cp.  esp.  the  Life  by 
Mark  Pattison,  1875,  and  (with  portrait  and  index)  1892  ;  also  Enc.  Brit.  s.v. 
Cp.  C.  Nisard's  Gladiateurs,  309 — 456,  esp.  344 — 379  ;  and  the  slight  sketch 
by  L.  J.  Nazelle,  /.  C.,  sa  vie  et  son  temps  (1897). 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

THE  NETHERLANDS  FROM   1400  TO  1575. 

DURING  the  fourteenth  century  the  Brotherhood  of  the  Common 
Life  was  founded  in  the  Netherlands  by  Gerhard 
Groot  (1340-84)  and  Florentius  Radewyns  (1350-     Rfdre°^yannsd 
1400).    Among  the  chief  aims  of  the  Brethren  were 
the  transcription  of  MSS  and  the  promotion  of  education   in  a 
religious  spirit    In  and  after  1400  many  schools  were  founded  by 
them  in  the  Netherlands  and  in  Northern  Germany.     In  these 
schools  the  moral  and  religious  education  was  based  on  the  study 
of  Latin,  thus  preparing  the  way  for  the  humanists  in  Northern 
Europe.    Among  the  precursors  of  humanism  trained        Nicoiau 
in  these  schools,  as  well  as  in  Italy,  were  Nicolaus     Cusanus 

T.  Wcsscl 

Cusanus  (1401 — 1464),  who  bequeathed  to  his  birth- 
place of  Cues  on  the  Mosel  a  valuable  collection  of  Greek  and 
Latin  MSS1;  and  Johann  Wessel  of  Groningen  (1420—1489),  the 
lux  mundi  of  his  age,  who  learnt  Greek  in  Italy  and  counted 
Rudolf  Agricola  and  Johann  Reuchlin  among  his  pupils  in  Paris2. 
The  School  at  Deventer  appears  to  have  been  originally  a 
Chapter  School,  revived  by  the  Brethren3  who  took  part  in  the 
instruction,  although  the  most  celebrated  of  its  head-masters, 
Hegius,  was  not  a  member  .of  that  body.  The  Brotherhood,  how- 
ever, has  a  clear  claim  to  the  credit  of  having  founded  the  school 

1  Cp.  F.  A.  Scharpff  (Tubingen,  1871)  ;  Geiger,  331  f ;  Creighton,  Papacy, 
vi  8.     Many  of  the  MSS  now  form  part  of  the  Harleian  collection  in  the  British 
Museum;  cp.  Sabbadini's  Scoperte,  109 — 113. 

2  Bursian,  i  90  ;  cp.  Creighton,  Papacy,  vi  7. 

3  On  returning  from  Amersfurt,  where  they  had  been  driven  by  the  plague 
in  1398  (Delprat,  Broederschap  van  G.  Groote    1830,  p.  43  f,  ed.  1856). 

14  —  2 


212  THE    NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVI. 

at  Hertogenbosch,  or  Bois-le-Uuc.     Deventer  was  the  first,  and 
Bois-le-Duc  the  second  of  the  schools  of  Erasmus. 

Erasmus 

That  eminent  humanist,  who  belongs  to  the  Nether- 
lands by  virtue  of  his  birth,  is  so  cosmopolitan  in  his  character 
and  in  the  varied  regions  of  his  activity,  that  his  career  has 
already  been  reviewed  at  an  earlier  point1. 

The  university  of  Louvain  had  been  founded  in  1426  by 
John  IV,  duke  of  Brabant,  with  the  approval  of  Martin  V.  The 
best  of  the  local  schools,  known  as  that  of  the  Lilium  or  Lis,  was 
established  in  1437  by  Carolus  Virulus  (d.  1493),  who  presided 
over  it  for  fifty-six  years,  and  was  the  composer  of  a  highly  popular 
book  of  formulae  epistolares'2'.  From  the  school  of  Lis 

Despauterius  . 

came  Jan  van  rauteren,  or  'Despauterius  (d.  1520), 
a  teacher  at  Hertogenbosch,  who  was  one  of  the  reformers  of  the 
current  text-books  of  Latin  Grammar3;  and  at  that  school  the 
study  of  Latin  was  popularised  in  and  after  1508  by  the  public 
performance  of  the  Aulularia  and  Miles  Gloriosus  of  Plautus4. 
The  Collegium  Trilingue  for  the  study  of  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew, 

was  founded  in  11517  by  Jerome  Busleiden,  who  in 

Busleiden  J     .       J 

1498  had  left  Louvain  to  study  law  at  Bologna,  and 
on  his  return  became  famous  as  a  patron  of  letters  and  a  collector 
of  MSS.  The  magnificent  museum,  which  formed  part  of  his 
mansion  at  Malines,  was  admired  by  Sir  Thomas  More5,  while  he 
is  lauded  in  the  Letters  of  Erasmus  as  not  only  omnium  librorum 
emaa'ssimus6,  but  also  utriusque  linguae  callentissimus^ .  After  the 
death  of  the  founder,  no  one  did  more  than  Erasmus  to  ensure 
the  realisation  of  his  friend's  design,  and,  but  for  Erasmus,  the 
Collegium  Trilingue  could  hardly  have  survived  the  first  ten  years 
of  its  existence. 

1  p.  127  f  supra. 

2  He  is  lauded  by  Vives  De  Trad.  Disc,  iv  i  336 ;  Felix  Neve,  Memoire 
historique  et  litttraire  stir  h  coltege  des  Trois-Langues  a  Ftiniversite  de  Louvain 
(Bruxelles,  1856),  9  f. 

8  Neve,  15;  Babler,  Beitriige,  140 — 169.  It  was  founded  on  Alexander  de 
Villa  Dei,  and  written  in  Latin  verse.  The  Orthographiae  Isagoge  (Paris, 
1510),  Rudimenta  (1512),  and  Syntaxis  (1515),  were  combined  in  the  Cotn- 
mentarii  Grammatici  (Lyons,  1536;  Paris,  1537). 

4  Neve,  118  f.  6  Lucubrations,  258  f,  ed.  1563  (Neve,  384  f). 

6  i  p.  671.  7  i  p.  1836. 


CHAP.  XIV.]     ERASMUS.    DESPAUTERIUS.   BUSLEIDEN.      213 

The  history  of  humanism  in  the  Southern  Netherlands  is  inseparably 
connected  with  the  early  printers  of  that  region.  John  of 
Westphalia  began  printing  in  Louvain  in  1474,  and,  between  Printers: 
that  date  and  1497,  produced  more  than  1 20  works.  Mispress  Westphalia 
was  in  one  of  the  university  buildings,  and  his  editions  included 
Juvenal  and  Persius,  Virgil  (1475-6),  Cicero's  Brutus  (1475)  and  De  OJfidis 
etc.  (1483),  and  Leonardo  Bruni's  translation  of  the  Ethics 
(1475).  His  business  was  bought  by  Dierik  Martens,  who 
settled  at  Louvain  in  1512,  there  producing  24  editions  of  Latin  works,  which, 
in  size  and  price,  were  suited  for  the  use  of  students.  In  1512  he  made  a 
fount  of  Greek  type,  and,  when  lectures  began  to  be  given  in  Louvain,  he 
improved  his  type  and  produced  a  large  number  of  Classical  editions,  including 
the  greater  part  of  Lucian,  Homer  (1523),  Euripides,  Theocritus,  Aesop,  the 
Plutus  of  Aristophanes,  Herodotus,  parts  of  Xenophon,  Demosthenes,  Plato, 
Aristotle,  and  Plutarch.  He  was  himself  a  Greek  and  Latin  and  Hebrew 
scholar,  and,  in  his  preface  to  the  Plutus,  he  laments  the  loss  of  the  plays  of 
Menander.  His  Greek  texts  are  better  printed  than  any  produced  in  Paris 
before  the  establishment  of  the  Royal  Press  by  Francis  I  in  1538.  He  left 
Louvain  for  his  native  town  of  Alost  in  1529.  From  that  year  onward,  under 
the  editorship  of  Rescius,  the  first  professor  of  Greek  at  the  Collegium 
Trilingue,  a  series  of  Greek  texts  was  printed  by  Barthelemy  Gravius, 
including  Xenophon's  Memorabilia,  parts  of  Lucian,  the  Laws  of  Plato,  the 
Aphorisms  of  Hippocrates,  and  Homer  (1531-5)'  After  the  death  of  Rescius 
little  was  done  at  Louvain  for  the  printing  of  Greek ;  Gravius  died  in  1580,  and 
scholars  at  Louvain  had  their  Greek  editions  printed  either  abroad  or  at 
the  important  press  recently  founded  by  Plantin  at  Antwerp. 
Christopher  Plantin  (1514 — 1589),  who  was  born  near  Tours, 
was  apprenticed  to  a  printer  at  Caen;  he  practised  bookbinding  in  Paris  for 
three  years  before  leaving  for  Antwerp,  where  he  established  a  press  in  1550. 
In  1570  he  obtained  the  important  privilege  of  printing  all  books  of  devotion 
for  every  part  of  the  Spanish  dominions.  His  greatest  work  was  the  Antwerp 
Polyglott  printed  in  eight  folio  volumes  (1569-72).  His  business  was  carried 
on  under  great  difficulties  owing  to  the  revolt  of  the  Netherlands  against  the 
power  of  Spain.  In  1583-5  he  was  compelled  to  withdraw  to  Leyden,  not 
returning  until  Antwerp  had  been  recovered  for  Spain  by  the  duke  of  Parma. 
On  his  death  he  was  buried  in  the  Cathedral1.  In  1585,  one  of  his  sons-in- 
law,  Franz  Raphelinghius  (1539-97),  professor  of  Hebrew  and  Arabic,  set  up 
a  press  at  Leyden,  where  his  sons  succeeded  him  as  printers.  At  Antwerp, 
Plantin's  business  was  inherited  by  his  son-in-law,  Moretus,  and  for  three 
centuries  it  was  continued  in  the  same  premises  from  1576  to  1876,  when  the 
last  representative  of  the  house  of  Plantin- Moretus  sold  the  building,  with  all 
its  plant,  its  collection  of  MSS,  printed  books  and  engravings,  and  picture- 

1  Portrait  in  Bullart's  Academic,  ii  257  ;  and  in  Max  Rooses,  Christophe 
Plantin,  1882. 


214  THE   NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVI. 

gallery,  to  the  city  of  Antwerp,  to  be  preserved  for  ever  as  a  Museum  of 
Printing.  Among  the  numerous  portraits  by  Rubens  there  preserved  are  those 
of  Matthias  Corvinus,  Pico  della  Mirandola,  Ortelius,  and  Lipsius,  who  is  also 
represented  in  a  fine  engraving1 ;  in  the  room  set  apart  for  the  correctors  of  the 
press,  are  two  paintings  probably  representing  Theodor  Poelman,  the  editor 
of  Horace  (1557),  and  Cornelius  Kilianus,  the  Flemish  lexicographer,  correcting 
their  proofs,  while  among  the  printed  Classics  exhibited  are  diminutive  copies 
of  Martial  (1568),  and  of  Canter's  Aeschylus  (i58o)2.  We  shall  meet  Canter 
and  Poelman  and  Lipsius  in  the  sequel  ;  meanwhile,  from  scholars  connected 
with  the  house  of  Plantin  at  Antwerp,  we  must  turn  to  a  humanist  of  earlier 
date,  who  was  similarly  connected  with  Martens  at  Louvain. 

In  1509  Juan  Luis  de  Vives  (1492 — 1540),  a  Spaniard  of 
distinguished  ancestry,  who  had  been  an  adherent 
of  scholasticism  in  his  native  land,  and  had  opposed 
the  adoption  of  a  new  Latin  Grammar  at  Valencia,  left  for  Paris, 
where  he  endeavoured  to  attain  proficiency  in  dialectics.  Three 
years  later,  weary  of  word-fence,  he  settled  among  the  Spanish 
merchants  in  the  university  town  of  Louvain.  He  subsequently 
paid  repeated  visits  to  Paris.  His  conversion  from  scholasticism 
to  humanism,  probably  begun  in  Paris  and  completed  in  the 
Netherlands,  was  due  to  the  writings  of  Erasmus,  whose  personal 
acquaintance  he  made  at  Louvain.  He  there  lectured  mainly  on 
Virgil  and  Cicero,  and  on  the  elder  Pliny.  In  1522  he  went  to 
England,  and  from  Sept.  1523  to  March  1525  resided  from  time 
to  time  in  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford3.  He  composed  for  his 
pupil,  the  Princess  Mary,  his  treatise  De  Ratione  Studii,  and  De 
Institutione  Feminae  Christianae,  which  he  dedicated  to  her  mother, 
queen  Catherine  of  Aragon;  and,  for  protesting  against  the  king's 
divorce  from  Catherine,  he  was  disgraced  and  dismissed.  He 
returned  to  Bruges,  where  he  had  married  in  1524,  and  where  he 
lived  (with  few  exceptions)  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  It  was  there 
that,  as  tutor  to  a  future  bishop  of  Cambray  and  archbishop  of 

1  Reproduced  in  chap,  xix,  p.  302  infra. 

2  Both  in   i6mo.     Cp.  Max  Rooses,  ChristopTie  Plantin,  with  100  plates; 
and  Musee  Plantin- Moretus,  Antwerp,  1883. 

3  In  1523  he  was  invited  by  Wolsey  to  fill  one  of  the  public  lectureships, 
and  gave  two  brilliant  courses  of  lectures  (cp.   P.  S.  Allen,  on  '  Vives  at 
Corpus,'   in   the   Pelican   Record,    1902,    ig6f,   and   on   the    'Early  Corpus 
Readerships '). 


CHAP.  XIV.]      VIVfeS.      GOCLENIUS.      NANNIUS.  215 

Toledo,  he  composed  (in  1531)  his  three  educational  treatises1. 
All  three  are  included  under  the  general  title  De  Disciplinis. 

(i)  In  the  first  seven  books,  which  are  critical,  he  discusses  the  causes  that 
have  led  to  the  decline  of  learning,  touches  on  the  superficiality  of  the  school- 
men, whom  he  describes  as  '  sophists  '  ;  refers  to  the  corruptions  in  Classical 
MSS  and  the  inadequacy  of  the  Latin  translations  of  Aristotle  ;  the  evil  effects 
of  scholastic  disputations,  the  objections  to  the  existing  method  of  obtaining 
university  degrees,  the  moral  influence  of  the  teacher,  and  the  dignity  of  his 
calling.  Grammar  must  not  be  studied  in  the  subtle  scholastic  manner,  but 
must  be  treated  as  the  study  of  literature.  All  the  other  '  arts'  are  next  reviewed 
in  due  order,  (ii)  The  five  books  of  part  ii  are  constructive.  The  proper  site 
for  a  school,  and  the  character  of  the  teacher,  are  set  forth,  and  quarterly 
conferences  on  the  part  of  teachers  in  each  school  recommended.  The 
mother-tongue  must  be  cultivated,  but  the  almost  universal  language  is  Latin, 
which  is  also  necessary  in  learning  Italian  and  Spanish,  while,  for  a  complete 
mastery  of  Latin,  it  is  necessary  to  learn  Greek.  The  work  forms  a  systematic 
and  consistent  whole,  and  it  rests  on  an  ethical  and  psychological  basis.  It  is 
characterised  by  a  blending  of  humanism  with  a  Christianity  that  is  partly 
coloured  by  Stoic  and  Platonic  elements.  It  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
products  of  the  union  of  Christianity  and  humanism  during  the  Revival  of 
Learning2. 

It  was  at  Lou  vain  that  several  of  the  minor  works  of  Vives  were 
printed  between  1519  and  1523,  and,  for  part  of  that  time,  he 
lectured  on  Latin  authors  in  the  university.  In  his  early  treatise 
In  Pseudodialeeticos  (1519)  he  criticised  the  university  of  Paris, 
and,  late  in  life  (1538),  he  produced  a  volume  of  colloquies  for 
beginners  in  Latin3. 

Among  the  lecturers  of  more  than  local  fame  at  the  Collegium 
in  is  19-^9  was  Conrad  Goclenius.     He 


Goclenius 

dedicated  a  translation  of  the  Hermotimiis  of  Lucian 
to  Sir  Thomas  More  (1522),  who  acknowledged  the  compliment 
by  sending  the  translator  a  gilded  cup  full  of  gold  pieces4.     His 
successor  in  i  S^9-=57  was  Petrus  Nannius  of  Alkmaar 

Nannius 

(1500  —  1557),  who  produced  ten  books  of  critical 

1  De  Corruptis  Artibus  ;  De  7radendis  Disciplinis  ;  De  Arlibns. 

2  Hartfelcler  in  Schmid's  Gesch.  der  Erziehuttg,  II  ii  128  —  135. 

3  Cp.   Vita  by  Majan,  prefixed  to  the  Opera  (Valence,  1782-90)  ;  Mcmoire 
by  Nameche  (Bruxelles,    1841),  and  article  by  Mullinger  in  D.  N.  B.;   also 
P.  S.  Allen,  u.s.;  and  Woodward,  Renaissance  Education,   180  —  210  (list  of 
classical  authors  recommended  by  Vives,  ib.  198  f  ). 

4  Nannius  (Neve,  146  n). 


2l6  THE   NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVI. 

and  explanatory  Miscellanea,  and  commentaries  on  the  Eclogues 
and  Georgics,  and  the  Ars  Poetica,  together  with  many  translations 
from  the  Greek.  He  is  described  by  Lipsius  as  the  first  who 
kindled  an  ardour  for  letters  in  the  school  of  Louvain1. 

A  few  other  names  may  be  briefly  noted.    Hermann  Torrentius, 
who  taught  at  Groningen  and  in  his  native  town  of 

Torrentius  . 

Zwolle,  is  known  as  an  editor  of  the  Eclogues  and 
Georgics  (1502),  and  as  the  author  of  a  Classical  Dictionary 
(1498  etc.)2,  and  of  a  revised  and  corrected  edition  of  the 

mediaeval  Grammar  of  Alexander  de  Villa  Dei3. 

Pulmannus 

Iheodor   Poelman,   or    Pulmannus   (1510 — -1581), 
saw  through  the  press  a  large  number  of  Latin  Classics  (Horace, 
Virgil,  Lucan,   Censorinus,  Claudian  etc.)  for  the 
SecimdAis  great  house  of  Plantin  at  Antwerp4.    Jan  Everaerts, 

or  Joannes  Secundus,  a  jurist  of  the  Hague  (1511- 
36),  is  best  known  as  the  author  of  the  Basia.     Hadrianus  Junius 
(Adriaan  de  Jonghe),  a  physician  at  Haarlem,  Copen- 
hagen, and  Delft  (1511 — 1575),  is  in  good  repute  as 
an  early  editor  of  Nonius  Marcellus  (i565)5.    A  higher  distinction 
belongs  to  the  name  of  the  Greek  critic,  Willem 
Canter  of  Utrecht  (1542 — 1575),  who  studied  under 
an  able  teacher,  Cornelius  Valerius,  or  Wouters  (fl.  1557-78),  and 
under  Dorat  in  Paris,  and  afterwards  lived  as  an  independent 
scholar  at  Louvain.     Among  his  works  are  the  Novae  Lectiones 
(1564),  a  Syntagma  on  the  proper  method  of  emending  Greek 
authors6,  and  an  edition  of  the  Eclogae  of  Stobaeus.     He  opens  a 
new  era  as  an  editor  of  the  Tragic  Poets  of  Greece.    His  Euripides, 
a  sexto-decimo  volume  of  more  than  800  pages  (1571),  is  the 
first  in  which  the  metrical  responsions  between  strophe  and  anti- 
strophe  are  clearly  marked  by  means  of  Arabic  numerals  in  the 
margin,  and  the  text  repeatedly  corrected  under  the  guidance  of 
these  responsions7.  His  editions  of  Sophocles  (1579)  and  Aeschylus 

1  Ep.  Sel.  Misc.  iii  87  ;  cp.  Neve,  149 — 156. 

2  Elucidarius  carminum  et  historiarum,  etc.  3  Bursian,  i  104  f. 
4  Max  Rooses,  Plantin,  106  f  (with  portrait). 

8  Also  as  the  author  of  a  Greek  and  Latin  Lexicon  (Bas.   1548,   1577); 
Life  (1836)  and  Letters  (1839)  by  Scheltema,  Amsterdam. 

6  Reprinted  in  Samuel  Jebb's  Aristides,  vol.  ii. 

7  Euripidis    Tragoediae  xijc,   in  quibus  praeter  infinita  menda  sublata, 


CHAP.  XIV.]      W.  CANTER.      PIGHIUS.      CRUQUIUS.  2 1/ 

(1580)  were  posthumously  published1.     The  former  remained  in 
common  use  for  more  than  two  centuries2. 

If  we  descend  below  the  year  1575,  we  have  to  note  the  name 
of  Stephanus  Vinandus  Pighius  (1520 — 1604),  a 

.  .  Pighius 

native  of  Campen,  who  spent  eight  years  in  Italy, 
was  librarian  to  Cardinal  Granvella  in  Brussels  (1555-74)?  and 
passed  the  latter  part  of  his  life  as  a  Canon  at  Xanten  on  the 
Rhine.  It  was  there  that  he  produced  both  of  his  important 
works,  his  edition  of  Valerius  Maximus  (1585),  and  his  Annales 
Romanorum  (1599 — 1615).  His  earlier  life  in  Italy  is  represented 
by  a  collection  of  drawings  of  ancient  monuments  preserved  in  the 
codex  PiManus  at  Berlin3.  We  may  also  notice 

3  Modius 

Franz  Modius,  a  Canon  of  Aire,  who  was  born  near 
Bruges  (1556 — 1599),  an  editor  of  Curtius,  Vegetius,  Frontinus, 
Justin,  and  Livy,  and  author  of  a  work  on  the  triumphal  proces- 
sions and  the  festivals  of  Rome.    The  Jesuit,  Martin 

Delrio 

Anton   Delrio,   of  Antwerp  and  Louvam  (1561— 
1608),  who  criticised  Solinus,  and  annotated  Claudian  and  the 
plays  of  Seneca,  is  best  known  for  his  denunciation  of  Scaliger's 
disbelief  in  the  genuineness  of  the  works  ascribed  to  'Uionysius 
the  Areopagite'4.     A  far  more  familiar  name  is  that 

Cruquius 

of  Jacob  Cruquius,  the  professor  of  Bruges,  whose 
edition  of  Horace,  begun  in  1565  and  completed  in  1578,  supplies 
us  with  our  only  information  as  to  the  codex  antiquissimus  Blandi- 
nius,  borrowed  from  the  library  of  a  Benedictine  monastery  near 
Ghent,  and  burnt  with  the  monastery  after  it  had  been  returned 
to  the  library. 

During  the  progress  of  the  Horatian  labours  of  Cruquius,  an 
event  took  place  that  marks  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  scholarship 
in  the  Netherlands,  the  foundation  of  the  university  of  Leyden,  in 
memory  of  the  heroism  displayed  by  its  inhabitants  during  its 
famous  siege  in  1575.  While  Louvain  continued  to  be  the  leading 

carniinntn  omnium  ratio  hactenus  ignorata  mine  primuin  proditur  (Plantin, 
Antwerp). 

1  Cp.  Burman,  Trajectum  Erudition,  59 — 70. 

2  Brunck  (1786);  cp.  Jebb's  Inlrod.  to  text  of  Sophocles  (1897),  xxxviii. 

3  Bursian,  i  345. 

4  Bernays,  Scaliger,  81,  205  f. 


2l8  THE   NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVI. 

university  of  the  Southern  (or  Spanish)  Netherlands,  Leyden 
became  the  foremost  seat  of  learning  in  those  Northern  Nether- 
lands, which  threw  off  the  Spanish  yoke  and  formed  themselves 
into  the  'United  Provinces'  in  1579.  The  first  period  in  the 
history  of  scholarship  in  the  Netherlands  has  now  ended :  the 
foundation  of  Leyden  marks  the  beginning  of  the  second. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

ENGLAND   FROM   c.    1370  TO   c.    1600. 

IN  the  dawn  of  the  Renaissance  the  only  point  of  contact 
between  Petrarch  and  England  is  supplied  by  the  learned  biblio- 
phile, Richard  of  Bury.  When  these  kindred  spirits  met  at 
Avignon  in  1330,  Petrarch  seized  the  opportunity  to  enquire  as 
to  the  exact  position  of  the  ancient  Thule,  and  was  disappointed 
to  find  the  English  envoy  perfectly  indifferent  to  this  interesting 
topic1.  Petrarch  was  afterwards,  however,  assured  by  Boccaccio 
that  a  day  would  come  when  even  '  the  backward  Briton '  would 
appreciate  his  epic  poem  of  Africa2.  Chaucer  (1328 — 1400)  paid 
three  visits  to  Italy  in  1372-8  and  was  under  Italian  influence 
until  1384.  He  made  use  of  Boccaccio's  Latin  works,  though  he 
never  names  their  author,  and  there  is  no  evidence  that  he  knew 
the  Decameron3.  But  he  frequently  mentions  Petrarch.  The 
*  Clerkes  Tale '  he  professes  to  have  '  lern'd  at  Padowe  of  a 
worthy  clerk'. 

'  Franceis  Petrark,  the  laureat  poete, 
Ilighte  this  clerke,  whos  rethorike  swete 
Enlumined  all  Itaille  of  poetry'4. 

The  Latin  Classics  most  familiar  to  Chaucer  were  Ovid,  Virgil, 
Statius,  and  Juvenal,  with  parts  of  Cicero  and  Seneca5.     Homer6, 

1  Epp.  Fain,  iii  i. 

2  Studiis  tardiis  Britannits  (Boccaccio,  Lettere,  p.  250,  Corazzini). 

3  W.   H.   Schofield,  English  Literature,  from  the  Norman   Conquest  to 
Chaucer  (1906),   109,   293,  341,   347. 

4  On  Petrarch's  influence  on  English  poetry,  cp.  Einstein's  Italian  Renais- 
sance in  England,  316 — 340. 

5  Cp.  W.  Hertzberg,  Chanters  Canterbury  Gcsch.  42 — 45;  Kissner,  Chaucer 
in  s.  Beziehungen   zur  ital.  Literatur,    Marburg,    1867;    T.    R.   Lounsbury, 
Studies  in  Chaucer,  New  York,   1892,  vol.  ii. 

6  Cp.  Schofield,  282  f. 


220  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XV. 

Statius,  Virgil,  Ovid,  Lucan,  and  Claudian  are  the  poets  placed 
on  lofty  pillars  in  his  House  of  Fame1.  Chaucer's  pupil,  Lydgate, 
knew  the  most  important  of  the  Latin 'works  of  Petrarch  and 
Boccaccio,  and  Thomas  Arundel,  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(d.  1414),  was  a  correspondent  of  Salutati.  In  i3952an  Augus- 
tinian  monk  named  '  Thomas  of  England '  lectured  in  Florence, 
where  he  '  bought  the  books  of  the  modern  poets ',  and  the 
translations  and  other  early  works  of  Leonardo  Bruni3.  In 
December,  1400,  the  Greek  emperor,  Manuel  Palaeologus,  was 
entertained  at  Christ  Church,  Canterbury,  and,  in  1408,  England 
was  visited  by  Manuel  Chrysoloras4.  At  the  Council  of  Constance 

(1415)  Henry  Beaufort  became  acquainted  with 
England.  ™  P°ggi°>  wno  at  the  bishop's  invitation  spent  several 

years  in  England  (1418-23).  Poggio's  English 
correspondents  included  Nicholas  Bildstone,  archdeacon  of 
Winchester,  Richard  Pettworth,  the  bishop's  secretary,  and  John 
Stafford,  afterwards  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  In  the  early 

years  of  the  Council  of  Basel,  Aeneas  Sylvius  was 
neasTsyivius"  sent  as  an  envov  to  Britain.  On  his  way  to  Scotland 

he  noted  the  barbarism  of  the  rustics  in  North- 
umberland, but,  on  his  return,  he  saw  a  Latin  translation  of 
Thucydides  in  the  sacristy  of  St  Paul's  cathedral  (i435)5.  It  was 
probably  after  returning  to  Basel  that  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Adam  de  Molyneux,  Secretary  of  State  to  Henry  VI  and  a 
frequent  correspondent  of  Aeneas  Sylvius.  Molyneux  was  pro- 
bably the  first  Englishman  who  acquired  the  art  of  writing  a  Latin 
letter  in  a  polished  style  adorned  with  classical  quotations6. 

In  the  same  age  Cardinal  Beaufort's  rival,  Humphrey,  duke 

Hum  hre         °^  Gloucester  (I39I — 144?))  distinguished  himself 

duke  of  as   a   patron   of  learning.      He   employed    Italian 

teachers  to  aid  him  in  the  study  of  Latin  poetry 
and  rhetoric.  These  teachers  included  '  Titus  Livius  of  Forli ', 

1  iii  365—423. 

2  Gherardi,  Statuti,  364.  3  Epp.  ii  18  ;  Voigt,  ii  2583. 

4  F.  A.  Gasquet,  Eve  of  the  Reformation,  p.  20,  ed.  1905. 

5  Ep.  126  (Creighton's  Papacy,  iii  53  n.). 

6  Cp.  Creighton's  Early  Renaissance,  p.  19 ;  also  in  Hist.  Lectures  and 
Addresses,  p.  196  f. 


CHAP.  XV.]         DUKE    HUMPHREY.      TIPTOFT.  221 

'poet  and  orator  to  the  duke  of  Gloucester',  and  afterwards 
author  of  a  life  of  Henry  V;  Antonio  Beccario  of  Verona,  a 
pupil  of  Vittorino ;  and  Vincent  Clement,  his  '  orator '  at  Rome, 
who  was  also  famous  as  the  'star'  of  the  university  of  Oxford1. 
Duke  Humphrey  left  to  that  university  a  considerable  library2, 
including  the  Panegyrici  Veteres,  and  the  Letters  of  Cicero3.  His 
admiration  of  Leonardo  Bruni's  rendering  of  the  Ethics  led  him 
to  ask  the  translator  to  produce  a  similar  rendering  of  the 
Politics,  which  was  ultimately  dedicated  to  Pope  Eugenius  IV4. 
Another  Italian  scholar,  Pier  Candido  Decembrio,  sent  the  duke 
a  translation  of  the  first  five  books  of  the  Republic,  begun  by 
Chrysoloras,  continued  by  his  father,  and  completed  by  himself. 
On  this  second  occasion  the  duke  (who  had  been  remiss  with 
Bruni)  did  not  forget  to  thank  the  translator  for  the  work ;  he 
even  encouraged  him  to  complete  it  (i439)5.  He  also  received 
from  the  youthful  Lapo  da  Castiglionchio  certain  of  his  renderings 
of  Plutarch's  Lives6.  With  his  death  in  1447  the  first  age  of 
humanism  in  England  comes  to  an  end,  and  the  interest  in  the 
Greek  Classics  falls,  for  a  time,  into  abeyance. 

In  the  second  half  of  the  same  century,  Italy  was  visited  by 
John  Tiptoft,  earl  of  Worcester  (c.  1427 — 1470),  a 
friend  of  the  monks  of  Christ  Church,  Canterbury. 
Forced  to  leave   England,   he  went  to  Venice,   and   thence   to 
Palestine.     On  his  return  to  Italy,  he  studied  Latin  at  Padua, 
visited  the  aged  Guarino  at  Ferrara,  and  Vespasiano  in  Florence, 
where  he  heard  Argyropulos  lecture  on  Greek.    The  Latin  speech 

1  Beckynton's  Correspondence,  \  223  (Rolls  Series}. 

2  The  number  is  variously  stated  at  108,  1-29,  300 — 400,  or  600  (probably 
the  ultimate  total).     Cp.  Munimenta  Academica,  ed.  Anstey,  for  1439  and 
1444;  and  Delisle,  Le  cabinet  des  AfSS,  i  52.     Erasmus  could  hardly  refrain 
from  tears  when  he  saw  the  scanty  remains  of  this  library,  and  in  Leland's 
day  scarcely  a  single  volume  survived. 

3  Voigt,  ii  2s63. 

4  Vespasiano,  Vile,  436f;  p.  46  supra. 

5  The  whole  correspondence  is  printed  in  English  Hist.  Rev.  July  1904-5; 
a  facsimile  of  a  MS  of  Decembrio's  letter  is  given  opposite  p.  6  of  Einstein's 
Italian  Renaissance  in  England.     The  duke's  reply  includes  the  phrase  hoc 
nno  nos  longe  felicem  iitdicantes  (Hist.  Rev.  1904,  513) ;  cp.  Hallam  i  io84  n. 

6  Bandini,  Cat.  codd.  Lat.  Laur.  ii  699,  742  ;  Voigt,  ii  257*. 


222  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XV. 

that  he  delivered  in  Rome  in  the  presence  of  Pius  II  drew  tears 
of  joy  from  the  eyes  of  the  Pope.  A  translation  from  Lucian 
was  dedicated  to  him  by  Francesco  d'  Arezzo,  and  he  himself 
translated  the  De  Amicitia  of  Cicero.  Some  of  the  numerous 
MSS  that  he  purchased  in  Florence  were  presented  to  the  university 
of  Oxford1.  His  love  of  letters  was  lauded  by  Caxton2,  but  Italy 
had  inspired  him,  not  only  with  an  appreciation  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  Classics,  but  also  with  an  admiration  for  the  methods  of 
the  Italian  despots,  and,  when  he  was  executed  on  Tower  Hill, 
the  mob  declared  that  he  deserved  his  death  for  infringing  the 
liberties  of  the  people  by  bringing  from  Italy  '  a  law  of  Padua '  to 
take  the  place  of  the  common  law  of  England3. 

Florence  was  also  visited  by  an  Englishman,  who  was  the 
royal  envoy  to  the  Pope,  and  remained  in  Florence  for  a  year  and 
a  half,  consorting  with  scholars  of  the  better  sort,  such  as  Manetti, 
and  purchasing  many  MSS  from  Vespasiano4. 

Englishmen  resorted  still  more  frequently  to  Ferrara.    Reynold 

Chicheley  studied  there  and  became  Rector  of  the  university5. 

Among  those  who  attended  the  school  of  Guarino  at  that  place 

was   William   Grey,    who   had   already  worked   at 

Grey 

Cologne  and  Padua,  and  invited  a  youthful  scholar, 
Niccol6  Perotti,  to  share  his  lodgings  and  aid  him  in  the  study  of 
Latin.  Grey  became  bishop  of  Ely  (d.  1478),  and  bequeathed  to 
Balliol  College,  Oxford,  a  number  of  MSS,  including  many  letters 
of  Guarino6. 


1  Epist.  Acad.  ii  354,  390. 

2  Leland,  Script.  Brit,  480. 

'  s  Vespasiano,  Vite,  402-5  ;  Creighton,  Historical  Lectures,  198  ;  Einstein, 
24 — 27.  In  the  Canterbury  necrology  (MS  Arundel  68  f  45  d,  quoted  by  Gasquet, 
p.  21)  he  is  described  as  '  vir  ujidecumque  doctissimus,  omnium  liberalium 
artium  divinarumque  simul  ac  secutarium  litterarum  scienter  peritissimus'. 

4  Vite,  238,  '  Messer  Andrea  Ols '. .  I  have  succeeded  in  identifying  him 
as  Andrew  Holes,  chancellor  of  Sarum  (1438)  and  envoy,  of  Henry  VI  to 
Eugenius  IV  in  Florence  (1441-3).  He  had  meanwhile  been  nominated 
archdeacon  of  Northampton,  and  bishop  of  Coutances.  See  Beckynton's 
Correspondence,  in  the  Rolls  Series,  i  26,  91,  i  i8,  172  f,  225,  234,  239,  ii  251. 

*   Calendar  of  State  Papers,  Venetian,  vol.  VI,  part  iii,  1581. 

q  Coxe,  Cat.  Cod.  Oxon.  I  Balliol;  and  Woodward,  Otia  Meneiana,  1903. 
Cp.  Vespasiano,  213  f;  Creighton,  201  ;  Einstein,  19 f. 


CHAP.  XV.]     GREY.    FREE.    FLEMMING.    GUNTHORPE.      223 

Guarino  was   also  visited    by   John    Free    (better  known  as 
Phreas),  Fellow  of  Balliol,  who  taught  medicine  at 
Ferrara,  Florence,  and  Parma,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  nominated  bishop  of  Bath  shortly  before  his  death  in  1465 1. 
When  Guarino  died  in  1460,  his  son  referred  with  pride  to  the 
fact  that  his  father's  school  had  been  attended  by  pupils  even 
from    Britain,    'which  is  situated  outside  the  world'2,   and  the 
funeral  oration  by  Lodovico  Carbone  paid  the  same  tribute  to  the 
master's   memory3.     Robert   Flemming,    who   had 

,  ,        ,  -   T  .          ,       .  i    r     T  •          i  Flemming 

been  made  dean  of  Lincoln  in  1451,  left  Lincoln 
for  Ferrara,  and  was  agent  for  Edward  IV  in  Rome.  He  wrote 
Latin  verses  at  Tivoli  and  compiled  a  Greek  and  Latin  dictionary. 
On  his  death  in  1483,  he  left  the  MSS,  which  he  had  collected  in 
Italy,  to  his  cousin's  foundation  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford4. 
John  Gunthorpe,  who  was  invited  to  Ferrara  by 

Gunthorpe 

Free,  there  learnt  to  make  Latin  speeches.  He 
was  employed  on  complimentary  embassies  by  Edward  IV,  was 
Warden  of  the  King's  Hall,  Cambridge,  prebendary  of  Lincoln 
and  dean  of  Wells  (1472-98).  The  house  that  he  there  built 
gives  proof  of  his  interest  in  Italian  architecture,  while  some  of 
the  MSS  which  he  collected  in  Italy  were  bequeathed  to  Jesus 
College,  Cambridge5. 

All  of  these  Englishmen,  who  went  on  pilgrimage  to  Guarino's 
school  at  Ferrara,  were  interested  in  Latin.  They  all  attained 
positions  of  eminence,  and  left  their  Latin  MSS  to  College  libraries,  ]/ 
but  they  kindled  no  interest  in  the  Classics.  '  It  was  not  till  the 
value  of  Greek  thought  became  in  any  degree  manifest  that  the 
New  Learning  awakened  any  enthusiasm  in  England'6. 

In  the  Revival  of  Learning  the  first  Englishman  who  studied 
Greek  was  a  Benedictine  monk,  William  of  Selling,  or  Celling, 

1  Voigt,  ii  26o3;  Creighton,  202;  Einstein,  18,  20 — 23;  some  of  his  Letters 
published  by  Spingarn  in  Journal  of  Comp.  Lit.  1903.     Dr  J.  F.  Payne  sug- 
gests that  his  original  name  was  possibly  Wells  (plural  of  <f>ptap). 

2  Voigt,  ii  261  n.  i3. 

3  Leland,  De  Scriptoribns  Brit.  462. 

4  Voigt,  ii  26o3  ;  Creighton,  203  ;  Einstein,  23  f. 

5  Only  one  or  two  are  left  (M.  R.  James,  Parker  MSS,  1899,  13).     Cp.  in 
general  Voigt,  ii  26o3 ;  Creighton,  202  ;  Einstein,  23. 

6  Creighton,  204. 


hcm*s  linxcrt.    prc 

i>immc   t'.erfvs  tlicf-r   tixxs  deaf-tana  ut;    l/rC:  y  ^  '•' 
•  serf it  ffn4i-mri -fife:  "•  L-Pet* 


From  a  drawing  in  the  Cracherode  collection,  Print  Room,  British  Museum. 

Thomas  Linacre  professeuren  medecine  a  son  isle  Angloise,  homme  certes  docle  aits 
deux  langues,  Grecque  et  Latine,  lequel  ayant  compose  plusieurs  doctes  liures, 
mourn t  a  Londres  fan  de  notre  Seigneur  1524. 


CHAP.  XV.]  SELLING.      LINACRE.  22$ 

near  Canterbury  (d.  I494)1.  Night  and  day  he  was  haunted  by 
the  vision  of  Italy  that,  next  to  Greece,  was  the 
nursing  mother  of  men  of  genius2.  Accompanied 
by  another  monk,  William  Hadley,  he  went  to  Italy  in  1464*  and 
studied  for  three  years  at  Padua,  Bologna,  and  Rome.  On  his 
return,  he  brought  back  many  MSS,  and  endeavoured  to  make  a 
home  of  learning  in  the  monastery  of  Canterbury,  of  which  he 
become  Prior  in  1472,  after  a  second  visit  to  Rome  in  1469.  He 
paid  special  attention  to  Greek,  and  produced  a  Latin  rendering 
of  a  work  of  St  Chrysostom.  In  1485,  he  visited  Rome  for  the 
third  time,  to  announce  the  accession  of  Henry  VII,  when  he 
delivered  a  Latin  oration  in  the  presence  of  Innocent  VIII  and 
the  College  of  Cardinals.  He  was  possibly  Fellow  of  All  Souls' ; 
he  was  certainly  Prior  of  Christ  Church,  Canterbury,  from  1472 
to  1494.  The  MSS,  which  he  had  collected  in  Italy,  were  be- 
queathed to  that  body ;  most  of  them  perished  in  a  fire,  but  one 
of  them  possibly  survives  in  the  Homer  given  by  archbishop 
Parker  to  the  library  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge4.  His 
monument  in  Canterbury  Cathedral  describes  him  as  '  Doctor 
theologus  Selling,  Graeca  atque  Latina  |  lingua  perdoctus'5. 

In  the  school  of  Christ  Church,  Selling  inspired  with  his  love 
of  classical  learning  his  pupil  and  nephew,  Thomas 
Linacre  (c.  1460 — 1524),  who  went  to  Oxford  about 
1480,  was  elected  Fellow  of  All  Souls'  in  1484,  and  accompanied 
Selling  on  his  embassy  to  the  Pope  in  1485-6.     It  was  during 

1  Leland's  Tillaeus  (De  Scr.  Brit.  482)  has  suggested  Tilly  or  Till.  The 
Canterbury  Letter  Books  (iii  291  in  the  Rolls  Series,  quoted  by  Gasquet,  p.  22) 
show  that  Prior  Selling  was  interested  in  a  boy  named  '  Richard  Tyll\ 

"  Leland,  Script.  Brit.  482,  'prae  oculis  obversabatur  Italia,  post  Graeciam, 
bonorum  ingeniorum  et  parens  et  altiix  '. 

3  Litt.  Cant,  iii  239;  cp.  Einstein,  29;   Gasquet,  23.     Leland,  I.e.,  states 
that,  at  Bologna,  Selling  was  the  pupil  of  Politian  'with  whom. ..he  formed 
a  familiar  and  lasting  friendship';  but  Politian  was  only  10  in  1464,  and  was 
probably  then  in  Florence.     The  Greek  Readers  at  Bologna  in  1466-7  were 
Lionorus  and  Andronicus  (Dallari's  Rotuli,  p.  51,  quoted  by  Gasquet). 

4  M.   R.  James,  Parker  MSS  (1899),  P-   9-     The  Euripides  in  the  same 
library,  and  the  Livy  in  that  of  Trinity  College,  possibly  belonged  to  Selling. 

5  William  Worcester  mentions  '  certain  Greek  terminations  as  taught  by 
Dr  Selling'  with  the  pronunciation  of  the  vowels  (Brit.  Mus.  Cotton  MS  Julius 
F  vii,  f.  118,  quoted  by  Gasquet,  p.  24). 

S.     II.  15 


226  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XV  f 

this  visit  to  Italy  that  Selling  introduced  Linacre  to  Politian  in 
Florence.  In  Florence  Linacre  studied  Latin  and  Greek  under 
Politian  and  Chalcondyles.  A  year  later  he  went  to  Rome.  It 
was  there  that,  while  examining  a  MS  of  the  Phaedrus  in  the  Vatican 
Library,  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Hermolaus  Barbarus l,  who 
urged  Linacre  and  his  two  English  companions,  William  Grocyn 
and  William  Latimer,  to  translate  Aristotle  into  Latin.  After 
leaving  Rome  for  Venice,  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Aldus 
Manutius,  and  was  enrolled  as  an  honorary  member  of  his  Greek 
Academy.  In  the  preface  to  the  second  volume  of  the  Aldine 
editio princeps  of  Aristotle  (February,  1497),  Aldus  states  that  the 
care  with  which  the  work  had  been  executed  would  be  attested  by 
many  in  Italy,  and  in  particular  at  Venice  by  '  Thomas  Anglicus, 
homo  et  Graece  et  Latine  peritissimus '.  At  the  end  of  the 
Astronomici  Veteres  (1499),  Aldus  prints  the  Sphere  of  Proclus 
in  the  Latin  rendering  recently  made  by  'Thomas  Linacrus 
Britannus',  who  had  become  intimate  with  the  prince  of  Carpi, 
to  whom  this  part  of  the  work  is  dedicated  by  the  printer  in 
October,  1499.  He  also  prints  a  letter  from  Grocyn  (27  August) 
mentioning  Linacre's  recent  return  to  England.  Linacre  had 
meanwhile,  in  1492,  graduated  in  medicine  at  Padua,  and  had 
studied  Hippocrates  under  Leonicenus  at  Vicenza.  On  his  way 
back  to  England  (probably  in  the  summer  of  1499),  he  erected 
on  the  highest  point  of  one  of  the  Alpine  passes  an  altar  of  stones 
which  he  dedicated  to  Italy  as  his  Sancta  Mater  Sfudiorum2. 
On  his  return  he  proceeded  to  translate  the  commentary  of 
Simplicius  on  the  Physics  and  of  Alexander  on  the  Meteorologica 
of  Aristotle,  and  it  was  probably  at  this  time,  in  London,  that  his 
lectures  on  the  Meteorologica  were  attended  by  Thomas  More3. 
His  translation4  remained  unpublished,  but  his  renderings  of 

1  Pauli  Jovii  Elogia,  no.  63. 

2  Epigram  by  Janus  Vitalis,  in  Pauli  Jovii  Elogia,  no.  63 ;  cp.  Dr  Payne's 
Introd.  to  Linacre's  Galen,  13 — 15. 

3  Stapleton  (Vita  Mori,  12,  in  Tres  Thomae,  1588)  states  that  More  learned 
Greek,  and  studied  the  Meteorologica,  under  Linacre  at  Oxford,  where  More 
was  in  residence  about  1493.     This  is  the  only  evidence  for  Linacre's  return  to 
England  in  1492  (see  esp.  P.  S.  Allen,  in  Eng.  Hist.  Rev.  xviii  (1903)  514, 
Linacre  and  Latimer  in  Italy). 

4  Erasmus,  Epp.  466,  1091. 


CHAP.  XV.]  LINACRE.  22? 

several  treatises  of  Galen  saw  the  light,  De  Sanitate  Tuenda  and 
Methodus  Medendi  in  Paris  (1517  and  1519),  De  Temperamentis 
at  Cambridge  (I52I)1,  and  three  other  treatises  in  London 
(1523-4).  The  work  printed  at  Cambridge  in  1521  by  Siberch, 
who  in  the  same  year  and  place  was  the  first  to  use  Greek  type  in 
England2,  was  dedicated  by  Linacre  to  Leo  X,  in  memory  of  the 
fact  that,  by  permission  of  Lorenzo,  the  translator  had  shared 
with  the  future  Pope  the  private  instructions  of  Politian.  In 
1509  he  had  been  appointed  physician  to  Henry  VIII;  in  1512 
he  wrote  for  St  Paul's  School  a  Latin  Grammar,  which  was  not 
accepted  by  Colet.  His  appointment  as  tutor  to  the  princess 
Mary  led  to  his  preparing  a  Latin  Grammar,  which  was  composed 
in  English,  though  it  bore  the  Latin  title,  Rudimenta  Grammatices 
(c.  1523);  it  was  afterwards  translated  into  Latin  by  Buchanan. 
A  far  more  important  work  was  Linacre's  treatise  De  Emendata 
Structura  Latini  Sermonis  (1524),  which  was  reprinted  abroad 
with  a  letter  from  Melanchthon  recommending  its  use  in  the 
schools  of  Germany3.  The  edition  of  Julius  Pollux  by  Antonio 
Francesco  Varchiese  (1520)  was  dedicated  to  Linacre,  who  also 
counted  among  his  correspondents  the  eminent  Greek  scholar, 
Budaeus.  Lastly,  Linacre  was  the  founder  of  the  College  of 
Physicians  (1518),  and  of  lectureships  in  medicine  at  Merton 
College,  Oxford,  and  St  John's  College,  Cambridge.  The  lecturers 
were  originally  required  to  expound  Linacre's  own  renderings  of 
Galen,  but  the  Galenian  tradition,  which  had  come  down  from 
the  Middle  Ages,  was  abolished  at  Cambridge  by  the  statutes  of 
Queen  Elizabeth4.  Linacre  was  buried  in  St  Paul's  cathedral, 
but  it  was  not  until  1557  that  Dr  Caius  marked  the  site  with  an 
epitaph  in  which  he  describes  Linacre  as  vir  et  Graece  et  Latine 
atque  in  re  medica  longe  eruditissimus6.  He  is  among  the  earliest 

1  Facsimile,  Cambridge,  i8Sr. 

2  Assuming  the  correctness  of  Mr  Bradshaw's  chronological  arrangement 
of  Siherch's   publications,    the   first   Greek   printed   in    England   must   have 
been  the  expressive  words,   irdvrwv  ^era/JoX^,  the  motto  of  the  Sermon  of 
St  Augustine  (1521;  facsimile,  1886). 

3  Hallam,  i  3s84. 

4  Prof.  Macalister's  Lecture  in  Lancet,  1904,  pp.  1005  f. 

5  Cp.  Einstein,  30 — 38;  Dugdale's  History  of  St  Paul's  (1658),  56. 


228  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XV  f 

of  England's  humanists.  Erasmus  has  declared  that  nothing  can 
be  more  acute,  more  profound,  or  more  refined  than  the  judge- 
ment of  Linacre1,  and  in  the  Encomium  Moriae  (1521)  has  drawn 
a  portrait  of  his  friend,  which  may  well  have  been  the  original  of 
Browning's  Grammarian'2': — 

'  Novi  quendam  tro\vTex"l)rarov  Graecum,  Latinum,  Mathematicum,  philo- 
sophum  medicum  Kal  TO.VTO.  /3a.<n\iK6v  jam  sexagenarium  qui,  caeteris  rebus 
omissis,  annis  plus  viginti  se  torquet  et  discruciat  in  Grammatica,  prorsus 
felicem  se  fore  ratus,  si  tamdiu  licet  vivere,  donee  certo  statuat,  quomodo 
distinguendae  sint  octo  partes  orationis,  quod  hactenus  nemo  Graecorum  aut 
Latinorum  ad  plenum  praestare  valuit.  Proinde  quasi  res  sit  bello  quoque 
vindicanda,  si  quis  conjunctionem  facial  dictionem  ad  adverbiorum  jus  per- 
tinentem  '3. 

Modern   English   Scholarship   begins    with   Linacre   and   his 
two  friends,  William  Grocyn  and  William  Latimer. 

Grocyn 

The  eldest  of  the  three  was  Grocyn  (c.  1446 — 1519), 
elected  Fellow  of  New  College  in  1467.  He  was  over  forty  when 
he  joined  Linacre  in  Italy,  where  he  and  Latimer  attended  the 
lectures  of  Politian  and  Chalcondyles  between  1488  and  1490. 
It  was  probably  not  until  his  return  from  Italy  in  1491,  that  the 
teaching  of  Greek  began  to  be  effective  in  Oxford.  In  1496 
he  left  for  London,  where  More  became  his  pupil.  Beyond  the 
tradition  of  his  teaching,  he  has  left  little  behind  him,  except  a 
letter  to  Aldus,  written  in  1499,  thanking  him  for  his  singular 
kindness  to  Linacre  who  had  just  returned  to  England,  and  con- 
gratulating him  on  his  publication  of  the  Greek  text  of  Aristotle4. 
William  Latimer  (c.  1460 — 1545),  Fellow  of  All  Souls'  in 

1489,  who  studied  at  Padua  (1498)  and  was  a  friend 

W.  Latimer 

of  Sir  Thomas  More,  was  even  less  productive  than 
Grocyn.  He  is  only  represented  in  literature  by  his  correspond- 
ence with  Erasmus,  who  playfully  refers  to  the  little  use  he  made 

1  p.  229  infra.  2  Dr  Payne,  I.e.,  p.  48. 

3  p.    251.     Life   (by  George   Lily)  in   Paulus  Jovius,    Descr.  Britanniae 
(Ven.  1548);   also  in  Bale  (Ipswich,  1548),  Leland's  Encomia  (1589);   and 
Dr   Noble  Johnson   (1835).      See   esp.    Dr   Payne's  In  trod.    (pp.    i — 48)   to 
Linacre's  Galen  (1881,  with  portrait  from  Windsor),  and  his  Harveian  Lecture 
on  Harvey  and  Galen  (1897),  7 — 14.     Another  portrait,  p.  224  supra. 

4  Printed  next  to  Preface  to  Linacre's  Prochts  in  the  Aldine  Astronomici 
Veteres  ;   cf.  Oxford  Collectanea,  ii  351,  and  Einstein,  30 — 35. 


CHAP.  XV.]      GROCYN.      LILY.      COLET.      MORE.  229 

of  his  learning  by  comparing  him  to  a  miser  hoarding  his  gold1. 
The  youngest  of  this  group  of  Greek  scholars  was 
William  Lily  (c.  1468 — 1522),  who  during  his  early 
pilgrimage   to  Jerusalem   studied  Greek  in  Rhodes,   underwent 
all  kinds  of  difficulties  and  privations,  while  working  in  Venice2, 
and  attended  the  lectures  of  Sulpitius  Verulanus  and  Pomponius 
Laetus  in  Rome.     He  was  chosen  by  John  Colet  to  be  the  first 
high-master  of  St  Paul's  (1512-22),  and  in  that  capacity  prepared, 
under  the  title  of  'Grammatices  Rudimenta',  a  short  Latin  Syntax, 
with   the   rules  in   English,  which   was  not  printed  until    1527. 
Colet  (c.  1467 — 1519),  after  studying  the  Platonic 
and    Neo-Platonic   philosophy   in    Latin   versions, 
spent  three  years  in  Italy  (1493-6),  during  which  he   acquired 
the  rudiments  of  Greek.     Among  his  favourite  modern  authors 
were  Ficino  and  Pico  della  Mirandola.     The  life  and  letters  of 
the  latter  were  specially  studied  by  Thomas  More 
(1478 — 1535)  about  15 io3.     More  himself  informs 
us  that  he  attended  Linacre's  lectures  on  Aristotle's  Meteorologica*, 
and   his    Utopia    (1516)    has    elements    derived   not   only  from 
St  Augustine's  De  Civitate  Dei  but  also  from  Plato's  Republic*. 
More   had   already  left  Oxford   to   read  law  in    London,   while 
Erasmus  was  spending  those  two  months  in  Oxford  (Oct.  Nov. 
1499),  when  he  first  met  Colet;  but  he  lighted  on  More  (as  well 
as  Grocyn  and  Linacre)  during  a  visit  to  London,  and  in  Decem- 
ber, 1499,  wrote  from  London  to  an  English  friend  in  Italy  : — 

'  I  have  found  in  England... so  much  learning  and  culture,  and  that  of  no 
common  kind,  but  recondite,  exact  and  ancient,  Latin  and  Greek,  that  I  now 
hardly  want  to  go  to  Italy,  except  to  see  it.  When  I  listen  to  my  friend  Colet, 
I  can  fancy  I  am  listening  to  Plato  himself.  Who  can  fail  to  admire  Grocyn, 
with  all  his  encyclopaedic  erudition  ?  Can  anything  be  more  acute,  more 
profound,  more  refined,  than  the  judgement  of  Linacre?  Has  nature  ever 
moulded  anything  gentler,  pleasanter,  or  happier,  than  the  mind  of  Thomas 
More?'6 

1  Rp.  363.  2  Sir  George  Young,  Gk  Literature  in  England,  69. 

3  More's  Picus  Erie  of  Alyrandula  has  been  reprinted,  ed.  J.   M.   Rigg 
(1890).      More  may  have  been  born  in  1477  (P.  S.  Allen,  Erasmi  Epp.  i  265). 

4  Letter  to  Dorpius,   21    Oct.    1515,  in  his  Lucubrationes  (1563),   416  f; 
Lnpton's  Introd.   to   Utopia,  p.  xix.     Cp.  p.  226  n.  3  supra. 

5  ib.  xlviii  f,  and  Index. 

6  Ep.  14  (no.  118,  ed.  P.  S.  Allen,  1906). 


230  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVI. 

It  was  to  a  daughter  of  More  that  Erasmus,  in  the  language  of 
a  modern  picture  of  The  Household  of  Sir  Thomas  More,  disclosed 
his  opinion  of  the  relative  value  of  Greek  and  Latin  : — 

'You  are  an  eloquent  Latinist,  Margaret1,  he  was  pleased  to  say,  'but,  if 
you  woulde  drink  deeplie  of  the  Wellsprings  of  Wisdom,  applie  to  Greek. 
The  Latins  have  onlie  shallow  Rivulets ;  the  Greeks,  copious  Rivers  running 
over  Sands  of  gold'1. 

During  the  short  time  spent  by  Erasmus  in  Cambridge  (Aug. 
1511 — Jan.  1514),  he  gave  unofficial  instruction  in  Greek,  be- 
ginning with  the  catechism  of  Chrysoloras,  and  going  on  to  the 
larger  grammar  of  Theodorus  Gaza2. 

When  in  1516  Bishop  Fox,  who  had  been  Master  of  Pem- 
broke College,  Cambridge,  founded  Corpus  Christi 
Oxford  and  College,  Oxford,  he  made  provision  for  lecturers 
who  were  to  give  instruction  in  the  Greek  and  Latin 
Classics.  This  was  the  first  permanent  establishment  of  a  teacher 
of  Greek  in  England.  But  the  teaching  of  Greek  aroused  in  1518 
the  opposition  of  a  party  of  students  who  called  themselves 
Trojans ;  and  a  preacher  in  Lent  went  so  far  as  to  denounce,  not 
only  Greek,  but  also  Latin  and  all  liberal  learning  whatsoever. 
Mo're,  who  was  then  in  attendance  on  the  king  at  Abingdon, 
wrote  to  the  authorities  of  the  university  on  behalf  of  the  Gre- 
cians3; a  royal  letter  was  sent  commanding  that  all  students 
should  be  readily  permitted  to  study  Greek4 ;  and  in  the  same  year 
(1518)  a  lectureship  of  Greek  was  founded  by  Wolsey.  Erasmus, 
who  rejoices  in  recording  the  way  in  which  the  '  brawlers  were 
silenced'  at  Oxford,  observes  that,  meanwhile,  at  Cambridge, 
'  Greek  was  being  taught  without  disturbance  (tranquille),  as  its 
school  was  under  the  government  of  John  Fisher,  Bishop  of 
Rochester,  a  divine  not  only  in  learning  but  in  life  '5. 

Among   the   pupils   of  Erasmus   in   Cambridge   was    Henry 
Bullock,   Fellow  of   Queens'  (1506),   who   kept  Greek  alive  in 

1  [Miss  A.  Manning],  Household  of  Sir  Thomas  More,  p.  90,  ed.  Hutton, 
1906  ;  Erasmus,  quoted  on  p.  125  supra. 

2  Ep.  123  (no.  233,  ed.  P.  S.  Allen). 

3  Letter  in  Jortin's  Erasmus,  ii  662-7  ;  29  March,  1518. 

4  Erasmus,  Ep.  380  (22  April,  1519). 

8  ib.  (cp.  Mayor  on  Ascham's  Scholemaster,  245). 


CHAP.  XV.]      BULLOCK.      CROKE.      SMITH.      CHEKE.          23! 

Cambridge1,  till   it   was   taken   up   in   1518  by  Richard   Croke 
(c.    1489 — 1558),   the    minister    and    discipulus   of 
Grocyn    (probably   in    London).       Croke    became         crokeCk 
Scholar  of  King's,  and  afterwards  Fellow  of  St  John's. 
After  studying  at  Cambridge  in   1506-10,  he  worked  in   Paris2 
1511-2  under  Erasmus  and   Aleander,  and,  in    1515-7,   taught 
Greek  with   signal  success  at  Cologne,   Louvain,  and  Leipzig3, 
where  he  counted  Camerarius  among   his  pupils4.     After  eight 
years'  absence  abroad,  he  returned  from  Dresden  to  Cambridge 
in  1518,  and,  having  been  formally  appointed  Reader  in  Greek, 
delivered  two  orations  on  the  importance  and  utility  of  that  lan- 
guage (i52o)5.     Cambridge  was  the  first  university  in  the  British 
Isles  to  institute  the  office  of  Public  Orator  (1522),  and  Richard 
Croke,  the  first  holder  of  that  office,  was  specially  appointed  for 
life,  and  had  further  privileges,  quia  primus  invexit  literas  ad  nos 
graecas6.     As  Reader  in  Greek,  he  was  succeeded 
by  Thomas  Smith  of  Queens'  (1514 — 1577),  who     smith 
filled  that  position  from  1535  to  1540,  when  he  be- 
came Regius  Professor  of  Civil  Law,  the  Regius  Professorship  of 
Greek,   founded   in   this   year,    being   assigned   to 
John   Cheke  (1514-57),    'who   taught  Cambridge     Chekl°h 
and  king  Edward  Greek'.     He  was  then  Fellow  of 
St  John's,  and  afterwards  Public  Orator,  and  Provost  of  King's. 
Within  two  years  of  Cheke's  appointment  as  Professor,  we  find 
Roger  Ascham,  Fellow  of  St  John's,  writing  to  another  member 
of  the  same  society  on  the  flourishing  state  of  classical  studies  in 
Cambridge : — 

1  His  translation  of  Lucian  -irepl  duf/ddwv  (1521)  is  in  St  John's  College 
Library,  the  only  copy  in  Cambridge.     He  was  Vice-Chancellor  in  1524-5, 
and  died  in  1526. 

2  Erasmus,  Ep.  149  ;  no.  227  and  256,  P.  S.  Allen  ;  Nichols,  ii  22. 

3  Nichols,  ii  274,  533. 

4  Camerarius,    De    Eobano    ffesso,    '  ferebar    in    oculis,    quia    audiveram 
Ricardum   Crocum  Britannum,  qui   primus  putabatur  ita  docuisse  Graecam 
linguam  in  Germania,  ut  plane  perdisci  illam  posse — arbitrarentur'  (Mullinger's 
Cambridge,  i  527). 

5  Mullinger,  i  528 — 539. 

6  Statute   in  Heywood's  Doctintcnts,   1852,  i  433.     This  ignores  the  in- 
struction privately  given  by  Erasmus  in  October,  1511  (Ep.  233  Allen). 


232  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVI. 

For  some  five  years,  Aristotle  and  Plato  had  been  studied  at  St  John's ; 
Sophocles  and  Euripides  were  more  familiar  than  Plautus  had  been  twelve 
years  before  ;  Herodotus,  Thucydides,  and  Xenophon  were  more  '  conned  and 
discussed '  than  Livy  was  then  ;  Demosthenes  was  as  well  known  as  Cicero ; 
Isocrates  as  Terence ;  '  it  is  Cheke's  labours  and  example  that  have  lighted 
up  and  continue  to  sustain  this  learned  ardour'1. 

About  1535,  Thomas'  Smith  and  John  Cheke,  then  young  men 
of  little  more  than  twenty,  had  been  attracted  to 
numfiatiorj0"  the  question  of  the  pronunciation  of  Greek,  and, 
after  studying  the  Dialogue  of  Erasmus  on  that  sub- 
ject (1528),  and  the  treatise  of  Terentianus,  De  Litteris  et  Syllabis, 
they  had  come  to  the  conclusion  that  a  reform  was  necessary. 
This  reform,  which  was  none  other  than  the  adoption  of  the 
'Erasmian'  method,  was  cautiously  introduced  by  Smith,  whose 
example  was  followed  by  Cheke  and  Ascham.  In  December,  1536, 
the  Plutus  was  acted  in  St  John's  with  the  Erasmian  pronunciation. 
The  reform  was  opposed,  and  the  question  brought  to  the  notice 
of  Stephen  Gardiner,  bishop  of  Winchester,  then  Chancellor  of 
the  university.  In  1542  Gardiner,  after  writing  to  Cheke,  decreed 
an  immediate  return  to  the  '  Reuchlinian '  pronunciation.  The 
effect  is  described  as  most  disheartening.  Ascham  complains 
that  'all  sounds  in  Greek  are  now  exactly  the  same,  reduced, 
that  is  to  say,  to  a  like  thin  and  slender  character,  and  subjected 
to  the  authority  of  a  single  letter,  the  iota ;  so  that  all  one  can 
hear  is  a  feeble  piping  like  that  of  sparrows,  or  an  unpleasant 
hissing  like  that  of  snakes'2.  Then  followed  a  protracted  corre- 
spondence between  Cheke  and  Gardiner3.  Compliance  with  the 

1  Epp.  p.  74  (Mayor's  ed.  of  The  Scholemaster,  257;  Mullinger,  ii  52  f. 
Cp.  Toxophilus,  p.  77  Arber).      Portrait  in  H.  Holland's  Heroologia  (1620), 
p.  52,  and  in  Strype's  Life,  ed.  1705. 

2  Epp.  p.  75  (Mullinger,  ii  60).     Ascham  found  the  '  Erasmian  '  pronuncia- 
tion in  use  at  Louvain  in  1551  (Works,  355).     Cp.  Strype's  Life  of  Sir  John 
Cheke,  17 — 19  (ed.  1705),  and  of  Sir  Thomas  Smith,  29 — 34  (ed.  1698) ;   also 
Sir  George  Young,  Greek  Literature  in  England  (1862),  85 — 94. 

3  Joannis  Cheki...de  pronuntiatione  Graecae  potissimum  linguae  (Basileae, 
1555),  reprinted,  with  other  treatises  on  the  same  subject,  in  S.  Havercamp's 
Sylloge,  2  vols.,  Leyden,  1736.     The  force  of  many  of  Gardiner's  arguments  is 
noticed  by  Munro  in  my  copy  of  this  work.     '  The  Erasmian  pronunciation  of 
the  vowels  was  the  same  as  that  already  in  use  in   France,   and  with  the 
exception  of  u,  with  that  used  in   Italy  and  Germany';   the  English  pro- 


CHAP.  XV.]      GREEK   AND   LATIN    PRONUNCIATION.          233 

decree  was  neglected  for  a  time ;  it  was  rigorously  enforced  in 
1554  ;  but,  on  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  in  1558,  the  '  Erasmian  ' 
pronunciation  came  into  general  use  in  England.  It  was  subse- 
quently adopted  abroad,  being  accepted  by  Henry  Stephens'  and 
Beza,  and  by  Ramus  and  Lambinus2. 

It  has  not  been  generally  noticed  that  Gardiner's  edict  of 
May,  1542,  was  directed  against  any  change  in  the 
customary  method  of  pronouncing  Greek  or  Latin3.  nunci*t\on~ 
Early  in  the  i6th  century  it  was  assumed  in  England 
that  the  Italian  method  of  pronouncing  the  Latin  vowels  was 
right.  Erasmus4  describes  the  Italians  as  recognising  the  English 
pronunciation  of  Latin  as  being  the  next  best  to  their  own.  Even 
as  late  as  1542  the  vowels  were  still  pronounced  at  Cambridge 
in  the  Italian  manner5.  But  the  Reformation  made  it  no  longer 
necessary  for  the  clergy  to  use  the  common  language  of  the 
Roman  Church ;  and,  partly  to  save  trouble  to  teachers  and 
learners,  Latin  was  gradually  mispronounced  as  English.  The 
mischief  probably  began  in  the  grammar  schools,  and  then  spread 
to  the  universities.  Coryat,  who  visited  Italy  and  other  parts 
of  Europe  in  1608,  found  England  completely  isolated  in  its 
pronunciation  of  long  /. 

'  Whereas  in  my  travels  I  discoursed  in  Latin  with  Frenchmen,  Germans, 
Spaniards,  Danes,  Polonians,  Suecians,  and  divers  others,  I  observed  that 
everyone,  with  whom  I  had  any  conference,  pronounced  the  i  after  the  manner 
that  the  Italians  use... Whereupon  having  observed  such  a  generall  consent 
amongst  them  in  the  pronunciation  of  this  letter,  I  have  thought  good  to 

nunciation  of  the  Greek  vowels  was  (and  is)  the  same  as  that  of  the  English 
vowels  (W.  G.  Clark  m.  Journal  of  Philology,  i  (2)  98 — 108). 

1  Afologeticum  (1580).  2  Mullinger,  ii  54 — 64. 

,3  The  question  referred  to  the  Chancellor  is:  'quid  in  literamm  sonis  ac 
linguae  turn  Graecae  turn  Latinae  pronuntiatione  spectandum,  sequendum, 
tenendum  sit ' ;  and  the  Chancellor's  decision  is :  'quisquis  nostram  potestatem 
agnoscis,  sonos  literis  siue  Graecis  siue  Latinis  ab  usu  publico  praesentis  saeculi 
alienos,  priuato  iudicio  affingere  ne  audeto':  Cheke,  De pronuntiatione  (1555), 
p.  1 8.  Cp.  Cooper's  Annals,  i  401-3. 

4  1528.     De  Pronuntiatione,  234,  ed.  1643. 

5  Thomas    Smith,  DC  rectd  et  emendala  linguae   Graecae  pronuntiatione 
(12  Aug.    1542),  Paris,  1568,  p.  14%  '  voces. ..quas  nos  Angli  Concordes  cum 
Italis  producebamus ' ;  but  the  English  pronunciation  was  already,  in  certain 
points,  different  from  the  Italian  and  the  French  (ib.  3  f ). 


234  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVI. 

imitate  these  nations  herein,  and  to  abandon  my  English  pronunciation  of 
vita... and  amicus,  as  being  utterly  dissonant  from  the  sound  of  all  other 
Nations ;  and  have  determined  (God  willing)  to  retayne  the  same  till  -my 
dying  day'1. 

At  Leyden,  in  1608,  Scaliger  received  a  visit  from  an  unnamed 
English  scholar,  and,  after  listening  to  his  '  Latin '  for  a  full 
quarter  of  an  hour,  and  finding  it  as  unintelligible  as  Turkish, 
was  compelled  to  bring  the  interview  to  a  close  by  apologising,  in 
perfect  good- faith,  for  his  inadequate  knowledge  of  English2. 
Coryat  visited  Leyden  in  the  same  year,  but  he  does  not  profess 
to  have  called  on  any  other  scholar  than  Vulcanius. 

The  isolation  of  England  had  doubtless  extended  still  further 
by  the  time  of  Milton,  who  holds  that  '  to  smatter  Latin  with  an 
English  mouth,  is  as  ill  a  hearing  as  Law-French',  and  recom- 
mends that  the  speech  of  boys  should  '  be  fashion'd  to  a  distinct 
and  clear  pronuntiation  as  near  as  may  be  to  the  Italian, 
especially  in  the  vowels'3  (1644). 

The  flourishing  state  of  Greek  studies  in  Cambridge  has  been 
attested4  by  Roger  Ascham  (1515 — 1568),  who  was 
Fellow  and  Greek  reader  at  St  John's  and  Public 
Orator  (1546-54).  He  was  private  tutor  to  Elizabeth  as  princess 
in  1548,  and  as  queen  ten  years  later,  and  between  these  dates 
he  was  a  Secretary  of  Embassy  under  Edward  VI,  and  Latin 
Secretary  to  queen  Mary  in  1553.  On  the  accession  of  that 
queen,  he  wrote  in  the  space  of  three  days  no  less  than  47  different 
Latin  letters  to  the  principal  personages  of  Europe,  not  one  of  whom 
was  below  the  rank  of  a  Cardinal5.  In  1550,  on  visiting  Bradgate 
Park  in  Leicestershire,  to  take  leave  of  Lady  Jane  Grey  before 
he  went  to  Germany,  he  found  her  in  her  chamber  reading  the 

1  Coryat's  Crudities  (1611),  ii  157  f,  ed.   1776.     At  Venice  he  conversed 
with  a  'Jewish  Rabbin,  that  spake  good  Latin'  (i  301);  and  with  a  Greek 
Archbishop,  whose  '  pronunciation  was  so  plausible,  that  any  man  which  was 
skillfull  in  the  Greeke  tongue,  might  easily  understand  him '  (i  295). 

2  Ep.  iv  no.  362,  p.  700,  ed.  1627. 

3  Of  Education,  in  Prose  Works,  ii  384  f,  ed.  Mitford.     Cp.  W.  G.  Clark, 
in  Journal  of  Philology,  i  (2)  103. 

4  p.  232  supra. 

5  E.  Grant,  De  Vitd,  p.  22  in  Epp.  ed.  1703. 


CHAP.  XV.]  ASCHAM.  235 

Phaedo   of  Plato,  and   regarding  all  the  sport  in   the   Park   as 
'  but  a  shadow'  to  the  pleasure  that  she  found  in  Plato1. 

In  the  course  of  his  Scholemaster  the  Latin  books  that  he  recommends  are 
the  Letters  and  Speeches  of  Cicero,  with  Terence,  Plautus,  Caesar,  and  Livy. 
He  also  maintains  that  the  best  method  of  learning  Latin  is  that  of  translation 
and  retranslation,  which  was  followed  by  Cicero  in  the  case  of  Greek  and 
commended  by  the  younger  Pliny,  while  the  method  of  paraphrase,  rejected 
by  both,  was  approved  by  Quintilian.  It  had,  however,  injured  the  style  of 
Melanchthon  and  was  discountenanced  by  Sturm.  Again,  'Metaphrasis',  or 
turning  Latin  verse  into  prose,  or  prose  into  verse,  was  approved  by  Quintilian, 
but  disallowed  by  Cicero,  with  whom  Ascham  agreed.  Epitomising  was 
useful  to  the  compiler  himself,  but  harmful  to  others.  He  also  touches  on 
dramatic  imitation,  discusses  the  choice  of  models  and  of  means  and  instru- 
ments of  literary  imitation  in  general,  briefly  reviewing  the  ancient  and  modern 
authorities  on  the  subject ;  and,  after  an  interesting  digression  on  the  state  of 
learning  in  Cambridge,  ends  by  setting  forth  the  rules  for  the  imitation  of 
Latin  authors  that  had  been  laid  down  by  Cheke,  including  a  full  account  of 
his  admirable  criticism  on  Sallust,  with  his  '  uncontented  care  to  write  better 
than  he  could'2.  The  sections  on  declamation,  and  on  the  imitation  of  Cicero, 
are  missing,  as  the  work,  which  was  published  in  1570,  had  been  left  incom- 
plete at  its  author's  death. 

Ascham's  definition  of  Plato's  ev^uifs3,  founded  mainly  on  a 
passage  of  Plutarch's  Moralia*,  is,  in  a  certain  sense,  the  source  of 
the  Euphues  of  John  Lyly  (1579  f ) ;  but  there  is  a  vast  difference 
between  the  plain  and  strong  style  of  Ascham,  and  the  elaborately 
antithetical  and  affectedly  sententious  manner  of  Lyly,  who,  so 
far  from  appealing  to  the  same  circle  as  the  Scholemaster^  has 
himself  assured  us  that  '  Euphues  had  rather  lye  shut  in  a  Ladyes 
casket,  then  open  in  a  Schollers  studie'5.  In  opposing  the  opinion 
of  the  bishop,  who  said,  '  we  have  no  nede  now  of  the  Greeke 
tong,  when  all  things  be  translated  into  Latin',  x\scham  urges 
that  'even  the  best  translation  is... but  an  evill  imped  wing  to 
flie  withall,  or  a  hevie  stompe  leg  of  wood  to  go  withall'6. 

While  travelling  abroad,  he  looked  back  on  Cambridge  as 
a  place  to  be  preferred  to  Louvain7,  and  he  failed  to  admire  a 
Greek  lecture  on  the  Ethics  at  Cologne8.  He  spent  several 

1  Scholemaster,  33,  213,  ed.  Mayor. 

2  p.  192  ;  cp.  Saintsbury,  ii  152. 

3  Scholemaster,  p.  21  Mayor.  4  81  D.  5  p.  220  Arber. 
6  p.  151.                                                   7  pp.  62,  220,  258. 

8  EPP-  PP-  230,  233. 


236  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVI. 

years  at  Augsburg,  where  he  frequently  met  Hieronymus  Wolf. 
During  nine  days  in  Venice,  he  saw  '  more  liberty  to  sin '  than 
he  ever  heard  tell  of  in  nine  years  in  London2;  he  knows 
many  whom  'all  the  Siren  songs  of  Italy  could  never  untwine 
from  the  mast  of  God's  word'3;  but  he  holds  that,  for  young 
men,  travelling  in  Italy  is  morally  dangerous4.  Next  to  Greek 
and  Latin  he  'likes  and  loves'  the  Italian  tongue5,  but  he 
maintains  that  to  read  and  to  obey  the  precepts  of  Castiglione's 
Cortegiano  for  one  year  would  do  a  young  man  more  good  than 
three  years  spent  in  Italy6.  'Time  was,  when  Italy  and  Rome 
have  been... the  best  breeders  and  bringers  up  of  the  worthiest 
men... but  now  that  time  is  gone'7.  Clearly,  in  Ascham's  opinion, 
the  age  in  which  Italy  had  exercised  a  healthy  influence  on  the 
Revival  of  Learning  in  England  was  already  over.  His  place 
in  the  History  of  Scholarship  cannot  be  better  summed  up  than 
in  the  language  of  Fuller  : — '  Ascham  came  to  Cambridge  just  at 
the  dawning  of  learning,  and  staid  therein  till  the  bright-day 
thereof,  his  own  endeavours  contributing  much  light  thereunto'8. 
The  year  of  the  publication  of  the  Scholemaster  was  also  that 
of  the  appearance  of  the  earliest  English  translation 
°f  Demosthenes.  In  the  dedication  of  a  version  of 
the  Three  Olynthiacs  (1570)  the  translator,  Thomas 
Wilson,  of  Eton  and  King's,  and  LL.D.  of  Ferrara  (c.  1525 — 1581), 
dwells  on  Sir  John  Cheke's  masterly  renderings  of  the  orator, 
and  recalls  the  days  they  spent  together  '  in  that  famous  Universitie 

1  Katterfeld,  Roger  Ascham,  141.  2  p.  87. 

3  Scholemaster,  p.  73.  4  pp.  68,  83. 

5  p.  69.  6  p.  61.  7  p.  69. 

8  Fuller's  Worthies  (1662)  in  Yorkshire,  209.  See,  in  general,  the  edd. 
of  the  Scholemaster  by  Mayor  and  Arber ;  also  Katterfeld's  Roger  Ascham 
(Strassburg,  1879),  anc^  Quick's  Educational  Reformers,  23  f.  The  only 
portrait  is  in  the  frontispiece  of  Elstob's  ed.  of  the  Epistolae  (1703)  where 
Ascham  is  presenting  an  address  to  Queen  Elizabeth.  In  the  margin  are 
10  medallions,  including  Sir  Thomas  Smith,  Sir  John  Cheke,  and  Sturm,  all 
of  them  excellent  portraits.  But  Ascham's  profile  is  in  the  shade  and  his 
features  cannot  be  clearly  distinguished ;  there  was  obviously  no  authentic 
portrait  for  the  engraver  to  follow.  A  profile  portrait  carved  in  wood,  and 
evidently  founded  on  this  engraving,  was  presented  to  the  Library  of  St  John's 
College  about  1900.  It  was  formerly  in  a  private  library  in  Southampton. 
The  English  works  of  Ascham  have  been  edited  by  Mr  Aldis  Wright  (1904). 


CHAP.  XV.J   SIR  THOMAS  WILSON.      GABRIEL  HARVEY.     237 

of  Padua',  and  the  '  care  that  he  had  over  all  the  Englishe  men 
there,  to  go  to  their  bokes".  In  his  Art  of  Rhetoric  (1553),  which 
shows  a  keen  interest  in  style,  he  protests  against  '  strange  inkhorn 
terms'  and  all  undue  '  Latining  of  the  English  language'2. 

One  of  the  crazes  of  his  contemporaries  was  the  introduction 
of  classical  metres  into  English  poetry.     Homer's 
description  of  Odysseus  is  regarded  by  Ascham3  as        metres103 
translated  '  both  plainly  for  the  sense  and  roundly 
for  the  verse '  in  an  excruciating  couplet  by  Thomas  Watson, 
bishop  of  Lincoln,  of  which  William  Webbe  actually  says  that, 
'for  the  sweetness  and  gallantness  thereof,  it  'doth  match  and 
surpass  the  Latin  copy  of  Horace'4 : 

'  All  travellers  do  gladly  report  great  praise  of  Ulysses, 
For  that  he  knew  many  men's  manners,  and  saw  many  cities'. 

Chapman,  in  one  of  his  earliest  poems,  says  the  last  word  on 
the  newly-imported  English  hexameter  : — 

'  Sweet  Poesy 

Will  not  be  clad  in  her  supremacy 
With  those  strange  garlands,  Rome's  hexameters, 
As  she  is  English;  but  in  right  prefers 
Our  native  robes,  put  on  with  skilful  hands, 
English  heroics,  to  those  antic  garlands'5. 

The  adoption  of  such  metres  had  been  pressed  upon  Edmuud 
Spenser6  by   that   eccentric   genius,   Gabriel    Har- 
vey (1550-1  — 1630)    Of  Christ's    College,   Fellow   of          Harvey6 

Pembroke,  who  may  here   be   briefly    mentioned, 
not  only  by  reason  of  his  claim  to  be  the  father  of  the  English 
hexameter,  but  also  as  the  author  of  the  '  Oratio  post  Reditum ', 
which  he  published  under  the  title  of  Ciceronianus  (1577).     We 
are  here  concerned  solely  with  that  part  of  the  discourse  which 

1  Cp.  Arber's  Introd,  to  the  Scholemaster,  6  f. 

2  Cp.   Saintsbury,    ii    i+gf  and   Gregory   Smith's    Elizabethan   Essayists, 
index,  s.v.  Inkhorn. 

3  Scholeniaster,  p.  71  Mayor. 

4  Of  English  Poetry  (1586),  p.  72  Arber. 

5  Shadow  of  Night,  86 — 91  (Gregory  Smith,  I.e.,  I  liv,  and  Camb.  Mod. 
Hist,  iii  369). 

8  Cp.  Einstein,  357. 


238  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVI. 

shows  how  deeply  the  author  was  influenced  by  scholars  abroad. 
He  confesses  that  he  had  formerly  followed  the  strict  Ciceronians, 
such  as  Bembo,  Sadoleto  and  Nizolius,  had  disapproved  of 
Erasmus,  and  had  sided  with  Cortesius  against  Politian.  But  he 
had  since  lighted  on  the  Ciceronianus  of  Joannes  Sambucus  (1531— 
84) 1.  From  Sambucus  he  had  been  led  to  the  Ciceronianus  of 
Ramus  (1557),  and  the  corresponding  works  of  Freigius  (1575) 
and  Sturm  (15 74)2.  These  had  sent  him  back  to  the  study 
of  the  old  Latin  Classics,  and  he  had  thus  learnt  to  appreciate 
other  models  besides  Cicero3.  'Let  every  man',  he  said,  'learn 
to  be,  not  a  Roman,  but  himself.  In  the  margin  of  his  Quintilian 
in  the  British  Museum  he  writes  that  '  Mr  Ascham,  in  his  fine 
discourse  of  Imitation,  is  somewhat  too  precise  and  scrupulous 
for  Tully  only,  in  all  points'4. 

The  History  of  Scholarship  in  England  has  necessarily  some  points  of  contact 
with  that  of  its  principal  educational  institutions,  the  dates  of 
which  may  here  be  briefly  noted.  In  the  year  1300  only  three 
Colleges  were  in  existence  in  Oxford,  University,  Balliol,  and  Merton,  and 
only  one  in  Cambridge,  Peterhouse  (1284).  In  the  fourteenth  century,  during 
the  life  of  Petrarch,  three  were  founded  at  Oxford,  Exeter,  Oriel,  and  Queen's, 
and  five  at  Cambridge,  Clare,  Pembroke,  Gonville  Hall,  Trinity  Hall,  and 
Corpus  Christi  College.  The  next  foundation  at  Oxford  was  New  College 
(1386),  in  intimate  connexion  with  Winchester  (1387),  and  the  next  at  Cam- 
bridge was  King's  (1441)  in  similar  relation  to  Eton  (1441).  In  the  fifteenth 
century,  Oxford  saw  the  foundation  of  three  Colleges:  Lincoln  (1427),  All  Souls' 
(1437),  and  Magdalen  (1458);  and  Cambridge  also  of  three,  Queens',  St  Cath- 
arine's, and  Jesus  (1496).  It  is  not  until  the  sixteenth  century  that  we  can 
trace  the  influence  of  the  Revival  of  Learning  in  the  foundation  of  Brasenose 
(1509),  Corpus  (1516),  Christ  Church  (1525),  Trinity  and  St  John's  (1554-5) 
at  Oxford;  and  of  Christ's  (1505),  St  John's  (1511),  Magdalene  (1542),  and 
Trinity  (1546)  at  Cambridge.  In  1558  Gonville  Hall  was  endowed  anew, 
as  Caius  College,  by  Dr  John  Caius  (1510-73),  who,  between  1539  an<^  !544> 

1  De  Imitalione  Ciceroniana  IV  dialogi,  Par.  1561. 

2  De  Imitatione  Oratorio,. 

3  Ciceronianus  (ed.  1577),  18 — 47. 

4  H.  Morley's  Hobbinol^  in  Grosart's  Introd.  to  Gabriel  Harvey,  I  xviii. 
Cp.   Mayor  on  Ascham's  Stholemaster,  241,  272.     Harvey's  favourite  Latin 
phrases  are  ridiculed  in  Pedantiiis,  a  play  which  was  performed  in  Trinity 
College  in  February,  1581,  and  probably  contributed  to  his  being  defeated  in 
his  candidature  for  the  office  of  Public  Orator  in  March  (G.  C.  Moore-Smith's 
ed.,  Louvain,  1905,  xxxii-xxxviii). 


CHAP.  XV.]  COLLEGES   AND   SCHOOLS.  239 

had  studied  at  Padua  and  lectured  there  on  Aristotle,  and  had  collated  MSS  of 
Galen  in  Italy,  and  who  permitted  the  medical  fellows  on  his  foundation  to 
study  abroad  either  at  Padua  or  Bologna,  or  at  Paris  or  Montpellier1.  In  the 
same  century  we  have  the  distinctly  post-Reformation  Colleges  of  Jesus 
College,  Oxford  (1571),  and  of  Emmanuel  (1584)  and  Sidney,  Cambridge 
(1596).  The  only  Colleges  that  have  since  been  founded  are,  at  Oxford, 
Wadham  and  Pembroke  (1612—24),  and  Worcester  (1714),  with  Keble  (1870) 
and  Hertford  (1874);  and,  at  Cambridge,  Downing  (1800)  and  Selwyn  (1882). 
The  founder  of  Exeter  College  (1314)  had  established  a  School  at  Exeter 
in  connexion  with  his  College  at  Oxford,  thus  anticipating  the 
principle  carried  out  in  the  splendid  foundations  of  Winchester 
(1387)  and  Eton  (1441).  The  first  English  School  that  came  into  being  under 
the  immediate  influence  of  the  Revival  of  Learning  was  that  of  St  Paul's  in 
London,  founded  in  1510  by  dean  Colet,  the  friend  of  Erasmus;  the  first 
high-master  was  one  of  the  earliest  students  of  Greek  in  England ;  by  the 
Statutes,  the  holder  of  that  office  was  required  to  be  'learned  in  good  and 
clean  Latin2,  and  also  in  Greek,  if  such  may  be  gotten\  and  this  requirement 
is  copied  in  the  Statutes  of  Merchant  Taylors  School  (1561).  By  the  ordinances 
of  Shrewsbury  School  (f.  1551),  made  in  the  time  of  the  first  Master,  Thomas 
Ashton  (1562-8),  the  Master  and  the  Second  Master  must  be  'well  able  to 
make  a  latten  vearse  and  learned  in  the  greke  tongue ',  while  the  books  pre- 
scribed in  Greek  are  the  Grammar  of  Cleonardus,  the  New  Testament, 
Isocrates  ad  Demomcum,  and  Xenophon's  Cyropaedeia*.  Archbishop  Sandys 
directs  the  Master  of  his  School  at  Hawkshead  (1588)  to  'teach  Grammar, 
and  the  pryncyples  of  the  Greeke  tongue  '4;  and  the  text-books  mentioned  by 
John  Lyon,  the  founder  of  Harrow  (1590),  include  some  Greek  orators  and 
historians,  as  well  as  Hesiod.  Greek  text-books  were  prepared  for  the  use  of 
Westminster  School  in  1575  and  1581,  and  the  influence  of  the  Revival  of 
Learning  extended  to  many  other  schools  such  as  Christ's  Hospital  (1552), 
Repton  (1557),  Rugby  (1567),  and  the  numerous  Grammar  Schools5. 

The  Revival  of  Learning  in  England  led  to  the  production 
of  many  English  renderings  of  the  Classics.     The 

r   T^      •    •  i    i        /-.  Translations 

Phoenissae  of  Euripides  was  translated  by  George 

Gascoigne,  of  Trinity,  Cambridge,  and  Francis  Kinwelmersh,  both 

students  of  Gray's  Inn  (i556)6.     The  ten  Tragedies  of  Seneca 

1  Statute  54  (Hey wood's  Documents,  ii  276). 

2  Cicero,  Sallust,  Virgil,  and  Terence  are  mentioned  in  the  Statute,  which 
also  required  the  teaching  of  Lactantius,  Prudentius,  Proba,  Sedulius,  Juvencus, 
and  Baptista  Mantuanus  (Lupton's  Life  of  Colet,  279). 

3  Baker-Mayor,  Hist,  of  St  John's  Coll.  409 — 413. 

4  Complete  text  of  Statutes  in  H.  S.  Cowper's  Hawkshead,  1889,  472  f. 

5  Cp.  A.  F.  Leach,  English  Schools  at  the  Reformation,  1546-8  (1896),  5  f. 

6  Warton's  History  of  English  Poetry,  §57  init.      Gascoigne's  translation 
was  made  from  the  Italian  rendering  by  Dolce  (Einstein,  359). 


240  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVI. 

were  paraphrased  by  various  hands'  and  published  in  a  collected 
edition  (1581),  of  which  Thomas  Nash  has  said  in  his  General 
Censure  (1589): — 'English  Seneca  read  by  candle  light  yields  many 
good  sentences...,  and... he  will  afford  you  whole  Hamlets,  I 
should  say  handfulls  of  tragical  speeches'2.  Thomas  Phaer,  the 
lawyer,  who  was  also  an  M.  D.  of  Oxford,  had  translated  little  more 
than  nine  books  of  the  Aeneid  before  his  death  in  1560 ;  the  task 
was  completed  by  Thomas  Twyne,  of  Corpus  Christi,  Oxford,  in 
1573.  Phaer,  who  began  his  work  with  a  view  to  proving  that 
the  English  language  was  not  incapable  of  elegance  and  propriety, 
claims  to  be  a  pioneer: — 'By  mee  first  this  gate  is  set  open'. 
His  metre  is  the  Alexandrine  line  of  seven  feet: — e.g. 

'  Lo  !  there  againe  where  Pallas  sits,  on  fortes  and  castle-towres, 
With  Gorgons  eyes,  in  lightning  cloudes  inclosed  grim  she  lowres'. 

Webbe  cites  several  passages  from  Phaer  to  prove  the  'meetnesse 
of  our  speeche  to  receive  the  best  forme  of  Poetry',  and  the  'gal- 
lant grace  which  our  Englishe  speeche  affoordeth'3.  The  first  four 
books  of  the  Aeneid  were  rendered  in  rude  but  sometimes  vigorous 
hexameters  by  Richard  Stanyhurst  of  University  College,  Oxford 
(i582)4.  The  translation  of  Virgil  was  completed  by  Abraham 
Flemming  of  Peterhouse,  in  his  bald  and  literal  rendering  of  the 
Eclogues  and  Georgics  (1575,  1589).  Virgil's  Culex  was  paraphrased 
by  Spenser  (1591).  Ovid's  Metamorphoses  was  rendered  in  a 
spirited  and  poetic  manner  by  Arthur  Golding  (1565-7),  in  the 
same  metre  as  Phaer's  Aeneid: — e.g. 

'  The  princely  pallace  of  the  Sun,  stood  gorgeous  to  behold, 
On  stately  pillars  builded  high,  of  yellow  burnisht  gold'5  (Lib.  ii). 

He  is  commended  by  Webbe  for  'beautifying  the  English  lan- 
guage'6, and  his  version  was  well  known  to  Shakespeare.  It  was 

1  Jasper  Hey  wood's   Troades,  Thyestes,  Hercules  Furens;   Alex.  Nevyle's 
Oediptis ;  Trios.  Nuce's  Octavia  ;  John  Studley's  Medea,  Agamemnon  ;  Henry 
Denham's  Hippolytus ;  and  Thos.  Newton's  Thebais.     Warton,  §  57  ult. 

2  Ed.  Gregory  Smith,  in  Elizabethan  Critical  Essays,  i  312. 

3  pp.  46 — 51  Arber;  i  256 — 262  Gregory  Smith. 

4  Ed.  Arber  (1880).      Cp.  Gregory  Smith,  i  135—147;  and  the  vigorous 
onslaught  by  Nash,  ib.  315  f. 

8  New  ed.  1904. 
6  p.  51  Arber. 


CHAP.  XV.]  TRANSLATIONS.  241 

succeeded  (in  1621-6)  by  the  rather  unduly  literal  rendering  of 
George  Sandys,  of  St  Mary  Hall,  Oxford,  a  rendering  admired  by 
Dryden '.  Marlowe  of  Corpus  Christi,  Cambridge,  translated  part 
of  the  Hero  and Leander  of  Musaeus,  the  Amores  of  Ovid  (c.  1597), 
and  the  first  book  of  Lucan  ( 1 600).  Ovid's  Heroides  was  rendered 
by  Turberville  of  New  College,  Oxford  (1567) :  and  Horace's  Satires, 
Epistles,  and  Art  of  Poetry  by  Thomas  Drant,  of  St  John's, 
Cambridge  (i567)2.  Martial  fills  a  large  part  of  the  Epigrams 
translated  by  Timothy  Kendall  of  Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford  (1577). 
Christopher  Johnson,  Fellow  of  New  and  Head-Master  of 
Winchester,  translated  Homer's  Battle  of  the  Frogs  and  Mice  into 
Latin  hexameters  (1580);  and  Thomas  Watson,  possibly  of  Oxford, 
produced  a  Latin  version  of  the  Antigone  (1581),  and  of  the  'Rape 
of  Helen'  (1586),  a  poem  rendered  into  English  in  the  next  year 
by  Marlowe,  who  in  1598  paraphrased  part  of  the  Hero  and 
Leander  of  Musaeus,  a  work  completed  by  George  Chapman.  The 
earliest  English  translation  of  any  part  of  Homer  was  that  of 
Iliad  \ — x,  translated,  in  1581,  from  the  French  version  of  Hugues 
Salel  (1545),  by  a  turbulent  M.P.,  Arthur  Hall,  who  had  been 
encouraged  in  the  work  by  Roger  Ascham.  It  begins  thus  :  'I 
thee  beseech,  O  goddess  milde,  the  hatefull  hate  to  plaine'.  This 
was  entirely  superseded  by  the  splendid  work  of  George  Chapman 
(c.  1559 — 1634),  who  in  1611  completed  his  vigorous  rendering  of 
'the  Iliads  of  Homer,  Prince  of  Poets,  never  before  in  any  lan- 
guage truly  translated'.  This  was  followed  by  the  Odyssey  (1614), 
the  Battle  of  the  Frogs  and  Mice,  and  the  Hymns  (1624);  and,  at 
the  end  of  this  volume,  he  proudly  adds:  'The  work  is  done  that 
I  was  born  to  do'.  The  following  is  an  extract  from  his  translation 
of  Iliad  v: — 

'  From  his  bright  helme  and  shield  did  burne,  a  most  unwearied  fire, 
Like  rich  Autumnus'  golden  lamps,  whose  brightnesse  men  admire, 
Past  all  the  other  host  of  starres,  when  with  his  chearfull  face, 
Fresh-washt  in  loftie  ocean  waves,  he  doth  the  skie  enchase'. 

Chapman  has  enriched  the  language  with  a  long  array  of  compound 
epithets,  such  as  'silver-footed',   'high-walled',   'triple-feathered'. 

1  Hooper's  Introd.  to  George  Sandys'  Poetical  Works,  I  xxvii — xlii. 

2  Warton,  §  58. 

S.   II.  I  6 


242  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVI. 

Waller  could  never  read  his  rendering  of  the  Iliad  without  a  feeling 
of  transport,  and  Pope  appreciated  its  'daring  fiery  spirit'1.  It  was 
after  sitting  up  till  daylight  over  a  copy  of  the  fine  folio  edition 
that  Keats  wrote  the  celebrated  sonnet,  'On  first  looking  into 
Chapman's  Homer',  from  which  the  few  following  lines  are 
taken : — 

'  Oft  of  one  wide  expanse  had  I  been  told, 
That  deep-brow'd  Homer  raled  as  his  demesne: 
Yet  did  I  never  breathe  its  pure  serene 
Till  I  heard  Chapman  speak  out  loud  and  bold : 
Then  felt  I  like  some  watcher  of  the  skies 
When  a  new  planet  swims  into  his  ken '. 

But  Keats  (as  Matthew  Arnold  has  reminded  us)  'could  not  read 
the  original  and  therefore  could  not  really  judge  the  translation'. 
"Coleridge,  in  praising  Chapman's  version,  says  at  the  same  time, 
'It  will  give  you  small  idea  of  Homer'"2.  In  the  Preface  to  the 
Reader  (i598)3  Chapman  holds  that  'the  worth  of  a  skilful  trans- 
lator' is  to  adorn  his  version  'with  figures  and  formes  of  oration 
fitted  to  the  original'.  But,  while  it  is  a  mark  of  Homer's  style  to 
be  'plain  in  thought',  Chapman  introduces  'conceits'  of  his  own, 
that  are  not  fitted  to  the  original,  as  in  the  line: — 'When  sacred 
Troy  shall  shed  her  toitfrs,  for  tears  of  overthrow'1*.  And  yet 
Chapman  has  much  that  is  truly  Homeric:  'he  is  plain-spoken, 
fresh,  vigorous,  and,  to  a  certain  degree,  rapid'5. 

Arthur  Golding,  the  translator  of  Ovid,  was  also  the  translator 
of  Caesar  (1565),  Justin  (1574),  Seneca  De  Beneficiis  (1578),  and 
Pomponius  Mela  and  Solinus  (i587-9o)6.  Sir  Thomas  North 
(c.  1535 — c.  1601),  who  translated  Marcus  Aurelius  from  French 
and  Spanish  editions,  reproduced  Amyot's  French  rendering  of 
Plutarch's  Lives  in  a  version  published  in  1579,  which  is  celebrated 

1  Warton,  §  59. 

2  Matthew  Arnold,  On  Translating  Homer,  24;  cp.  25 — 30  (ed.  1896). 

3  Gregory  Smith,  ii  295  f. 

4  OTO.V  WOT  6\w\y"I\ios  Iptf  (Matthew  Arnold,  /.<-.,  89,  98). 

5  ib.  23.     Cp.  Saintsbury's  Elizabethan  Lit.  189  f. 

6  In  the  Caesar  (dedicated  to  Sir  William  Cecil),  nostris  militibus  cunc- 
tantibus  (iv  25)  is  expanded  into,  'when  our  men  staied  and  seined  to  make 
curtsy';  and  scaphas  and  speculatoria  navigia  (iv  26)  are  rendered  'cockbotes 
and  brigantines'. 


CHAP.  XV.]  LATIN   VERSE.      BUCHANAN.  243 

as  the  authority  followed  by  Shakespeare  in  Coriolanus,  Julius 
Caesar,  and  Antony  and  Cleopatra*.  A  still  wider  fame  was 
attained  by  Philemon  Holland  (1552—1637),  Fellow  of  Trinity, 
Cambridge,  and  ultimately  head-master  of  Coventry  School,  whose 
remarkable  industry  as  an  interpreter  of  the  Classics  earned  him 
the  title  of  'the  translator  general  in  his  age'2.  His  renderings 
included  the  whole  of  Livy  (i6oo)3,  Pliny  (1601),  the  Moralia  of 
Plutarch  (1603),  Suetonius  (1606),  Ammianus  Marcellinus  (1609) 
and  (after  an  interval  occupied  partly  by  his  translation  of  Cam- 
den's  Britannia),  the  Cyropaedia  of  Xenophon  (1632). 

The  example  of  Petrarch  and  his  successors,  as  writers  of 
Latin  verse,  was  followed  in  England.     Several  of 

•   •  Latin  Verse 

the  Latin  poets  of  Italy  visited  that  country,  and  the 
Zodiac  of  Life  by  Marcellus  Palingenius  (Venice,  c.  1531)  was 
highly  popular  in  its  English  dress.  The  eclogues  of  Baptista 
Mantuanus  (1448 — 1516),  the  'good  old  Mantuan'  of  Love's 
Labours  Lost*,  were  read  in  the  grammar-schools  of  Shakespeare's 
boyhood,  were  translated  by  Turberville  in  1567  and  imitated  in 
Spenser's  'Shepherd's  Calendar'  in  isS?5. 

Meanwhile,  Latin  scholarship  was  well  represented  in  Scotland 
by  a  humanist  who  was  born  before  Cheke  and 

Buchanan 

Ascham,  and  survived  them  both.  George  Buchanan 
(1506 — 1582)  studied  in  Paris  in  1520-2  and  at  St  Andrew's  in 
1524.  In  1526  he  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  taught  Grammar 
in  the  College  of  Ste  Barbe,  and  was  tutor  to  the  young  Earl  of 
Cassilis  in  1529-34".  In  1540-7  he  was  teaching  Latin  at  Bor- 
deaux, Paris,  and  Coimbra,  living  mainly  in  France,  Portugal,  and 
Italy,  until  his  return  to  Scotland  in  1559.  Apart  from  his  Latin 
poem  on  the  Sphere7,  his  Latin  epigrams  on  his  imaginary  loves, 


1  Cp.  Shakespeare's  Plutarch,  ed.  Skeat  (1875). 

2  Fuller's  Worthies,  iii  287  Nuttall. 

3  The  whole  of  this  translation  was  '  written  with  one  pen',  which  a  lady 
set  in  silver  and  preserved  as  a  curiosity. 

4  iv  2,  97  f. 

5  Cp.  Einstein,  346-8. 

6  It  was  to  the  Earl  of  Cassilis  that  Buchanan  dedicated  his  first  work,  his 
Latin  translation  (1533)  of  Linacre's  English  Rudinienta  Granunaticcs. 

7  1586  etc.;  Hallam,  ii  147  4. 

16 — 2 


Scotia,  fi  cUAt&m   hunc   a  eliclam  produce  it  all  arcton, 

Credo    cquid^m,   qdiitf  purcaluvre     poli . 
<J-  ex  > 

GEORGE  BUCHANAN. 
From  Boissard's  Icones,  in  iv  22  (Frankfurt,  1598). 


CHAP.  XV.]  BUCHANAN.  245 

his  Latin  plays1,  and  his  translation  of  the  Medea  and  Alcestis  in 
Latin  verse,  his  scholarship  is  best  represented  by  his  Latin  version 
of  the  Psalms  in  various  metres  (1566  etc.),  mainly  produced 
during  his  stay  in  Portugal.  One  of  the  most  elegant  is  his  ren- 
dering of  the  psalm  By  the  waters  of  Babylon,  which  begins  as 
follows : — 

'  Dum  procul  a  patria,  moesti  Babylonis  in  oris, 

Fluminis  ad  liquidas  forte  sedemus  aquas ; 
Ilia  animum  subiit  species  miseranda  Sionis, 

Et  nunquam  patrii  tecta  videnda  soli. 
Flevimus,  et  gemitus  luctantia  verba  repressit, 

Inque  sinus  liquids  decidit  imber  aquae. 
Muta  super  virides  pendebant  nablia  ramos, 

Et  salices  tacitas  sustinuere  lyras'2. 

The  following  is  the  first  half  of  the  poem  dedicating  the  work  to 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots : — 

'Nympha,  Caledonke  quse  nunc  feliciter  one 

Missa  per  innumeros  sceptra  tueris  avos; 
Quce  sortem  antevenis  meritis,  virtutibus  annos, 

Sexum  animis,  morum  nobilitate  genus  : 
Accipe  (sed  facilis)  cultu  donata  Latino 

Carmina,   fatidici  nobile  regis  opus'. 

Henry  and  Robert  Stephens  in  all  their  editions  describe  the 
translator  as  poetarum  nostri  saecnli  facile  princeps.  Scaliger  says 
of  him:  Buchananus  unus  est  in  tota  Europa,  omties  post  se  relin- 
quens  in  latina poesi* .  Even  in  his  lifetime  his  Latin  Psalms  were 
studied  in  the  schools  of  Germany;  they  remained  long  in  use  in 
the  schools  of  Scotland,  and  an  edition  was  even  set  to  music  in 
I5854.  Buchanan  has  not  merely  translated  the  Psalms  into  Latin 

1  His  Jepthes  (1554)  is  described  by  Ascham  (Sch.  169)  as  'able  to  abide 
the  true  touch  of  Aristotle's  precepts  and  Euripides'  examples'.     This  play 
and  John  the  Baptist  have  been  translated  into  English  verse  by  the  Rev.  A. 
Gordon  Mitchell. 

2  Cp.  Eglisham's  Duellum  Poeticitm  (London,  161  Sf),  and  the  criticisms 
on  the  same  by  Arthur  Johnston  (1619)  and  W.  Barclay  (1620);  also  Andrew 
Symson's  Octupla  (Edinb.  1696). 

3  Scaligerana  I.     Cp.  Blount's  Censura. 

4  P.    Hume    Brown's    Buchanan    (1890),    146  9.       Preceded    by    another 
musical  ed.,  Lyons,    1579. 


246  SCOTLAND.  [CENT.  xvi. 

verse :  he  has  endeavoured  to  clothe  them  in  the  form  and  texture 
of  lyrical  and  elegiac  Latin  poems.  Sir  Philip  Sidney  declares 
that  'the  tragedies  of  Buchanan  doe  justly  bring  forth  a  divine 
admiration'1.  'Buchanan'  (said  Dr  Johnson)  'was  a  very  fine 
poet'2,  'whose  name  has  as  fair  a  claim  to  immortality  as  can  be 
conferred  by  modern  Latinity';  he  'not  only  had  great  knowledge 
of  Latin,  but  was  a  great  poetical  genius'.  It  is  as  a  writer  of 
history  that  he  is  described  by  Dryden  as  'comparable  to  any  of 
the  moderns,  and  excelled  by  few  of  the  ancients'3.  His  Rerum 
Scoticarum  ffistoria,  a  folio  volume  in  twenty  books,  was  published 
in  the  year  of  his  death  (1583).  His  instincts  as  a  humanist 
prompted  him  to  select  Latin  as  the  language  of  this  work,  which 
was  read  with  interest  by  the  scholars  of  Europe  for  two  centuries. 
In  the  eighteenth  century  it  was  seriously  debated  whether  the 
historian's  model  was  Caesar  or  Livy  or  Sallust,  and  it  was  almost 
universally  agreed  that  he  had  surpassed  his  predecessors.  He 
is  now  remembered  mainly  for  his  compositions  in  Latin  verse. 
He  wrote  a  May-day  poem  that  was  a  joy  to  Wordsworth4,  a  poem 
closing  with  the  lines  in  which  that  day  is  hailed  as  the  image  of 
life's  early  prime  and  as  the  happy  omen  of  a  new  age : — 

'Salve  vetustae  vitae  imago, 
Et  specimen  venientis  aevi'5. 

1  Apology  for  Poetry,  67  ed.  Arber. 

2  Boswell's  Life,  i  376  Napier ;  cp.  iii  295. 

3  Hume  Brown,  3,  293^  327. 

4  Life  by  Chr.  Wordsworth,  ii  466  (CalenJae  Maiae,  translated  in  Hume 
Brown's  Buchanan,  177-9). 

5  On  Buchanan,  cp.  Bernays  on  Scaliger,  108  f ;  Henry  Morley,  English 
Writers,   viii   339 — 352;     Testimonia   in   Allibone's    Dictionary;    and    esp. 
P.  Hume  Brown,   George  Buchanan,  Humanist  and  Reformer  (1890);    also 
Life  by  D.  Macmillan  (1906),  and  Essay  by  T.  D.   Robb  ;  Lit.  Suppl.  to  The 
Times,  6  July,  1906;  C.  Whibley  in  Blackwood,  July,  1906.     The  portrait  on 
p.  244  is  reproduced  from  that  in  Boissard's  Icones  (15970,  which  has  been 
copied  in  the  bust  in  Greyfriars  Churchyard,  and  in  Hume  Brown's  frontis- 
piece.    For  another  portrait,  see  Bullart's  Acadhnie,  ii  351  (1682). 

Opera  omnia,  ed.  T.  Ruddiman  (Edinb.  1715);  for  the  best  bibliography 
of  Buchanan,  see  (Dr  David  Murray's)  Catalogue  of  the  Quatercentenary  Exhi- 
bition held  in  Glasgow  (1906)  including  list  of  13  portraits  in  oils,  with  more 
than  6  engravings;  reprinted  as  part  of  the  'Quatercentenary  Studies',  ed. 
G.  Neilson,  with  Robb's  Humanism  in  Buchanan  (1907).  See  also  St 
Andrews  Memorial,  ed.  D.  A.  Millar  (1907). 


CHAP.  XV.]  VOLUSENUS.      MELVILLE.  247 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  minor  'Scots  abroad'  was 
Florentius  Volusenus  (c.  1504-47),  who  was  edu- 
cated at  Aberdeen,  and  resided  in  Paris  (1528-35).       vSSwS 
When  he  called  on  Sadoleto,  bishop  of  Carpentras, 
he  so  completely  charmed  that  Ciceronian  scholar  by  his  exquisite 
Latinity,  that  he  was  at  once  appointed  principal  of  the  local 
school,  where  he  lectured  on  Latin  authors  for  ten  years  (1536- 
46).     The  humanist  and  the  Christian  alike  are  represented  in  his 
Ciceronian  dialogue,  De  Animi  Tranquillitate.     He  died  at  Vienne 
on   his   way  home   to  Scotland,    and  is  commemorated  in  the 
following  lines  by  Buchanan: — 

'  Hie  Musis  Volusene  jaces  carissime  ripam 

Ad  Rhodani,  terra  quam  procul  a  patria  ! 

Hoc  meruit  virtus  tua,  tellus  quae  foret  altrix 

Virtutum,  ut  cineres  conderet  ilia  tuos '  *. 

In  the  generation  next  to  that  of  Buchanan  we  have  Andrew 
Melville  (1545 — 1622),  who,  as  a  Latin   poet,  is 

Melville 

sometimes  ranked  second  to  Buchanan.  Among 
the  finest  of  his  hexameter  poems  is  that  on  the  Creation,  and 
the  paraphrase  of  the  Song  of  Moses2.  He  studied  under  Ramus 
in  Paris,  was  professor  at  Geneva  in  1568,  was  acquainted  with 
Scaliger,  and,  as  head  of  Glasgow  University  in  1574,  and  principal 
of  St  Mary's  College,  St  Andrews,  in  1579,  led  the  revolt  against 
the  mediaeval  method  of  studying  Aristotle3,  and  created  a  taste 
for  Greek  letters  in  Scotland4.  The  foundation  of  the  university 
of  Glasgow  had  been  sanctioned  in  1450  by  a  Bull  issued  by 
Nicolas  V,  but  the  study  of  Greek  was  not  introduced  into 
Scotland  until  1534,  when  John  Erskine  of  Dun  (1509 — 1591), 
on  returning  from  his  travels,  brought  with  him  Petrus  de 

1  P.  Hume  Brown's  Buchanan,  71 — 74. 

2  Delitiae,  ii  77,  84.     Cp.  Dr  McCrie's  Life  of  Andrew  Melville,  \  92-6. 

3  James    Melvill's   Diary,  48  f,    67,    123  f   (owing    to    Andrew   Melville's 
influence    at    St    Andrews,    they    '  perusit    Aristotle    in    his    awin    langage '). 
McCrie,  i  78,  258  f;   R.  S.  Rait,  on  'Andrew  Melville  and  the  Revolt  against 
Aristotle  in  Scotland,'  in  Eng.  Hist.  Rev.  1899,  250 — 260. 

4  Latin  Poems  in  Delitiae,  ii  67 — 137  ;  an  epigram  of  six  lines  led  to  his 
being  imprisoned  for  nearly  four  years  in  the  Tower  of  London   (1607-11); 
Life  by  Dr  McCrie,  242  f. 


248  SCOTLAND.  [CENT.  xvi. 

Marsiliers,  a  native  of  France  who  taught  Greek  at  Montrose1. 
Andrew  Melville  studied  under  him  as  a  boy  in  1556— 8 2,  but 
Andrew's  nephew,  James,  who  '  would  have  gladly '  learnt  Greek 
and  Hebrew  at  St  Andrews,  complains  that 

'the  langages  war  nocht  to  be  gottine  in  the  land;  our  Regent... teatched  us 
the  A,  B,  C  of  the  Greek,  and  the  simple  declintiones,  hot  went  no  farder'3. 

The  influence  of  the  Humanist-Pope,  who  had  granted  the  Bull 
for  the  founding  of  Glasgow,  had  not  availed  to  arouse  an  interest 
in  Greek  on  the  distant  banks  of  the  Clyde ;  and  at  St  Andrews, 
in  1564,  the  great  Latin  scholar,  Buchanan,  failed  to  obtain  recog- 
nition for  the  study  of  Greek4.  The  honour  of  promoting  the 
study  of  that  language  at  Glasgow  was  reserved  for  the  protagonist 
of  presbyterianism,  Andrew  Melville,  who  substituted  for  a  blind 
faith  in  the  authority  of  Aristotle  an  intelligent  study  of  Greek 
texts.  With  Melville,  however,  the  languages  were  simply  the 
handmaids  to  theology.  The  Union  of  the  Crowns  in  1604, 
which  '  brought  about  the  victory  of  the  party  opposed  to  Melville, 
placed  in  the  universities  a  new  type  of  men,  who  cared  for  the 
humane  learning  for  its  own  sake'.  The  period  of  the  first 
episcopalian  supremacy  (1604-38)  has  accordingly  been  described 
as  'the  golden  age  of  the  humane  letters'  in  Scotland5. 

In  that  age  a  closer  rendering  of  the  Psalms  than  that  of 
Buchanan  was  produced  in  1637  by  his  countryman, 
Arthur  Johnston  (1587 — i64i)6.    It  will  be  remem- 
bered  that   the   Baron   of  Bradwardine   used   to   read    'Arthur 
Johnston's  Psalms  of  a  Sunday,  and  the  Deliciae  Poetarum  Scoto- 
rum'7.    Johnston  has  a  pretty  poem  on  his  birthplace,  beside  the 
river  Ury  and  below  the  ridge  of  Bennachie,  both  of  which  are 
named  in  the  following  graceful  lines : — 

1  James   Melvill's   Diary  (ed.    1842),   39;    cp.   McCrie's   Life  of  Knox, 
period  i,  note  C,  and  James  Grant's  Burgh  Schools  of  Scotland  (1876),  46 — 48, 

330—349- 

-  Diary,  39.  3  Diary,  30. 

4  Hume  Brown,  238  f. 

5  R.  S.    Rait,   on    University  Education  in  Scotland,  in   Proceedings  of 
Glasgow  Archaeological  Society,   15  Dec.   1904. 

6  P.  Hume  Brown's  Buchanan,  147-9. 

7  IVaverley,  c.  13. 


CHAP.  XV.]  JOHNSTON.      DRUMMOND.  249 

'  Mille  per  ambages  nitidis  argenteus  undis 

Hie  trepidat  laetos  Vrius  inter  agros. 
Explicat  hie  seras  ingens  Bennachius  umbras, 

Nox  ubi  libratur  lance  dieque  pari. 
Gemmifer  est  amnis,  radiat  mons  ipse  lapillis, 

Queis  nihil  Ecus  purius  orbis  habet'1. 

He  had  taken  the  degree  of  M.D.  at  Padua,  and  was  a  physician 
in  Paris.  On  his  return  to  Scotland  after  an  absence  of  twenty- 
four  years,  he  was  patronised  by  Laud  as  a  rival  to  Buchanan2. 
While  Buchanan  uses  a  variety  of  metres  in  his  version  of  the 
Psalms,  Johnston  confines  himself  to  the  elegiac  couplet3.  He  has 
been  called  'the  Scottish  Ovid',  his  style  'possessing  somewhat 
of  Ovidian  ease,  accompanied  with  strength  and  simplicity'4.  A 
word  of  praise  may  be  added  on  the  Heroides  of  Mark  Alexander 
Boyd  (1563 — 1601),  and  on  the  poem  on  Anne  of  Denmark  by 
Hercules  Rollock  (fl.  1577 — i6ig)5.  David  Wedderburn  (1580 
— 1646),  who  compiled  a  Latin  Grammar  (i63o)6,  was  from  1620 
to  1646  the  official  Latin  poet  of  Aberdeen.  One  of  his  poems 
is  an  elegy  on  Arthur  Johnston  (1641).  Johnston's  Psalms  had 
been  published  in  1637.  After  the  Scottish  Revolution  of  1638, 
'  down  with  learning '  was  the  cry  of  some  of  the  extreme  Cove- 
nanting divines. 

The  biographer  of  Buchanan    has   aptly  described  William 
Drummond,  of  Hawthornden  (is8=; — 1640),  as  'the 

Drummond 

only  Scotsman  of  eminence  in  whom  it  is  possible 
to  find  the  humanist  even  in  his  milder  form;  and  Drummond  all 
through   his  life  felt  himself  an  alien  in  a  strange  land'7.     He 
attended  lectures  on  law  at  Bourges  and  Paris  (1607-8),  shortly 
before  becoming  laird  of  Hawthornden  (1610).    His  sonnets  were 

1  Dditiae  Pott.  Scot,  i  6or,  ed.  1637. 

2  i.e.  a  rival  to  Buchanan's  posthumous  fame  (Buchanan  having  died  five 
years  before  the  birth  of  Johnston). 

3  A  fine  ed.  of  Johnston's  Poems  was  produced  by  Geddes,  1892-5,  with 
copies  of  three  portraits.     Cp.   Bibliography  and  Portraits  by  W.  Johnston, 
1896. 

4  W.  Tennant,  quoted  (with  other  Tcstimonia]  in  Allibone's  Diet. 

5  Cp.  McCrie,  ii  328f. 

6  James  Grant's  Burgh  Schools  of  Scotland,  365-8. 

7  P.  Hume  Brown,  236. 


250  SCOTLAND.      WALES.  [CENT.  XVI. 

inspired  by  those  of  the  Italian  poet,  Guarini,  and  his  poetry 
reveals  many  traces  of  the  influence  of  the  Latin  poets  of  Italy. 
His  interest  in  Chess  led  to  his  being  specially  attracted  by  Vida's 
poem  on  that  theme: — 

'  If  Hieronymus  Vida  can  be  found,  with  Baplista  Marini  his  Adone,  we 
shall  not  spare  some  houres  of  the  night  and  day  at  their  Chesse,  for  I  affect 
that  above  the  other'1. 

Turning  from  Scotland  to  Wales,  we  have  a  clever  contemporary 
of  Andrew  Melville  in  the  Latin  epigrammatist  John 
Owen,  or  Audoenus  (c.  1560 — 1622).  Borri  at 
Armon  in  the  county  of  Caernarvon,  he  was  educated  at  Win- 
chester, was  a  Fellow  of  New  College,  Oxford,  in  1584-91,  became 
head-master  of  Warwick  School  about  I5952,  and  was  buried  in  St 
Paul's  cathedral.  The  three  books  of  his  Epigrams  (1606)  were 
followed  by  a  complete  edition  in  1624;  they  were  thrice  translated 
into  English,  and  often  reprinted  at  home  and  abroad.  They  are 
described  by  Hallam  as  '  sometimes  neat,  and  more  often  witty'. 
They  were  placed  in  the  Index  in  1654,  doubtless  mainly  owing 
to  the  unfortunate  epigram,  which,  in  his  lifetime,  had  led  to  his 
being  disinherited  by  his  uncle: — 

'An  Petrus  fuerit  Romae,  sub  judice  lis  est; 
Simonem  Romae  nemo  fuisse  negat  '3. 

Among  happier  examples  of  his  style  we  may  quote  his  epigram 
on  Martial: — 

'  Dicere  de  rebus,  personis  parcere  nosti ; 

Sunt  sine  felle  tui,  non  sine  melle,  sales'4, 

and  the  central  couplet  of  his  lines  on  Drake  :— 

'  Si  taceant  homines,  facient  te  sidera  notum ; 
Atque  polus  de  te  discet  uterque  loqui'5. 

1  History  of  Scotland  (1655),  p.  263. 

2  A.    F.    Leach,    History   of  Warwick   School,    124 — 134    (with    Owen's 
portrait). 

3  Ad  ffenricum,  i  8. 

4  Ad  Dominant  Mariam  Neville,  ii  160. 

5  ib.  ii  39. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

GERMANY  FROM  1350  TO  1616. 

THE  German  Emperor,  Charles  IV,  who  ascended  the  throne  in 
1346,  was  regarded  by  Petrarch,  not  only  as  the  head  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire,  but  also  as  a  beneficent  patron  of  literature,  a  new 
Augustus.  Petrarch's  correspondence  with  Charles  IV  began  in 
I3501;  at  Mantua,  in  the  autumn  of  1354,  he  presented  the 
emperor  with  gold  and  silver  coins  of  ancient  Rome  bearing  the 
effigy  of  the  emperor's  great  precursors2.  In  1356  he  was  sent  as 
the  envoy  of  Milan  to  the  emperor's  capital  of  Prague,  'the  extreme 
confines  of  the  land  of  the  barbarians'3;  but  this  visit  led  to  no 
permanent  result4.  The  second  son  of  Charles  IV,  the  emperor 
Sigismund,  was  enabled  to  study  Arrian's  account  of  the  exploits 
of  Alexander  in  the  easy  Latin  version  provided  for  him  by 
Vergerio,  the  first  of  Italian  humanists  to  enter  the  service  of  a 
foreign  prince5.  But  this  version  would  have  been  forgotten,  had 
it  not  fallen  into  the  hands  of  Aeneas  Sylvius,  who  represented 
Italian  humanism  in  Vienna  (1442-55),  and  wrote  in  1450  an 
interesting  treatise  on  Education  for  the  benefit  of  a  royal  ward  of 
his  master,  Frederic  IIIs.  As  Pope,  in  1459,  he  was  assured  by 
his  former  pupil,  the  German  historian,  Hinderbach,  of  the  grati- 
tude of  Germany  for  the  teaching  and  the  example  which  had 
led  that  land  to  admire  the  studies  of  humanism,  and  to  emulate 
the  olden  splendour  of  Roman  eloquence7.  The  German  jurist, 

1  Epp.  Fain,  x  i.  -  ib.  xix  3.  3  Sen.  xvi  2. 

4  On  Petrarch's  relations  to  Charles  IV,  cp.  Voigt,  ii  263~83 ;  and  Cancel- 
laria  Caroli  IV,  ed.  Tadra,  Prag,  1895. 

5  p.  49  supra.  6  p.  72  supra. 

7  Geiger,  Renaissance  und  Humanismus  in  f (alien  und Deittschland  (1882), 
342- 


252  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XV. 

Gregor  Heimburg,  who,  in  his  earlier  years,  had  acquired  for  him- 
self a  certain  degree  of  proficiency  in  the  Classics,  was  a  political 
opponent  of  Aeneas  Sylvius  and  of  the  humanistic  influence  of 
Italy1.  The  influence  of  Aeneas  was,  however,  continued  at 
Prague  by  Johann  von  Rabstein2  and  in  Moravia  by  bishop 
Prostasius  of  Czernahora3. 

The  first  to  expound  the  Latin  poets  in  Vienna  was  Georg 
Peuerbach  (1423 — 1469),  who  had  visited  many  universities  in 
France,  Italy  and  Germany,  and  in  1454-60  lectured  in  Vienna, 
not  only  on  mathematics  and  astronomy,  but  also  on  the  Aeneid, 
and  on  Horace  and  Juvenal4.  Lectures  on  the  Eclogues  and  on 
Terence,  and  on  Cicero,  De  Senectute,  were  given  by  his  pupil,  the 
astronomer  Johann  Miiller  of  Konigsberg,  near  Coburg,  who  is 
best  known  as  Regiomontanus  (1436 — 1476).  In 
tanus10'  1461  he  accompanied  Bessarion  to  Italy,  where  he 

made  a  complete  copy  of  the  tragedies  of  Seneca, 
learnt  Greek,  and  produced  Latin  translations  of  the  works  of 
Ptolemy,  and  the  Conic  Sections  of  Apollonius  of  Perga.  Return- 
ing to  Vienna  in  1467,  he  entered  the  service  of  Matthias 
Corvinus,  king  of  Hungary,  and  finally  settled  at  Nuremberg, 
where  he  published  the  first  edition  of  the  astronomical  poem  of 
Manilius  (1472).  He  ultimately  became  archbishop  of  Ratisbon, 
and  a  proposal  to  reform  the  calendar  led  to  his  being  summoned 
to  Rome,  where  he  died  in  I4765. 

The  influence  of  Italy  on  German  humanism  was  early  exem- 
plified by  Peter  Luder  (c.  1415—^.  1474),  who,  after 
matriculating  at  Heidelberg,  visited  Rome  as  a 
priest,  became  a  pupil  of  Guarino  at  Ferrara,  sailed  from  Venice 
along  the  coast  of  Greece  as  far  as  Macedonia,  and,  on  his  return, 
settled  at  Padua  with  a  view  to  studying  medicine.  The  presence 

1  Scripta,  ed.  Goldast,  1608  :  Joachimsohn,  Gregor  Heimburg  (Bamberg, 
1891);  Voigt,  ii  284 — 290'. 

2  Dialogus,  ed.  Bachmann  (Vienna,  1876). 

3  Voigt,  ii  2933. 

4  Voigt,  ii  29i3;  cp.  Aschbach,  Gesch.  dcr  Wiener  Univ.  486  f. 

8  Bursian,  i  107  f;  cp.  Hallam,  i  i864;  and  Aschbach,  I.e.,  537  f;  also 
Janssen's  History  of  the  German  People  at  the  Close  of  the  Middle  Ages  (E.  T. 
1896  f ),  i  139 — 146. 


CHAP.  XVI.]     REGIOMONTANUS.      LUDER.      SCHEDEL.      253 

of  some  German  students  at  Padua  led  to  his  fame  reaching  the 
Palatinate.  He  was  accordingly  invited  to  Heidelberg,  and 
appointed  to  lecture  on  Latin  poets  (1456).  His  older  colleagues 
immediately  insisted  on  his  submitting  his  inaugural  discourse  to 
their  own  approval,  and  prevented  his  having  easy  access  to  the 
university  library.  Driven  from  Heidelberg  by  the  plague  in  1460, 
he  was  welcomed  at  Ulm  and  Erfurt  and  Leipzig.  He  even 
returned  to  Padua,  and  afterwards  lectured  on  medicine  as  well  as 
Latin  at  Basel1. 

Among  his  most  eager  pupils  at  Leipzig  was  Hartman  Schedel 
(1440 — 1514)5  who  became  an  unwearied  collector 

TT     11  i  Schedel 

of  humanistic  literature.  He  has  thus  preserved  an 
important  part  of  the  great  journal  of  Ciriaco  d'  Ancona,  including 
his  copies  of  the  monuments  and  inscriptions  of  the  Cyclades. 
His  sketches  of  certain  works  of  ancient  art  afterwards  inspired 
some  of  the  drawings  of  Diirer,  now  in  Vienna2.  His  large  collec- 
tion of  inscriptions  is  now  in  the  library  at  Munich,  and  his  work 
on  the  history  of  the  world  from  the  creation  to  the  year  1492  is 
widely  known  under  the  name  of  the  'Nuremberg  Chronicle' 

(M93)3- 

A  place  of  honour  among  the  early  humanists  of  Germany 
is  justly  assigned  to  the  famous  Frisian,  Roelof 
Huysman,  or  Rodolphus  Agricola  (1444 — 1485), 
who  was  born  near  Groningen,  and  was  educated  at  Deventer, 
Erfurt,  Louvain  and  Cologne,  and  perhaps  also  in  Paris.  In  1468 
he  left  for  Italy,  where  he  studied  law  and  rhetoric  at  Pavia 
between  1469  and  1474,  paying  two  visits  to  the  North  during 
that  interval.  In  1475  he  went  to  Ferrara,  and  studied  Greek 
under  Theodorus  Gaza.  In  1479  he  finally  returned  to  Groningen, 
where  he  was  town-clerk  in  1480-84,  often  acting  as  an  envoy  and 
paying  repeated  visits  to  Deventer,  on  one  of  which  (possibly  in 
1484)  he  saw  Erasmus4.  In  1484  he  went  to  teach  at  Heidelberg 

1  Voigt,  ii  295 — 3Oi3;    Bursian,  i  95  f;    Geiger,  327.     Cp.  Wattenbach, 
Peter  Luder,  in  Zdtschr.  f.  Gesch.  des  Obcrrheins,  xxii  (1869)  33  f;  Bauch's 
Erfurt,  43—50. 

2  p.  40  supra. 

3  Voigt,  ii  3o63 ;  Bursian,  i  108  f ;  Geiger,  374;  Wattenbach  in  Forsch. 
zur  deittschen  Geschichte,  xi  351  f. 

4  P.  S.  Allen's  Erasmi  Epp.  i  581. 


254  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XV. 

on  the  invitation  of  Ualberg,  bishop  of  Worms,  whom  he  accom- 
panied to  Rome  in  the  following  year  to  deliver  an  oration  in 
honour  of  the  newly  elected  Pope,  Innocent  VIII.  Shortly  after 
his  return  he  died  at  Heidelberg. 

At  Heidelberg  he  lectured  occasionally  on  Aristotle,  but  was 
apparently  more  effective  in  his  private  and  personal  influence 
than  in  his  professorial  teaching.  The  highest  praise  must  be 
bestowed  on  his  renderings  from  Lucian1.  He  was  long  regarded 
as  the  standard-bearer  of  humanism  in  Germany2.  His  slight 
treatise  on  education  (i484)3  was  welcomed  as  a  libellus  .vere 
aureus  when  it  appeared  in  the  same  volume  as  the  corresponding 
works  of  Erasmus  and  Melanchthon,  but  the  only  important  points 
on  which  he  there  insists  are  cultivation  of  the  memory,  care- 
fulness in  reading,  and  constant  practice.  A  cheerful  alacrity  in 
saying  and  doing  the  right  thing  is  the  lesson  of  life  expressed  in 
his  own  epigram: — 

'  Optima  sit  vitae  quae  formula  quaeritis :  haec  est : 
Mens  hilaris  faciens  quod  licet,  idque  loquens'. 

He  is  remembered  as  an  earnest  opponent  of  mediaeval  scholas- 
ticism, and  he  certainly  did  much  towards  making  the  study  of 
the  Classics  a  vital  force  in  Germany.  In  a  letter  to  a  fellow- 
labourer  in  this  cause,  Rudolf  von  Langen  (1438 — 1519),  who 
promoted  the  revival  of  education  in  the  cathedral-school  of 
Miinster4,  we  find  Agricola  saying: — 'I  entertain  the  highest  hope 
that,  by  your  aid,  we  shall  one  day  wrest  from  proud  Italy  her 
vaunted  glory  of  pre-eminent  eloquence'5;  and  the  closing  couplet 
of  a  tribute  to  his  memory  written  by  the  Italian  humanist, 
Hermolaus  Barbarus,  implies  that,  during  the  life-time  of  Agricola, 
Germany  was  the  rival  of  Greece  and  Rome: — 

'  Scilicet  hoc  vivo  meruit  Germania  laud  is, 

Quicquid  habet  Latium,  Graecia  quicquid  habet'6. 

1  Callus,  and  the  libellus  de  non  facile  credendis  delationibiis  (ed.  1530). 

2  Pref.  to  Opuscula  (1518),  'antesignanus'. 

3  Deformando  studio.     Cp.  Woodward,  Renaissance  Education,  99. 

4  Bursian,  i  98  f. 

5  Opera  (Col.  1539)  ii  178  (Heeren,  ii  173 ;  Ilallam,  i  2o64). 

6  Boissard,  I  175.     For  Agricola,  cp.  Opera  (Col.  1539);  Tresling,  Vita  et 
Merita  Rudolphi  Agricolae  (Groningen,  1830);   Bursian,  i  101  f;    von  Bezold 
(1884);  Ihm  (1893);  P.  S.  Allen,  in  English  Hist.  Rev.,  April,  1906,  and  in 


CHAP.  XVI.]      AGRICOLA.      HEGIUS.      WIMPHELING.  255 

Agricola  gave  some  instruction  in  Greek  to  his  friend  and 
earlier  contemporary,   Alexander    Hegius  (1433 — 

Hegius 

1498),  who  was  a  master  at  Wesel  and  Emmerich, 
and,  during  the  last  fifteen  years  of  his  life,  made  the  School  of 
Deventer  the  great  educational  centre  of  North  Germany,  waging 
a  successful  war  against  the  old  mediaeval  text-books  and  pointing 
to  the  Latin  Classics  as  the  only  source  of  a  perfect  Latin  style1. 
Among  his  pupils  at  Deventer  was  Erasmus. 

Rudolf  von  Langen  (1438 — 1519),  a  student  at  Erfurt,  who 
visited  Italy  in  1465  and  1486,  finally  succeeded  in 
1498    in    carrying  out    his   long-cherished  plan   of 
founding  a  school  on  humanistic  lines  at  Miinster,  where  he  spent 
the  greater  part  of  his  life  as  Canon  of  the  cathedral  church.     He 
failed  to  induce  Hegius  to  become  the  head-master,  but  one  of  the 
best-known  masters  of  the  school  was  a  pupil  of  Hegius,  namely 
Murmellius  (1480 — 1517),  the  author  of  many  useful  text-books. 
Langen  himself  published  a  work  in  Latin  prose  on  the  Fall  of 
Jerusalem,  and  four  volumes  of  Latin  verse2. 

The  Schools  of  Deventer  and  Miinster  in  the  North  had  their 
counterpart  in  the  South-West,  at  Schlettstadt  in 
Elsass.  It  was  the  school  of  Jacob  Wimpheling 
(1450 — 1528),  who  afterwards  studied  at  Freiburg  and  Erfurt,  and 
also  at  Heidelberg.  He  returned  to  that  university  as  a  professor 
(1498),  lecturing  mainly  upon  St  Jerome.  He  subsequently  left 
for  Strassburg,  where  he  was  in  frequent  feud  with  monks  and 
humanists  alike,  and  failed  in  his  hopes  of  reforming  education 
and  establishing  a  university.  He  had  founded  literary  societies 
in  several  of  the  cities  where  he  dwelt.  At  Strassburg  he  became 
the  centre  of  a  literary  circle,  which  corresponded  with  Erasmus 

Erasmi  Epp.  i  106  ;  and  Woodward's  Renaissance  Education  (1906),  79—103, 
where  a  still  unpublished  Life  of  Petrarch  (1477;  Munich  Cod.  Lat.  479)  is 
noticed.  Cp.,  in  general,  Creighton,  Papacy,  vi  9  f;  and  Geiger  in  A.  D.  B., 
and  in  Renaissance,  334  f.  A  contemporary  portrait  is  reproduced  ib.  335, 
and  in  Boissard's  Icones,  I  xxvii  172  (1597). 

1  O.    Jahn,    Populare  Aufsiitze,    416;    Geiger,    391    f;    and    literature    in 
Bursian,  i  100  n.     Cp.  P.  S.  Allen  in  Erasmi  Epp.  \  105  f,  and  Woodward, 
I.e.,  84  f. 

2  Bursian,  i  98 — 101  ;  J.  F.  Schroder's  Kl.  Studien  in  Deutschland  (in  cent, 
xv  f),  1864,  6i-6j  Bauch's  Erfurt,  41  f;  P.  S.  Allen's  Erasmi  Epp.  i  197. 


256  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XV  f 

on  questions  of  literature  and  theology.  In  his  writings  on  the 
theory  of  education,  he  insisted  on  the  importance  of  moral 
influence;  he  also  suggested  new  methods  and  better  text-books, 
that  should  aim  at  appealing  to  the  intelligence  instead  of  burden- 
ing the  memory.  He  abolished  the  commentaries  on  Donatus 
and  Alexander,  and  supplied  practical  manuals  in  their  place. 
His  own  treatises  on  grammar  and  style  were  widely  popular1. 
His  principal  friend  at  Strassburg  was  the  town- 
clerk,  Sebastian  Brant  (1457 — 1521),  celebrated  as 
the  author  of  the  Ship  of  Fools  (1494).  'He  was  more,  of  a 
humanist  than  Wimpheling,  and  found  a  solace  for  his  legal 
labours  in  the  cultivation  of  the  Muse... He  celebrated,  with  justi- 
fiable pride,  the  German  invention  of  printing,  and  took  it  as  an 
omen  of  the  coming  time  when  the  Muses  would  desert  Italy  and 
make  their  abode  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine'2. 

His  great  contemporary,  Johann  Reuchlin  (1455 — :522)> 
studied  Greek  at  Paris  in  1473  under  the  pupils  of 
Gregory  Tifernas  and  in  1478  under  Hermonymus. 
In  the  interim  he  went  to  Basel  and  made  good  progress  in  the 
language  under  Andronicus  Contoblacas  (1474).  At  the  age  of 
twenty  he  there  produced,  under  the  title  of  Vocabularius  Brevi- 
loquus  (1475-6),  a  Latin  dictionary,  which  showed  a  marked 
advance  in  clearness  of  arrangement,  and,  in  less  than  thirty 
years,  passed  through  twenty  editions.  He  taught  Greek,  as  well 
as  Latin,  at  Basel,  Orleans  and  Poitiers.  He  describes  the  results 
of  his  learning  and  teaching  Greek  as  follows: — 

To  Latin  was  then  added  Greek,  the  knowledge  of  which  is  necessary  for 
a  liberal  education.  We  are  thus  led  back  to  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle, 
which  cannot  be  really  comprehended  until  its  language  is  understood.  In 
this  we  so  won  the  minds  of  all  who... longed  for  a  purer  knowledge,  that  they 
flocked  to  us  and  deserted  the  trifling  of  the  schools3. 

1  Isidoneus   Germanicus  and  Adolescentia   (1496-8);    also   Elegantiarum 
Medulla   (1490),    and   Germania  (1501).      Cp.  Wiskowatoff  (Berlin,    1867); 
B.  Schwarz  (Gotha,  1875);  Geiger,  359,  402  f,  576;  Bursian,  i  103  f ;  Paulsen, 
i  61  f ;  Hartfelder  in  Schmid's  Gesch.  der  Erziehung,  ii  2,  68 — 70;  Creighton, 
Papacy,  vi  n — 13;  Karl  Pearson,  Ethic  of  Freethought,  185 — 192,  ed.  1901 ; 
P.  S.  Allen's  Erasmi  Epp.  463 ;  and  Woodward's  Renaissance  Education,  216. 

2  Creighton,  vi  14  ;  cp.  Geiger,  365-9;  portrait  in  Boissard,  n  174. 

3  Ep.  250;  cp.  171 ;  Karl  Pearson,  Ethic  of  Freethought,  164  f  (ed.  1901). 


CHAP.  XVI.]      BRANT.      REUCHLIN.      MUTIANUS.  257 

In  1482,  and  again  in  1490,  he  went  to  Italy,  where  he  became 
acquainted  with  the  learned  Venetian,  Hermolaus  Barbarus.  At 
Rome  he  won  the  admiration  of  Argyropulos  by  his  mastery  of 
Greek1.  On  a  subsequent  visit  in  1498  he  learnt  Hebrew,  which 
was  thenceforward  the  main  interest  of  his  life2.  He  spent  twenty 
years  at  Stuttgart,  and  two  at  Ingoldstadt,  and  for  the  last  year  of 
his  life  was  professor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  at  Tubingen. 

In  the  study  of  Hebrew  he  came  into  conflict  with  the  obscu- 
rantists of  the  day,  but  his  cause  was  supported  by  the  enlightened 
humanists  of  Germany.  It  was  in  defence  of  Reuchlin  that  the 
barbarous  Latinity  and  the  mediaeval  scholasticism  of  Ortwin 
Gratius  (1491  — 1451)1  and  his  allies  in  Cologne,  were  admirably 
parodied  in  the  Epistolae  Obscurorum  Virorum.  The  first  volume 
of  that  memorable  satire  (1516)  was  mainly  composed  by  a 
humanist  of  Erfurt,  Johann  Ja'ger  of  Dornheim,  who  called  him- 
self Crotus  Rubianus*,  while  the  second  (1517)  was  chiefly  the 
work  of  Ulrich  von  Hutten".  The  unobtrusive  leader  of  the 
eager  band  of  humanists,  who  produced  these  remarkable  volumes, 
was  Conrad  Muth,  or  Mutianus  Rufus  (c.  1471  — 
1526),  who  had  been  a  school-fellow  of  Erasmus  at 
Deventer,  and  had  lived  at  Erfurt,  as  a  student  and  a  teacher, 
from  1486  to  1492,  when  he  left  for  Italy.  He  there  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Giovanni  Pico  della  Mirandola  and  Baptista 
Mantuanus,  as  well  as  the  elder  Beroaldus  and  Codrus  Urceus  at 
Bologna,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  Doctor  in  Law.  On  his 
return,  he  settled  at  Gotha,  where  he  placed,  in  golden  letters, 
over  the  door  of  his  canonical  residence  the  words  BEATA  TRAN- 
QUILLITAS,  and  thereafter  devoted  his  thoughts  to  'God  and  the 
Saints  and  the  study  of  all  Antiquity'.  He  took  the  keenest 
interest  in  his  younger  friends,  the  humanists  of  Erfurt,  inspiring 
them  with  an  eager  desire  for  the  spread  of  classical  literature, 
a  hatred  for  the  pedantry  and  formalism  of  the  old  scholastic 
methods,  and  a  critical  spirit  which  felt  little  reverence  for  the 

1  p.  63  f  supra. 

2  Bursian,  i  120  f;  Geiger,  504 — 525,  and  Life  (1871)  and  Letters  (1875)  > 
cp.  P.  S.  Allen,  Erasmi  Epp.  i  555. 

3  Bauch's  Erfurt,  147-9. 

4  Ed.  Booking,  1859-70;  cp.  Geiger,  504  f,  549  f;  Bursian,  i  120 — 131. 

S.    II.  17 


258  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XV. 

past1.  After  organising  the  victory  of  the  humanists  over  the 
scholastic  obscurantists  of  the  day,  their  leader  lived  to  see  his 
'tranquil'  home  ruthlessly  plundered  by  a  protestant  mob2,  at  a 
time  when  the  quiet  waters  of  Humanism  had  been  overwhelmed 
by  the  stronger  stream  of  the  Reformation3. 

The  humanists  of  Germany  may  be  divided  into  three  suc- 
cessive schools  distinguished  from  one  another  in  their  relation  to 
the  Church4,  (i)  The  Earlier  or  Scholastic  Humanists,  who  were 
loyal  supporters  of  the  Church,  while  they  were  eager  for  a  revival 
of  classical  learning,  and  a  new  system  of  education.  They  are 
represented  by  the  three  great  teachers  of  North  Germany,  Rudolfus 
Agricola,  Rudolf  von  Langen,  and  Alexander  Hegius;  also  by 
Wimpfeling,  the  restorer  of  education  in  South  Germany;  by 
Trithemius.,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Rhenish  Society  of  Litera- 
ture; and  by  Eck,  the  famous  opponent  of  Luther.  They  worked 
for  the  Revival  of  Learning  in  all  branches  of  knowledge,  while 
they  hoped  that  the  new  learning  would  remain  subservient  to  the 
old  theology.  (2)  The  Intermediate  or  Rational  Humanists,  who 
took  a  rational  view  of  Christianity  and  its  creed,  while  they  pro- 
tested against  the  old  scholasticism,  and  against  the  external 
abuses  of  the  Church.  'They  either  did  not  support  Luther,  or 
soon  deserted  him,  being  conscious  that  his  movement  would  lead 
to  the  destruction  of  all  true  culture'.  Their  leaders  were  Reuchlin 
and  Erasmus,  and  Conrad  Muth,  the  Canon  of  Gotha.  'Their 
party  and  its  true  work  of  culture  were  shipwrecked  by  the  tempest 
of  the  Reformation'.  (3)  The  Later  or  Protestant  Humanists, 
who  were  ready  to  'protest'  against  everything, — young  men  of 
great  talent,  but  of  less  learning,  whose  love  of  liberty  sometimes 
lapsed  into  licence.  Their  leading  spirit  was  Ulrich  von  Hutten. 

1  Creighton,  vi  32.  2  1524;  Kampfschulte,  ii  233. 

3  On  his  highly  original  letters,  which  reveal  the  secret  of  his  influence, 
cp.  Krause's  Briefwechsel  de s  Mutianus  Rtifus  (1885) ;  also  Bocking,  Hutteni 
Opera,  Suppl.  ii  420-8 ;   and  esp.  Kampfschulte,  Die  Universitat  Erfurt  in 
ihrem  Verhciltnisse  zu  dein  Humanismus  und  die  Reformation  (2  vols.,  Trier, 
1858-60).     Cp.  A.  W.  Ward,  On  some  Academical  experiences  of  the  German 
Renascence,    1878;    G.    Bauch,    Erfiirt  im   Zeitalter  des    Friihhumanismus 
([904),  126-8,  VD&  passim\  Geiger,  432  f;  Bursian,  i  128  f. 

4  Karl  Pearson,  Ethic  of  Freethought,  166—184,  ed.  1901;  cp.  Janssen's 
History  of  the  German  People  (E.T.),  i  63 — 80;  iii  i — 44. 


CHAP.  XVI.]      CELTES.      TRITHEMIUS.      PIRKHEIMER.      259 

In  course  of  time,  some  of  them  became  Rational  Humanists; 
others,  supporters  of  Luther.  'While  Erasmus,  Reuchlin  and 
Muth  viewed  Luther's  propaganda  with  distrust ',  these  younger 
Humanists  'flocked  to  the  new  standard  of  protest  and  revolt,  and 
so  doing  brought  culture  into  disgrace  and  shipwrecked  the 
Revival  of  Learning  in  Germany'1.  'The  revolt  of  Luther  caused 
the  Church  to  reject  Humanism,  and  was  the  deathblow  of  the 
Erasmian  Reformation'2. 

On  the  publication  of  the  Epistolae  Obscurorum  Virorum,  a 
premature  death  had  already  cut  short  the  career  of 
Reuchlin's  younger  contemporary,  Conrad  Celtes 
(1459 — 1508),  the  knight-errant  of  humanism  in  Germany.  The 
scholastic  spirit  was  still  dominant  during  the  seven  years  that  he 
had  spent  in  Cologne.  But  he  learnt  some  Greek  from  Agricola 
at  Heidelberg,  and  he  was  widely  known,  and  fairly  remunerated, 
as  a  lecturer  on  the  Platonic  philosophy,  and  on  Latin  poets  and 
orators,  at  Erfurt,  Rostock,  and  Leipzig.  The  proceeds  of  his 
lectures  enabled  him  to  spend  six  months  in  Italy,  living  mainly 
at  Ferrara  with  Battista  Guarino,  and  also  at  Padua  with  Musurus, 
and  in  Rome  with  Pomponius  Laetus.  Soon  after  his  return  in 
1487,  he  received  the  poet's  crown  from  Frederic  III  at  Nurem- 
berg, being  the  first  German  who  attained  that  distinction.  We 
next  find  him  studying  and  teaching  at  Cracow.  He  there  met 
a  congenial  spirit  in  Filippo  Buonaccorsi,  who  had  fled  from 
Rome  owing  to  the  suppression  of  the  Roman  Academy.  Celtes 
was  thereby  prompted  to  found  humanistic  societies  in  Poland 
and  Hungary,  and  also  on  the  Rhine.  This  last  was  inaugurated 
at  Mainz  in  1491;  the  great  patron  of  learning,  Johann  von 
Dalberg,  bishop  of  Worms,  was  its  first  president, 
while  Johannes  Trithemius,  of  Trittenheim  on  the  p^khek^er 
Mosel  (1462 — 1516),  and  Wilibald  Pirkheimer  of 
Nuremberg  (1470 — 1530),  were  among  its  most  prominent 
members.  Trithemius  combined  wide  learning  of  the  mediaeval 
type  with  a  keen  interest  in  the  collection  of  MSS,  and  the  acquisi- 
tion of  Greek  and  Hebrew3;  while  Pirkheimer,  who  had  spent 

1  Karl  Pearson,  177.  2  ib.   227  ;   cp.   244. 

3  Bursian,  i  105  f;   Geiger,   446-9;    cp.  Silbernagel  (iSSj2),    Schneegans 
(1882);  Janssen,  i  108 — 116. 

17—2 


260  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XV  f 

seven  years  in  Italy,  was  eminent  as  a  statesman  and  a  patron  of 
humanism,  and  as  a  translator  of  Greek  texts  and  a  student  of 
archaeology1.  Celtes  himself  lived  for  a  time  at  Nuremberg,  and 
afterwards  lectured  on  rhetoric  at  Ingoldstadt.  In  1497,  under 
the  favour  of  Maximilian,  he  became  a  professor,  as  well  as  head 
of  the  Imperial  Library,  in  Vienna,  and,  in  1502,  president  of  the 
'College  of  Poets  and  Mathematicians'  then  founded  by  the 
emperor.  His  adventures  in  various  parts  of  Germany  are  the 
main  theme  of  his  Latin  poems,  many  of  which  are  inspired  by 
a  semi-pagan  spirit.  His  more  serious  productions  included 
editions  of  Gunther's  Ligurinus"*,  of  the  Latin  plays  of  Hroswitha3, 
and  of  the  Germania  of  Tacitus,  which  was  accompanied  by  a 
patriotic  poem  on  Germany.  Lastly,  he  discovered  in  the  Vienna 
Library  a  thirteenth-century  copy  of  a  map  of  Roman  roads  of  the 
third  century,  which  he  bequeathed  to  the  patrician  patron  of 

learning,   Conrad  Peutinger  of  Augsburg  (1465 — 

IS4?)4>  to  whom  it  owes  the  familiar  name  of  the 
Tabula  Peutingeriana5.  Peutinger  was  an  eager  collector  of  coins 
and  inscriptions.  It  was  by  his  aid,  and  at  the  cost  of  Count 
Raymund  Fugger  of  Augsburg,  that  a  corpus  of  Greek  and  Latin 
inscriptions  was  produced  by  Petrus  Apianus  and  Bartholomaeus 
Amantius  of  Ingoldstadt  (i534)6- 

Among  the  ablest  of  the  successors  of  Celtes  in  Vienna  was 

Johannes  Cuspinianus  (1473  —  1529),  a  poet  and 
Vadianus"11        statesman,   who  edited   Avienus  and  Florus,  and 

critically  studied  Roman  chronology7.  His  friend, 
Joachim  Watt,  or  Vadianus  of  St  Gallen  (1484 — 1551),  produced 
an  exhaustive  commentary  on  Pomponius  Mela8. 

1  Bursian,    i    160-4  ;    Geiger,    3/6—384,    with    Diirer's   fine   portrait   on 
P-  3775  Janssen,  i  147  f. 

2  Vol.  i  c.  29  prope  finem.  3  Vol.  i  c.  26. 

4  Geiger,  369 — 372,  with  portrait  on  p.  444. 

5  Now  in  Vienna;   handy  ed.  by  Miller  (1888). — On  Celtes,   cp.  J.   F. 
Schroder,  Kl.  Studien  (1864),  154—168;  Bursian,  i  109—117,  and  Jahresb. 
xxxii  215-8;  Bauch's  Erfurt,  67—72  ;  Geiger,  454—462,  578,  with  portraits 
on  pp.  455,  459;  also  Janssen,  i  158  f. 

6  Bursian,  i  167;  Janssen,  i  148 — 151.  7  Geiger,  441  f. 

8  Bursian,  i  1701".     Portrait  of  Vadianus  (Watt}  in  Boissard's  Icones  III 
xv  112  (1598),  copied  in  Cribble's  Early  Mountaineers,  facing  p.  43. 


CHAP.  XVI.]      PEUTINGER.      CUSPINIANUS.      BUSCHE.      26l 

One  of  the  most  scholarly  of  the  adherents  of  Ulrich  von 
Hutten  was  Hermann  von  dem  Busche  (1468 — 
1534).  Educated- at  Deventer  and  Heidelberg,  he 
went  in  1486  to  Italy,  where  he  spent  five  years,  in  the  course  of 
which  he  visited  Rome,  and  attended  the  lectures  of  Pomponius 
Laetus.  On  his  return,  after  spending  a  year  at  Cologne,  he 
passed  through  many  of  the  universities  in  Northern  and  Central 
Germany,  lecturing  everywhere  on  the  Latin  Classics,  till  he 
became  the  first  professor  of  Classical  Literature,  rectiorum  litte- 
rarum  professor,  at  Marburg  (1527-33).  He  defended  classical 
studies  in  his  Vallum  Humanitatis  (1518);  he  was  the  first  to 
publish  the  Carmen  de  Bella  Civili  preserved  in  Petronius  (1500); 
and  he  also  edited  Silius  Italicus  (1504)  and  the  Amphitruo 
of  Plautus,  and  commented  on  Claudian's  poem  De  Raptu 
Proserpinae^. 

Meanwhile,  at  Tubingen,  an  enthusiastic  teacher  of  humble 
birth,    Heinrich    Bebel    (1472 — 1518),   was   laying 
down  the  laws  of  Latin  usage,  of  Latin  letter-writing, 
and  of  Latin  versification.     He  was  also  winning  a  wide  popularity 
by  singing  the  glories  of  Germany,  and  the  Triumph  of  Love,  and 
by  providing  a  German  counterpart  of  the  frivolous  Facetiae  of 
Poggio2. 

Among  the  humanists  of  Erfurt  a  prominent  place  must  be 
assigned  to  Helius  Eobanus  Hessus  (1488 — 1540), 
who  lived  at  that  university,  not  only  as  a  student,     HCSSUS"" 
but  also  as  a  teacher.     From  1517  to  1526  he  was 
the  highly  popular  professor  of  Poetry  and  Rhetoric,  lecturing  to 
enormous  audiences,  and  counting  among  his  pupils  youths  of 
high  promise,  such  as  Micyllus  and  Camerarius.    .The  somewhat 
serious  student  just  mentioned  was  the  first  treasurer  of  a  festive 
club,  over  which  Eobanus  presided  as  the  'king  of  poets'.     When 
the  interests  of  humanism  fell  into  abeyance  at  Erfurt,  Eobanus 
left  for  Nuremberg,  where  he  taught  for  seven  years  with  the  grave 
Camerarius  as  his  colleague.     This  was  the  time  of  his  greatest 
activity  as  a  translator.    He  rendered  into  Latin  verse  the  Idylls  of 

1  Bursian,  i  136-9;  cp.  Geiger,  426-8. 

2  Bursian,  i  i4of;  Geiger,  in  A,  D.  B.  and  Renaissance,  423-5;  Creighton, 
vi  28  f. 


262  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XV  f 

Theocritus  (1531),  and  Similes  from  Homer,  with  some  of  the 
Psalms,  and  the  book  of  Ecdesiastes.  He  also  produced  a  long 
Latin  poem  on  the  historic  and  artistic  glories  of  Nuremberg.  A 
brief  return  to  Erfurt  (1533-6),  where  he  found  that  the  fame  of 
the  university  had  declined,  and  that  the  spell  of  his  own  popu- 
larity had  been  broken,  was  followed  by  his  migration  to  the 
newly-founded  university  of  Marburg,  where  he  continued  his 
activity  as  a  poet  and  a  teacher  during  the  four  remaining  years  of 
his  life.  He  there  completed  his  metrical  version  of  the  Psalms, 
and  produced  a  new  edition  of  his  numerous  poems,  the  principal 
place  among  them  being  due  to  the  'Christian  Hero'ides'  that  won 
him  the  title  of  the  'Christian  Ovid'.  His  latest  work  was  a 
rendering  of  the  whole  of  the  Iliad  in  Latin  hexameters  (1540). 
He  undoubtedly  did  much  in  his  time  for  the  popularising  of 
humanistic  studies.  His  success  was  due  to  his  happy  and  cheer- 
ful temper,  and  also  to  the  elegant  and  idiomatic  Latin,  which 
characterised  his  work  as  a  translator1 

In  this  age  one  of  the  most  important  centres  of  humanism 
was  Basel2.     Humanism  was  there  fostered  by  the 

Basel  .  . 

university  founded  in  1460,  while  Classical  texts 
were  issued  by  at  least  three  printing-presses: — (i)  that  of 
Johannes  Froben  (1491),  who  was  succeeded  in  1527  by  his  son 
Hieronymus  and  his  son-in-law  Episcopius  ;  (2)  that  of  Cratander 
(1518),  subsequently  managed  by  Oporinus3  (1544);  and  (3)  that 
of  Hervagius  (1531).  The  texts  were  founded  on  MSS  from  the 
monasteries  of  Alsace  and  the  Palatinate,  and  some  of  them  are 
now  the  only  evidence  as  to  the  readings  of  those  MSS,  e.g. 
Cratander's  edition  of  Cicero  ad  Atticum,  Beatus  Rhenanus' 
Velleius  Paterculus,  Gelenius'  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  and  the 
joint  edition  of  Livy  by  the  last  two  scholars4. 

Erasmus  had  resided  at  Basel  during  the  four  years  after  1514, 

1  Bursian,    i    131-4;    Bauch's   Erjurt,    passim ;    and    esp.    C.    Krause's 
admirable  monograph  in  two  vols.  (1879),  w'tn  specimens  of  his  translation 
of   Theocritus   (ii  94)    and    Homer  (ii  249),  and  portrait  of  1533;    Diirer's 
engraving  of  1526  is  reproduced  in  Geiger,  469,  and  less  accurately  in  Bois- 
sard,  in  xvii  124. 

2  Cp.  Geiger,  416-21. 

3  Bursian,  i  158  ;  portrait  in  Boissard,  iv  xlix  32?. 

4  Urlichs,  6f-;  Bursian,  i  159,  254. 


CHAP.  XVI.]      EOBANUS.      RHENANUS.      GELENIUS.  263 

the  seven  after  1522,  and  also  for  the  last  two  years  of  his  life. 
He  had  been  attracted  to  the  place  by  his  printer  and  publisher 
Johannes  Froben,  that  genuine  bibliophile,  that  '  ideal  friend ', 
who  '  had  no  memory  for  injuries ',  and  '  never  forgot  the  most 
trivial  service".  Froben  died  in  1527.  For  sixteen  years  before 
that  date  Basel  had  also  been  the  home  of  the  friend 
and  biographer  of  Erasmus,  Beatus  Rhenanus  of  RhenlmU 
Schlettstadt  (1485 — -1547),  who,  on  the  death  of 
his  publisher,  left  Basel  for  the  place  of  his  birth  and  his  early 
education  ;  he  died  (at  Strassburg)  twenty  years  later.  With  the 
main  exception  of  his  Curtius,  with  notes  by  Erasmus,  which 
had  already  appeared  at  Strassburg  (1518),  his  best  editions  were 
printed  at  Basel : — the  editio  princeps  of  Velleius  (1520),  from  a 
MS  discovered  by  himself  at  Murbach  ;  Seneca,  Ludus  de  morte 
Claudii  (1515);  'emendations'  on  the  text  of  the  elder  Pliny 
(1526),  from  a  Murbach  MS  that  has  since  vanished;  and  lastly 
his  Tacitus  (1519-33),  and  his  joint  edition  of  Livy  (i535)2. 
The  text  of  Tacitus  owes  much  to  his  corrections,  but  he  was 
in  general  distinguished  for  his  fidelity  to  the  readings  of  the 
MSS,  and  for  his  critical  caution  in  admitting  conjectures3. 

Among  his  younger  contemporaries  was  Glareanus  (1488 — 
1563),  who  generally  resided  at  Basel,  or  at  Freiburg, 
where  he  held  the  professorship  of  poetry,  though        Grynaeus 
his  main  distinctions  were  won  in  the  criticism  of 
the  current  Roman  chronology4.     A  second  contemporary  was 
Grynaeus  of  Heidelberg  (1493 — 1541),  who  in  1527  discovered  at 
Lorsch  a  MS  of  the  first  five  books  of  the  fifth  decade  of  Livy  (now 
in  Vienna),  taught  Greek  in  Vienna  and  Buda-Pest,  as  well  as 
Heidelberg,  and  finally  settled  in  1529  at  Basel5.     A  third  was 
Gelenius  of  Prague  (1497 — *  554),  who,  after  studying  at  Venice 

1  Ep.  922;  Drummond's  Erasmus,  \\  273  f. 

2  He  also  edited  Pliny's  Epp.  (Strassburg,  1514),  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  Pru- 
dentius,  Tertullian,  and  Origen. 

3  Bursian,  i  150-2;  Geiger,  488  f;  Life,  etc.  by  Horawitz  (1872-4);  Brief- 
'Meehsel,  1886;  G.  C.  Knod,  Aus  dtr  Bibliothek  des  B.  K.  (Schlettstadt,  1889); 
portrait  in  Boissard,  I  xli  248. 

4  Bursian,  i  1541";  Geiger,  41 8  f. 

5  Bursian,  i  156  f;   portrait  in  Beza's  /cones,  facing  p.  O  iij,  and  in  Bois- 
sard, iv  xliii  286. 


VlVENTlS  -P  OTVIT-DVRERIV51-  ORA-PHi  UPPI 
A\ENTEAVNON-POTViT-PiNGERE-DOGTA 

-/WANYS  ' 


MELANCHTHON. 
From  a  print  of  Albert  Durer's  engraving.     Fitzwilliam  Museum,  Cambridge. 


CHAP.  XVI.]   PETRUS  MOSELLANUS.      MELANCHTHON.      265 

under  Musurus,  went  in  1524  to  Basel,  where  he  produced 
editions  of  Callimachus  and  Aristophanes,  as  well  as  the  Planudean 
Anthology,  with  a  commentary  by  Brodaeus  of  Tours,  and  the 
editio  princeps  of  several  of  the  minor  Greek  geographers  (I533)1- 
In  Latin  he  published  an  edition  of  Ammianus  Marcellinus  (1533), 
with  the  aid  of  a  MS  from  Hersfeld,  which  has  since  disappeared ; 
he  was  associated  (as  we  have  seen)  with  Beatus  Rhenanus  in  an 
edition  of  Livy,  to  which  he  contributed  a  collation  of  a  MS  at 
Speyer,  and  a  new  collation  of  that  at  Mainz,  both  of  which  MSS 
are  now  lost2.  Lastly,  he  made  good  use  of  two  ancient  MSS  in 
his  Castigationes  on  the  text  of  the  elder  Pliny  (1535),  followed 
by  his  edition  of  1554,  the  merit  of  which  has  been  recently 
recognised  by  Mayhoff3.  His  short-lived  con- 
temporary, Petrus  Mosellanus  (1493—1524),  who  MJSuTnu« 
succeeded  Richard  Croke  as  the  teacher  of  Greek 
at  Leipzig  (1517),  distinguished  himself  as  an  expositor  of 
Quintilian  and  of  Gellius,  and  still  more  as  the  preceptor  of 
Camerarius,  who  is  best  known  as  the  friend  of  Melanchthon4. 

Philip  Schwarzerd,  or  Melanchthon  (1497 — 1560),  who  was 
educated  at  Tiibingen,  left  his  mark  on  the  history 

-       .  .         .      r   °  '         Melanchthon 

or  education  in  Germany,  not  only  as  a  lecturer  on 
Virgil,  Terence,  and  the  rhetorical  works  of  Cicero,  and  as  Pro- 
fessor of  Greek  at  Wittenberg,  but  also  as  a  keen  advocate  for  a 
thorough  training  in  grammar  and  style.  He  produced  works  on 
Greek  (1518)  and  Latin  Grammar  (1525-6),  and  many  editions 
of  the  Classics,  besides  text-books  of  all  kinds,  which  remained 
long  in  use.  In  conjunction  with  colleagues  inspired  by  the  same 
spirit,  he  published  a  series  of  commentaries  on  Cicero's  rhetorical 

1  He  assisted  in  the  preparation  of  the  editio  princeps  of  Josephus  (Basel, 
I544)-      The  editor  was  Arnoldus  Arlenius  of  Brabant,  who  also  produced 
the  editio  princeps  of  Lycophron  (ib.    1546);   while  his  Polybius  (1549)  was 
the  first  to  include  the  Epitome  of  books  vn — xvn.     A  pupil  of  Gyraldus 
(Depoetis,  p.  69  Wotke),  he  had  copied  for  Conrad  Gesner  the  illustrations  in 
the  MS  of  '  Oppian'  in  the  Library  of  St  Mark's,  and,  in  1538-46,  had  organised 
the  collection  of  MSS  formed  by  Mendoza,  the  envoy  of  Charles  V  at  Venice 
(Graux,  Fonds  Grec  de  rEscurial,  185-9). 

2  Bursian,  i  152  f.  *  Ed.  1906,  Praef.  p.  iv. 

4  Bursian,  i  184;  cp.  O.  G.  Schmidt,  1867,  and  De  Paedologia,  ed.   1906, 
with  Einleitung  by  Hermann  Michel. 


266  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVI. 

works,  on  Terence  and  Sallust,  on  the  Fasti  of  Ovid,  and  the 
tenth  book  of  Quintilian,  as  well  as  on  selections  from  Aristotle's 
Ethics  and  Politics.  The  series  included  editions  of  Hesiod  and 
Theognis,  and  the  Clouds  and  Plutus  of  Aristophanes,  with  trans- 
lations of  Pindar  and  Euripides,  and  of  speeches  of  Thucydides 
and  Demosthenes.  His  text-books,  and  his  courses  of  lectures, 
were  introduced  by  excellent  '  Prefaces '.  Of  his  numerous 
'  Declamations '  the  most  celebrated  is  that  on  the  study  of  the 
classical  languages,  and  especially  on  the  study  of  Greek,  de- 
livered as  his  inaugural  lecture  at  Wittenberg  (i5i8)a.  His  many 
Latin  Letters,  and  indeed  his  Latin  works  in  general,  are  written 
in  a  style  that  is  easy,  clear,  and  simple,  without  being  distinctly 
elegant.  He  had  no  sympathy  with  the  paganising  spirit  of  many 
of  the  Italian  humanists :  the  principles  of  Christianity  were  part 
of  the  very  life-blood  of  the  praeceptor  Germainae*. 

His  friend,  Joachim  Camerarius  of  Bamberg  (1500 — 1574), 
studied  Greek  under  Croke  and  others  at  Leipzig 

Camerarius  •  «_   •  i  •  T-. 

and  belonged  to  the  circle  of  Eobanus  Hessus  at 
Erfurt.  After  becoming  the  intimate  friend  of  Melanchthon  at 
Wittenberg,  he  held  classical  professorships  at  Nuremberg  (1526), 
Tubingen  (1535),  and  Leipzig  (1541-74).  His  numerous  editions 
of  the  Classics,  without  attaining  the  highest  rank,  are  characterised 
by  acumen  and  good  taste.  They  include  Homer,  the  Greek 
Elegiac  poets,  Theocritus,  Sophocles,  Thucydides  and  Herodotus, 
as  well  as  posthumous  editions  of  Aristotle's  Ethics,  Politics,  and 
Economics.  He  also  produced  an  extensive  series  of  Latin  trans- 
lations of  the  Greek  Classics.  Among  his  editions  of  Latin  authors 
a  place  of  honour  must  be  assigned  to  his  Plautus  (1552),  the 

1  De  corrigendis  adolescentiae  stitdiis.    The  Declamationes  have  been  edited 
in  two  parts  by  Hartfelder  (Weidmann,  Berlin). 

2  His   philological   works    are    included    in    the    Corpus   Refonnatorutn 
vols.  xvi — xx,  and  the  Letters  and  Declamations  in  other  volumes.     Cp.  Bur- 
sian,  i   173-8;   also  Hartfelder,   Melanchthon  ah  Praeceptor  Germaniae,  and 
Mel.  Paedagogica,  and  in  Schmid's  Gesch.   der  Erziehung,  in  ii  206 — 228; 
Paulsen,  ed.  2,  i  1 12  f,  185  f,  203  f,  223  f,  258  f ;  and  Woodward's  Renaissance 
Education,  c.  xi,  211  f;    also  T.  Bailey  Saunders  (preparing).     As  compared 
with  Wimpfeling,  Melanchthon  is  depreciated  by  Karl  Pearson,  Ethic  of  Free- 
thought,   2222.     Portrait  after  Diirer  on  p.   264;    the  life-like   medallion  at 
Hanover  is  reproduced  as  frontispiece  to  Hartfelder's  Melanchthon. 


CHAP.  XVI.]  CAMERARIUS.      STURM.  267 

text  of  which  was  founded  on  the  codex  vetus  Camerarii  (cent,  xi), 
containing  all  the  extant  plays,  and  on  the  codex  decurtatus  (xii), 
formerly  at  Freising,  containing  the  last  twelve  plays  alone.  Both 
of  these  belonged  to  the  Palatine  Library  at  Heidelberg,  but  were 
removed  to  the  Vatican  in  1623  ;  the  former  is  still  in  the  Vatican, 
while  the  latter  has  been  restored  to  Heidelberg.  They  are  now 
known  by  the  symbols  B  and  C  respectively.  Camerarius  was 
fully  equal  to  his  friend  and  exemplar  Melanchthon  in  the  wide 
extent  of  his  attainments  and  in  his  thorough  knowledge  of  Greek 
and  Latin  in  particular,  but  he  distinctly  surpassed  him  in  critical 
acumen,  and  in  this  respect  holds  one  of  the  foremost  places 
among  the  German  scholars  of  the  sixteenth  century1. 

Among  his  friends  Was  Jacob  Molsheym  of  Strassburg  (1503 — 1558),  who 

owed  his  name  of  Micyllus  to  his  taking  the   part  of  that 

Micyllus 
character  in  a  dramatic  representation  of  Lucian's  'Dream' 

at  Erfurt,  where  he  was  under  the  influence  of  the  enthusiastic  Latin  scholar 
and  poet,  Eobanus  Hessus.  After  continuing  his  studies  under  Melanchthon  at 
Wittenberg,  he  lectured  on  Latin  at  Frankfurt,  and  on  Greek  at  Heidelberg. 
He  was  associated  with  Camerarius  in  an  edition  of  Homer  comprising  the 
earlier  and  shorter  scholia  of  Didymus  (1541).  His  independent  works  in- 
cluded the  editio  princeps  of  the  fables  of  Hyginus  (1535)  from  a  MS  at  Freising, 
besides  editions  of  large  portions  of  Ovid,  a  translation  of  the  whole  of  Lucian 
(1538),  and  a  treatise  on  prosody  (1539)  2- 

Strassburg  is  also  associated  with  the  more  notable  name  of 
Johannes  Sturm  (1507 — 1589).  His  educational 
principles  are  laid  down  in  the  celebrated  treatise 
De puerorum  ludis  recte  aperiendis  (1538),  his  inaugural  oration  as 
head-master  of  Strassburg  school,  a  position  which  he  filled  with 
distinction  for  no  less  than  forty-three  years.  He  made  the 
writing  and  the  speaking  of  Latin  the  almost  exclusive  aim  of 
education.  His  school  was  frequented  by  pupils  from  all  lands, 
and  became  the  model  for  gymnasia  in  many  parts  of  Germany. 
His  correspondent  Roger  Ascham,  who  unfortunately  never  met 
him3,  describes  him  as  'one  of  his  two  dearest  friends'4;  he 
praises  his  'Select  Letters  of  Cicero'  (1539),  and  his  treatise 
De  Institutione  Prineipum*  (1551);  and,  when  he  wishes  to 

1  Bursian,  i  185-9;  Paulsen,  '  /229 — 233">    Ritschl,  Opusc.  ii  99  f,  iii  67  f; 
Ribbeck's  Ritschl,  ii  432  ;  cp.  Pokel,  s.v. 

~  Bursian,  i   192-6.  s  Katterfeld,  Roger  Ascham,  78. 

4  Scholemaster,   128.  8  Scholemaster,  3,  35. 


268  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVI. 

recommend  a  modern  model  of  the  plain,  as  well  as  the  grand 
and  the  intermediate,  styles,  he  says: — 

'  For  our  time  the  odde  man  to  performe  all  three  perfitlie,  whatsoever  he 
doth,  and  to  know  the  way  to  do  them  skilfullie,  whan  so  ever  he  list,  is  in  my 
poore  opinion  Joannes  Sturmius'1. 

An  educational  position  similar  to  that  of  Sturm  at  Strassburg  was  attained 
.  in    Saxony   by  his  short-lived  contemporary  Rivius  (1500  — 

1553),  who  published  at  the  Saxon  town  of  Meissen  an  ex- 
cellent edition  of  Sallust,  in  which  the  text  is  founded  on  the  evidence  of  four 
.  MSS  and  is  corrected  in  many  passages  (i53y)2.     His  pupil, 

Georg  Fabricius  (1516 — 1571),  studied  in  Italy  at  Padua  and 
Bologna,  and  explored  the  monuments  and  inscriptions  in  Rome.  His 
numerous  editions  of  the  Classics  included  Virgil  and  Horace,  with  the 
scholia  on  both,  while  he  also  produced  works  on  Roman  topography  and 

antiquities  (1540  f)-  His  namesake,  Franz  Fabricius  of 
F.  Fabricius 

Diiren    (1527 — 1573).    studied    in     Paris    under   Ramus   and 

Turnebus,  and  was  Rector  of  the  gymnasium  at  Dlisseldorf  (1564-73).  The 
most  important  of  his  works  was  the  Annals  of  the  Life  of  Cicero  (1563  etc.). 
He  also  arranged  Cicero's  Letters  in  chronological  order,  and,  in  editing 
several  of  Cicero's  works,  made  use  of  several  new  MSS.  Lastly,  he  supplied 
Lambinus  with  readings  from  a  MS  at  Cologne.  In  this  respect,  and  as  a 
pupil  of  eminent  teachers  in  Paris,  he  is  an  interesting  link  between  Germany 
and  France3. 

A  name  of  greater  note  is  that  of  Melanchthon's  pupil, 
Hieronymus  Wolf  (1516 — 1580),  who,  after  a 
wandering  life,  settled  at  Augsburg,  first  as  se- 
cretary and  librarian  to  the  wealthy  merchant  Johann  Jakob 
Fugger,  and  next  as  Rector  of  the  newly-founded  gymnasium, 
which  he  ruled  from  1557  until  his  death.  He  made  his  mark 
by  his  repeated  editions  of  Isocrates  (1570  etc.),  and  De- 
mosthenes (1572  etc.),  with  Latin  translations  and  explanatory 
notes.  For  his  Demosthenes,  which  was  published  in  five  folio 
volumes,  he  used  a  valuable  MS  in  the  Augsburg  Library,  the  codex 
Augustanus  primus,  now  at  Munich.  He  also  edited  Suidas 
(1564),  and  three  folio  volumes  of  Byzantine  historians4.  Roger 

1  p.   113,  with  Mayor's  n.  on  p.  208.     Cp.  Life  by  C.   Schmidt  (1855); 
Raumer's  Gesch.  d.  Pddagogik,  i  228 — 2762;  Paulsen,  i  282 — 29O2;  E.  Laas 
(Berlin,  1872);  Bursian,  i  201  f;  Geiger,  404;  portrait  in  Boissard's  Icanes, 
VII  663 ;  G.  Schmid  in  R.  A.  Schmid's  Gesch.  der  Erziehimg,  II  ii  302 — 388. 

2  Bursian,  i  204  f.  3  Bursian,  i  208  f. 

4  Bursian,  i  210-2 ;  portrait  in  Boissard's  Icones,  n  270. 


CHAP.  XVI.]      H.  WOLF.      B.  FABER.      C.  GESNER.  269 

Ascham,  during  his  stay  in  Augsburg  (1550-1),  admired  the 
varied  learning  and  the  fine  library  of  Jakob  Fugger,  and  had  the 
use  of  a  catalogue  of  the  MSS,  made  by  Wolf1,  whom  he  describes 
as  'very  simple'  in  his  personal  appearance,  and  a  frequent  guest 
at  the  table  of  the  English  embassy2. 

A  wide  range  of  reading  was  represented  by  the  educational 
text-books  of  Michael  Neander  (15215 — 1595),  who 

\    j    j          jyjn  Neander 

studied  under  Luther  and  Melanchthon  at  Witten- 
berg, and  was  for  forty-five  years  Rector  of  the  school  at  Ilfeld. 
His  best-known  works  were  his  Opus  Aureum  of  Greek  and  Latin 
moral  maxims,  his  Anthologicum  Graeco-Latimim^  and  his  selec- 
tions from  Pindar  and  Euripides3. 

Lexicography  is  represented  in  the  same  age  by  Basilius  Faber, 
Rector  of  Erfurt  (1=520 — 1=576).     In  1571  he  pro- 

v     .  7  .  B.  Faber 

duced  a  comprehensive  Latin  Thesaurus,  which  long 
survived.  It  was  re-edited  by  Cellarius  (1686),  Graevius  (1710), 
and  J.  M.  Gesner  (1726).  Lexicography  satisfied 
only  a  part  of  the  varied  intellectual  activity  of  an 
earlier  Gesner,  Conrad  Gesner  of  Ziirich  (1516 — 1565),  whose 
Bibliotheca  Universalis  (1545-9)  is  a  biographical  and  biblio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  all  the  writers  in  Greek,  Latin,  or  Hebrew 
known  to  the  author.  The  second  part  of  this  work  is  a  vast 
encyclopaedia  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  Gesner  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  modern  study  of  Natural  Science,  and  his  descrip- 
tion of  the  ascent  of  Pilatus  opens  an  era  in  the  literature  of  the 
scientific  exploration  of  the  Alps4.  His  classical  works  include  a 
Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Latin,  and  of  Proper  Names,  an  edition 
of  Stobaeus,  and  the  editio  princeps  of  Aelian,  De  Natura  Ani- 
malium  (1556).  In  his  Mithridates  (1555)  he  made  the  first 
attempt  towards  the  comparative  study  of  language5.  The  study 

1  Ep.  p.  41  (to  Sturm)  and  p.  252  (to  Froben),  eel.  Elstob. 

2  Katterfeld,  A.  Ascham,   1401". — On  H.  Wolf  as  an  educationist,  cp.  G. 
Schmid,  I.e.,  II  ii  430 — 461. 

3  Bursian,  i  212-5;  G.  Schmid,  I.e.,  n  ii  388 — 430. 

4  De  raris  herbis  etc.   (Zurich,    1555).     Cp.  F.   Cribble's  Early  Moun- 
taineers, with  Gesner's  portrait  (1899),   51 — 62. 

5  Bursian,  i  216-8;  portrait  in  Boissard,  IV  xxiii  130  (with  his  own  list  of 
his  writings). 


2/0  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVI. 

of  modern,  as  well  as  ancient,  Greek  was  represented  in  the  same 
age  by  Martin  Crusius  (1526 — 1607),  for  the  last 

Crusius  .       . 

forty-seven  years  of  his  life  professor  at  Tubingen '. 

His  younger  and  abler  colleague,  the  Latin  versifier  Nicodemus 

Frischlin  (1547 — 1590),  did  much  for  the  advance- 

Frischlm 

ment  of  the  study  of  Greek  and  Latin  Grammar8. 
Wilhelm  Xylander3  of  Augsburg  (1532 — 1576),  a  student  of 
Tubingen,   who  in    1558   succeeded    Micyllus4  as 

Xylander 

professor  of  Greek  and  as  librarian  at  Heidelberg, 
produced  the  editio  princeps  of  Marcus  Aurelius  (1558),  and 
important  editions  of  Plutarch  (1560-70),  Strabo  (1571),  and 
Stephanus  of  Byzantium  (1568).  He  made  good  use  of  the  MSS 
accessible  to  him,  and  also  gave  proof  of  a  singular  acumen  in  the 
emendation  of  texts.  His  edition  of  Pausanias  was  completed  by 
Sylburg5. 

A  thorough  knowledge  of  Greek,  considerable  critical  acumen, 
and  an  intelligent  application  of  great  powers  of 
work  were  the  main  characteristics  of  Friedrich 
Sylburg  (1536—1596),  who,  besides  studying  at  Marburg  and 
Jena,  spent  some  time  in  Geneva  and  Paris,  where  he  learnt  much 
from  Henri  Estienne,  to  whose  Greek  Thesaurus  he  afterwards 
contributed.  In  1583  he  settled  for  eight  years  at  Frankfurt,  and, 
for  the  last  five  years  of  his  life,  at  Heidelberg,  working  for  the 
press  of  Wechel  at  the  former,  and  for  that  of  Commelinus  at  the 
latter.  Besides  completing  Xylander's  edition  of  Pausanias  ( 1 584), 
he  edited  at  Frankfurt  the  whole  of  Aristotle,  and  of  Dionysius 
of  Halicarnassus,  the  three  volumes  of  the  Scriptores  historiae 
Romanae,  and  the  grammatical  work  of  Apollonius  Trepi  a-wrd^cw;. 
His  work  at  Heidelberg  included  the  Latin  writers  De  Re  Rustica, 
and  the  Greek  Fathers,  Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Justin  Martyr. 
Early  in  his  career  he  declined  an  invitation  to  fill  the  Chair  of 
Greek  at  Marburg:  he  was  content  to  hold  an  appointment  in  the 
library  at  Heidelberg,  devoting  almost  all  his  energies  to  editorial 
work.  Every  one  of  his  editions  is  distinguished  by  important 


1  Bursian,  i  223.  2  ib.  i  224-7. 

3  Holtzmann.  4  p.  267  supra, 

5  Bursian,  i  228;  portrait  in  Boissard,  IV  xli  278. 


CHAP.  XVI.]     XYLANDER.      SYLBURG.      RHODOMANN.      271 

corrections  of  the  text,  and  is  accompanied  by  a  full  and  careful 
index1. 

Sylburg  would  naturally  have  been  appointed  professor  of  Greek  at  Heidel- 
berg, but  for  his  sudden  death  from  over-work  at  the  age  of 

60.    The  vacant  professorship  was  assigned  to  Aemilius  Portus  Aemilius 

Portus 
(1550 — 1614-5),  a  son  of  the  Cretan  Greek,  Franciscus  Portus. 

The  father  had  taught  his  native  language  at  Ferrara,  and  had  withdrawn  to 
Geneva  in  1559  owing  to  his  sympathy  with  the  cause  of  the  Reformation. 
The  son,  who  was  born  at  Ferrara  and  had  taught  Greek  at  Geneva  and 
Lausanne,  was  living  in  Heidelberg  at  the  time  when  the  professorship  fell 
vacant2.  He  had  inherited  from  his  father  a  complete  command  of  his 
ancestral  tongue,  but,  notwithstanding  his  undoubted  industry,  he  was  inferior 
to  Sylburg  in  thoroughness,  in  critical  acumen,  and  in  sound  judgement.  An 
unfortunate  dispute  with  a  German  student  led  to  his  resigning  his  professor- 
ship ;  he  was  accordingly  compelled  to  confine  himself  to  the  duties  of  an 
ordinary  teacher  at  Kassel  and  Stadthagen,  where  he  died.  His  numerous 
works,  many  of  which  were  hastily  produced  under  the  pressure  of  poverty, 
included  lexicons,  such  as  those  to  Herodotus  and  Pindar  and  the  Bucolic 
Poets,  besides  many  Greek  texts  with  Latin  translations.  In  the  first  volume 
of  his  edition  of  Euripides,  there  was  printed  for  the  first  time  a  long  fragment, 
which  was  then  ascribed  to  the  Danae,  but  has  since  been  proved  to  be  spurious3. 
He  was  the  first  to  prepare  an  edition  of  the  six  books  of  Proclus  on  the 
Theology  of  Plato,  posthumously  printed  in  i6i84. 

Among  Germans  who  studied  Greek,  a  place  of  honour  is 
due  to  Lorenz  Rhodomann  (1546 — 1606),  a  school- 

•         i        i  Tr  Rhodomann 

master,  who,  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life;  was  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  and  Latin  at  Jena  and  Wittenberg.  He  had  a 
remarkable  facility  in  writing  Greek  hexameters,  and  his  epic 
poems,  anonymously  published  in  1588  by  his  former  master, 
Michael  Neander,  were  accepted  by  many  as  genuine  classical 
works.  In  ancient  literature  the  special  subject  of  his  study  was 
Quintus  Smyrnaeus,  whose  epic  poem  he  published,  with  a  Latin 
translation  and  critical  notes,  in  1608.  In  the  same  year  he 
produced  the  ripe  result  of  many  years  of  learned  labour  in  an 
edition  of  Diodorus  Siculus,  by  which  the  textual  criticism  of 
that  author  was  materially  advanced.  Ten  years  previously,  he 
had  published  Latin  translations  of  the  extracts  from  the  historian 

1  Bursian,  i  229-^232. 

2  By  the  death  of  Pithopoeus  (1596);  Portus  resigned  in  1608. 

3  Nauck,  Trag.  Gr.  Frag.  p.  714  f.  4  Bursian,  i  232-4. 


272  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVI. 

Memnon,  and  the  geographer  Agatharchides,  which  had  been 
preserved  by  Photius1. 

Far  greater   service   was   done   for    Photius   by   a   pupil   of 
Hieronymus  Wolf,  named  David  Hoeschel  (1556 — 

Hoeschel  .  .  .  ..   . 

1617),  who,  m  1 60 1,  gave  to  the  world  the  editto 
princeps  of  the  whole  of  the  Bibliotheca.  He  also  edited  the 
Illyrica  of  Appian  (1599),  the  Edoga  of  Phrynichus  (1601),  and 
the  Excerpta  ex  Legationibus  in  the  historic  encyclopaedia  of 
Constantine  Porphyrogenitus  (1603).  The  material  for  these  and 
other  works  was  derived  from  a  valuable  collection  of  Greek 
MSS  from  Corfu,  which  was  bought  in  Venice  by  the  enlightened 
Council  of  Augsburg  (i544)2.  With  the  aid  of  a  wealthy  and 
learned  member  of  that  Council,  Marcus  Welser,  he  set  up  a 
printing  press,  at  which  his  own  editions  and  those  of  other 
scholars  were  printed  on  fine  paper  and  in  excellent  type  from 
1595  to  i6i43. 

One  of  the  last  of  the  scholars  of  Germany,  who  taught  the 
language  and  literature  of  Greece  in  the  spirit  of 
Melanchthon,  was  Erasmus  Schmied  (1570 — 1637), 
who  was  professor,  first  of  Greek,  and  next  of  Mathematics,  at 
Wittenberg.  His  principal  work  was  an  edition  of  Pindar,  with 
a  Latin  translation  and  a  careful  commentary  (1616).  It  was 
founded  on  three  Palatine  MSS,  and  the  writer  claimed  to  have 
corrected  the  text  in  more  than  600  places.  The  commentary 
remained  unsurpassed  until  the  appearance  of  the  editions  of 
Heyne  and  Boeckh.  He  also  edited  Hesiod  (1603),  and  pro- 
duced a  treatise  maintaining  his  preference  for  the  '  Reuchlinian ' 
over  the  '  Erasmian  '  method  of  pronouncing  Greek4. 

Mention  may  here  be  made  of  two  Latin  scholars  of  high 
promise,  both  of  whom  died  in  the  prime  of  life. 
Janus  Guilielmus  of  Liibeck  (1555 — 1584)  published 
at  an  early  age  at  Rostock  a  treatise  on  the  officials  of  the  Roman 
Republic,  and  a  Latin  rendering  of  the  Phoenissae.  His  subse- 
quent studies  at  Cologne  were  followed  by  the  publication  at 
Antwerp  of  his  Verisimilia  on  the  early  Latin  authors  (1582).  In 

1  Bursian,  i  235^  2  Graux,  UEscurial  (1880),  no,  413. 

3  Bursian,  i  236-8 ;  portrait  in  Boissard,  vill  nnn  i. 

4  Bursian,  i  238 — 240. 


CHAP.  XVI.]      HOESCHEL.      SCHMIED.      ACIDALIUS.  2/3 

the  next  year  he  was  welcomed  in  Paris  by  all  the  foremost 
scholars  of  the  day,  and  there  published  his  maturest  work,  the 
Plautinarum  Quaestionum  Commentarius.  In  1584  he  conclu- 
sively refuted  Sigonius  by  proving  that  the  Consolatio,  printed  in 
1583,  was  not  the  work  of  Cicero1.  From  the  days  of  his  youth 
Cicero  had  been  his  favourite  author,  and  he  had  collected 
materials  for  the  correction  of  the  text  in  Cologne  and  Paris. 
The  results  were  first  published  in  Gruter's  edition  of  1618,  long 
after  their  author's  early  death  at  Bourges  in  1584*. 

In   extent   and   variety   of  published   work   Guilielmus    was 
surpassed  by  Valens  Acidalius  (i^y — 1595),  who 

3   ,  Acidalius 

m  1590  left  the  universities  of  Northern  Germany 
for  those  of  Italy.  At  Bologna,  where  he  spent  most  of  his  time 
in  the  study  of  the  Classics,  he  graduated  in  Medicine.  At 
Padua,  he  had  already  produced,  in  1590,  an  edition  of  Velleius 
Paterculus,  containing  many  corrections'of  the  text.  He  also  paid 
much  attention  to  Apuleius,  and  the  plays  of  Plautus  and  Seneca. 
On  returning  to  Germany  in  1593,  he  settled  at  Breslau,  but  the 
only  results  of  his  studies  abroad  that  he  produced  in  the  two 
remaining  years  of  his  life  were  his  'Animadversions'  on  Q.  Curtius. 
His  corrections  of  the  text  of  Plautus  and  Tacitus  and  the  Latin 
Panegyrici  were  published  by  his  brother 3. 

Far  less  capacity  for  the  criticism  of  Plautus  was  displayed  by 
Friedrich  Taubmann  of  Wittenberg  (i*,6s. — 1613), 

3    v    °    D  Taubmann 

who  deserves,  however,  to  be  remembered  for  the 
zeal  with  which  he  endeavoured  to  counteract  the  decline  in  Latin 
style  which  he  laments  in  his  thesis  De  Lingua  Latina  (1602). 
Notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  men  like  Ulrich  von  Hutten  and 
Martin  Luther  to  mould  the  German  language  for  the  purposes 
of  literature,  Latin  long  continued  to  be  the  normal  medium, 
not  only  for  works  of  learning  of  every  description4,  but  even  for 
poetry5. 

An  early  link  between  Italy  and  Hungary  may  be  found  in  the 
treatise  on  education  addressed  in  1450  by  Aeneas 
Sylvius  to  Ladislas,  the  youthful  king  of  Hungary 

1  p.  144  supra,  2  Bursian,  i  240-2.  3  Bursian,  i  242  f. 

4  Bursian,  i  244^  5  ib.  i  250  f. 

S.    II.  18 


2/4  HUNGARY.  [CENT.  XV  f 

and  Bohemia.  The  study  of  the  best  Latin  literature  in  prose 
and  verse  is  here  strongly  recommended,  with  details  as  to  the 
authors  that  should  be  preferred.  For  reasons  of  style,  the 
youthful  king  is  warned  against  wasting  his  time  over  the  history 
of  Bohemia  or  Hungary1.  Five  years  later  the  royal  youth 
requested  the  king  of  Naples,  and  the  duke  of  Modena,  to  send 
him  any  works  of  interest  on  the  exploits  of  the  ancient  Romans, 
or  of  others  who  were  worthy  of  imitation2;  but  his  life  of 
promise  came  to  an  early  end  at  the  age  of  eighteen.  Even  the 
heroic  general  of  the  king's  armies,  Joannes  Hunyady,  found  time 
for  studying  the  works  of  Poggio;  but  the  true  founder  of  classical 
studies  in  Hungary  was  Joannes  Vitez  (d.  1472),  who 
had  studied  in  Italy  before  becoming  secretary  to 
Hunyady;  chancellor  to  Hunyady's  royal  son,  Matthias  Corvinus; 
and,  finally,  cardinal  archbishop  of  Gran.  Vitez  was  in  constant 
correspondence  with  Florence,  sending  for  correct  copies  of  the 
Classics,  and  himself  transcribing  translations  from  the  Greek. 
It  was  his  ambition  to  found  a  Hungarian  university,  and  he 
prompted  the  king  to  become  a  patron  of  learning.  Among 
those  whom  he  befriended  was  the  aged  Italian  humanist, 
Vergerio,  while  he  received  from  Argyropulos  the  dedication  of 
a  rendering  of  the  De  Caelo  of  Aristotle3. 

One  of  the  youths  sent  at  his  charges  to  receive  their  educa- 
tion  in  Italy  was   his   nephew,  Janus   Pannonius 
Pannonius        (H34— 1472)>  wh°,  from  the  age  of  thirteen   to 
that  of  twenty,  was  an  inmate  of  the   house   of 
Guarino  at  Ferrara,  where  he  gave  proof  of  a  singular  precocity  of 
intellect,  as  well  as  a  marvellous  memory.     He  produced  trans- 
lations from  the  Greek,  but  his  favourite  field  of  composition  was 
Latin  verse.     When  he  had  studied  law  for  four  years  at  Padua, 
and  was  still  under  the  age  of  twenty-five,   his  uncle   induced 
Pius  II  to  appoint  him  to  a  Hungarian  bishopric.     Returning  to 
Hungary  with  a  large  collection  of  Greek  and   Latin  MSS,  he 
regarded  his  native  land  as  a  place  of  exile  as  compared  with  the 

1  p.  72  supra;  De  Liberonun  Educatione,  translated  in  Woodward's  Vit- 
torino,  134 — 158  ;   cp.  Harvard  Lectures,  67 — 69. 

2  Abel's  Analecta  (Budapest,   1880),   156  f. 
:)  Voigt,  ii  3i6-83. 


CHAP.  XVI.]      VITEZ.     J.  PANNONIUS.      CORVINUS.  275 

Italy  that  he  had  left.  His  gratitude  to  his  teacher,  Guarino,  was 
enshrined  in  a  lengthy  poem  in  Latin  hexameters1,  and,  to  the 
end  of  his  life,  Latin  verse  was  the  main  theme  of  his  interest. 
Ficino's  rendering  of  Plato's  Symposium  was  dedicated  to  him; 
and  he  himself  dedicated  to  king  Matthias  Corvinus  a  translation  of 
part  of  the  Iliad,  and  of  the  Apophthegms  of  Plutarch.  Unhappily 
he  was  induced  by  his  uncle  to  join  in  a  conspiracy  against  the 
king,  and,  not  long  afterwards,  he  died  at  the  early  age  of  thirty- 
eight2. 

King  Matthias  Corvinus  (1443 — 1490)  was  interested  in  Latin 
poets,  such  as  Silius  Italicus,  in  historians,  such  as 

„  „  .  Corvinus 

Livy  and  Curtius,  and  in  -Roman  writers  on  the 
military  art.  In  1467,  with  the  approval  of  the  Pope,  he  founded 
an  academy  at  Pressburg,  but  young  Hungarians  still  preferred, 
if  possible,  to  complete  their  education  in  Italy.  He  also  formed 
a  fine  library  at  Buda,  where  thirty  copyists  and  artists  were 
employed  in  keeping  up  the  supply  of  illuminated  MSS.  This 
library,  which  belonged  to  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years  of  his  life, 
was  unfortunately  scattered  in  all  directions  at  his  death3.  He 
introduced  the  art  of  printing  and  founded  a  university  at  Buda; 
Italian  humanists  were  welcomed  at  his  court,  and  an  interest 
in  literature  flourished  in  the  land ;  but  the  intellectual  life  of 
Hungary,  as  well  as  the  newly-founded  university,  was  over- 
whelmed for  a  time  by  the  Turks,  who  invaded  the  country  after 
the  victory  of  Mohacs  in  15  26*. 

In  Poland,  the  earliest  apostle  of  humanism  was  apparently 
the  cardinal  archbishop  of  Cracow,  Sbignew  Oles- 
nicky.     He  had  studied  at  Cracow,  but  there  is 

.   .       ,     _  Olesnicky 

nothing  to  prove  that  he  had  ever  visited   Italy. 

His  command  of  Latin  prose,  mainly  founded  on  modern  models, 

1  p.  51  supra. 

2  Vespasiano,    Vile,    11^ ;    Voigt,   ii    318 — ^43',    Pocinata   and    Opnscula 
(Utrecht,   1784);    Abel,  Analeda  (1880). 

3  Abel  in  Lit.  Bericht en  atis  Ungarn,   n  iv  (1878).      Cp.  Marki  in  Osl. 
Ung.  Rev.  xxv.      In  this  library  J.  A.  Brassicanus  (1500 — 1539)  saw  a  com- 
plete Hypereides  (Praef.  ad  Salvianum,  1530). 

4  Voigt,  ii  3i5-3*73- 

1 8— 2 


POLAND.  [CENT.  xv. 

such  as  the  letters  of  Salutati,  led  to  his  appointment  as  secretary 
to  the  king  of  Poland.  In  1423  he  became  bishop  of  Cracow,  a 
position  which  he  held  for  thirty-two  years.  In  1424  he  there 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Filelfo;  and  for  twelve  years  he  cor- 
responded with  Aeneas  Sylvius,  who,  as  bishop  of  Triest  in  1450, 
displayed  to  the  German  Councillors  at  Neustadt  a  letter  from  the 
Polish  Cardinal  proving  that  the  German  skill  in  Latin  was 
surpassed  in  Poland1. 

For  twenty-four  years  the  Cardinal's  secretary  was  Johannes 
Dlugosz,  who,  in  a  letter  to  Aeneas  Sylvius,  con- 

Diugosz  ... 

fesses  to  his  admiration  for  clearness  of  style,  and 
is  himself  known  as  the  author  of  the  first  important  Latin  history 

of  Poland2.  Latin  poetry  rather  than  prose  was  the 
ofGSanok  favourite  study  of  Gregor  of  Sanok,  who,  after 

setting  out  on  his  wanderings  in  Germany  at  the 
age  of  twelve,  settled  down  as  a  student  at  Cracow,  where  he 
graduated  in  1439.  He  lectured  on  the  Eclogues  and  Georgics, 
and  on  Plautus  and  Juvenal.  After  acting  as  tutor  to  the  sons  of 
Hunyady,  he  lived  in  the  household  of  bishop  Vitez,  and  himself 
became  archbishop  of  Lemberg  in  1451.  He  wrote  much,  but 
published  little  apart  from  a  selection  from  his  Latin  verses,  with 
two  historical  works.  In  Italy  he  might  have  attained  that 
distinction  in  literature,  for  which  he  could  find  no  scope  in  the 
land  of  his  birth.  Among  the  Italians  whom  he  welcomed  in 
Poland  was  Filippo  Buonaccorsi,  who  had  fled  from  Rome  when 
the  local  Academy  was  suppressed  by  Paul  II3.  Buonaccorsi  was 
the  first  Italian  to  introduce  into  Poland  a  wider  and  more 
popular  interest  in  Classical  studies4.  It  was  at  Cracow  that  (as 
we  have  already  seen)  he  met  Conrad  Celtes,  who  was  thereby 
inspired  to  found  humanistic  societies  in  Poland  and  Hungary, 
as  well  as  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine6. 

1  Voigt,  ii  32  7-9".  2  ib.  ii  329s.  3  p.  92  supra. 

4  Zeissberg,  Die  polnische  Geschichtschreibung  des  MAs  (1873),  349  f 
(Voigt,  ii  3303). 

6  p.  259  supra.  On  humanism  in  Poland,  cp.  Cod.  Epist.  Saec.  XF,  ed. 
Sokolowski  et  Szujski  (Man.  medii  aevi,  t.  ii)  Crac.  1876. 


BOOK    III. 

THE   SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. 


Nescire  qnaedam,  magna  pars  Sapientiae  est. 

GROTIUS,  Poemata,  p.  332,  ed.   1617. 

Non  audiendi  sunt  homines  imperiti,  qui  humano  ingcnio 
majorem,  vel  inutilem,  et  rebus  gerendls  adversam  TroXv/jidOfiav 
criminantiir. 

MORHOF,  Polyhistor,  i  i  §  i,   1688. 

La  fin  naturelle  de  la  science,  et  par  consequent  des  etudes, 
est,  apres  Jestre  rempli  soy-mesme,  de  travailler  pour  les  autres. 

MABILLON,  Etudes  Monastiques,  Part  n,  Ch.  xv,   1691. 


History  of  Scholarship  in  the  Seventeenth  Century. 


Italy 

France 

Netherlands 

England  and 
Scotland 

Germany 

Savile 

1549—1622 

P.  Merula 

Downes 

1558—1607 

1549—1628 

Sirmond 

Baudius 

Bacon 

Gruter 

1559—1651 

1561—1613 

1561—1629 

1560  —  1627 

Strada 

Guyet 

Wowerius 

Gataker 

Taubmann 

1572—1649 

1575—1655 

1574—1612 

1574—1654 

'565—1613 

Puteanus 

R.  Burton 

H.  Lindenbrog 

1574—1646 

1576—1640 

1570—1642 

Heraldus 

Scriverius 

Dempster 

Seber 

1579—1649 

Peiresc 

1576—1660 
G.  j.  Vossius 

1579-1625 
Barclay 

1573—1634 
F.  Lindenbrog 

1580—1637 

1577—1649 

1582—1621 

1573-1648 

Donati 

C.  Labb<< 

Meursius 

Selden 

Pareus 

1584—1640 

1582—1657 

1579-1639 

1584—1654 

1576—1648 

Petavius 

Putschrus 

Hales 

Scioppius 

1583—1652 

1580—1606 

1584—1656 

1576-1649 

Cluverius 

Drummond          j  Bernegger 

1580—1623 

I585—  1649              1582—1640 

Palmerius 

D.  Heinsius 

Johnston                 Barth 

1587—1670 

1580-1—1655 

1587—1641              1587—1658 

Doni 

Salmasius 

Grotius 

May                      j  Reinesius 

1594-1647 
Cassiano     dal 

1588—1653 
P.  Seguier 

1583—1645 
Salmasius    at 

I595—  1650             1587—1667 

Meric  Casaubon    Holstenius 

Pozzo  d.  1657 

1588—1672 

Leyden 

1599—1671              1596-1661 

Nardini 

Maussac 

1631—1653 

Duport                 i  Kircher 

d.  1661 

1590—1650 

F.  Junius 

1606—1679             1601  —  1680 

Vigerus 

1589-1677 

Milton                  !  Weller 

1591—1647 
H.  Valesius 

J.  F.  Gronovius 

1608—1674 
Falkland 

1602—1664 
Conring 

1603—1676 

1611—1671 

1610—1643 

1606-1681 

P.  Labbe' 

Pearson 

Freinsheim 

1607—1667 

1613—1686 

1608—1660 

Bellori 

Du  Cange 

H.  More 

Boekler 

1615—1696 

1610—1688 

1614—1687 

1610—1672 

Pietro  Bartoli 

Manage 

Isaac  Vossius 

Cudworth 

Scheffer 

1635—1700 

1613—1692 

1618—1689 

1617—1688 

1621—1679 

R.  Fabretti 

Tan.  Faber 

N.  Heinsius 

Stanley 

Vorst 

1619—1700 

1615—1672 

1620  —  1681 

1625—1687 

1623—1696 

Rapin 

Spanheim 

Theoph.  Gale 

Jonsen 

1621—1687 

1629  —  1710 

1628—1678 

1624—1659 

Huet 

Meibomius 

Barrow 

Lambeck 

1630—1721 

1630  —  1710 

1630-1677 

1628—1680 

Mabillon 

Graevius 

Dryden 

Spanheim 

1632—1707 

1632  —1703 

1631  —  1700 

1629  —  1710 

C.  Patin 

Thomas  Gale 

Gude 

1633—1694 

1635—1702 

,1635—1689 

Hardouin 

Rycke 

H.  Dodwell 

Cellar!  us 

1646  —  1729 

1640—1690 

1641—1711 

1638—1707 

Spon 

Francius 

Baxter 

Morhof 

1647—1685 

1645-1704 

1650—1723 

1639—1690 

Salvini 

Dacier 

JakobGronovius 

Barnes                  ;  Obrecht 

1653—1729 

1651  —  1722 

1645—1716 

1654—1712 

1646—1673 

Anne  Dacier 

Broukhusius 

Creech 

Beger 

1654—1720 

1649—1707 

1659—1700 

1653—1705 

J.J.F.Vaillant 

Cuypers 

Hudson 

1665—1708 

1644  —  1716 

1662—1719 

Ficoroni 

Perizonius 

Bentley 

1664-1747 

1651-1715 

1662—1742 

Potter 

1674—1747 

CHAPTER   XVII. 

ITALY   IN   THE   SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY. 

IN  the  seventeenth  century  the  classical  learning  of  Italy  was 
mainly  limited  to  archaeology, — a  study  that  was 

,  ,        ,  ,  r  Archaeologists 

stimulated  by  the  perpetual  presence  of  the  rums  of 

old  Rome,  by  the  accumulation  of  ever-increasing  stores  of  Latin 

inscriptions,  and  by  the  occasional  discovery  of  interesting  works 

of  ancient  art.     In  the  first  half  of  the  century  a  large  collection 

of  drawings  and  prints  from  the  antique  was  formed  at  Rome 

by  the  Commendatore  Cassiano  dal  Pozzo  (d.  1657) 

and  his  brother  Antonio.     This  collection  was  con-     da?^ozzo° 

stantly   consulted   by   Winckelmann   while   it   was 

still  in  the  possession  of  Cardinal  Alessandro  Albani,  from  whom 

it  was  purchased  in   1762  for  the    Royal   Library   at   Windsor1. 

The  topography  of  ancient  Rome  was  intelligently  described  in 

the  Roma  vetus  ac  recens  (1638)  of  a  Jesuit  teacher  of  rhetoric 

in  Rome  named  Alessandro  Donati  of  Siena  (1584 — 1640),  and 

in  a  diffuse  and  popular  work  on  the  same  subject. 

3  Donati 

the  Roma  antica  of  Famiano  Nardini  of  Florence,          Nardini 
who   died   in    Rome   in    1661.     The   Inscriptions 
Antiquae  of  Giovanni  Battista  Doni  (1594 — 1647)  were  posthu- 
mously published  by  Gori  in  1731.    The  distinguished  archaeo- 
logist, Giovanni  Pietro  Bellori  (1615 — 1696),  pub- 
lished the  'Capitoline  plan'  of  Rome  (1673),  and     ^^ and 
reproduced  the  coins  and  gems  in  the  collection  of 
queen  Christina,  the  portraits  of  ancient  poets  and  philosophers  and 
Roman  emperors,  the  paintings  in  the  Roman  crypts  and  in  the 
sepulchre  of  the  Nasos,  the  reliefs  on  the  Antonine  column,  and 

1  Michaelis,  Ancient  Marbles  in  Great  Britain,  84,  433,  718. 


280  ITALY.  [CENT.  xvn. 

a  large  series  of  similar  sculptures  included  in  the  Admiranda 

Romanarum  antiquitatum  vestigia  (1693).     The   engravings   for 

these  great  works  were  mainly  executed  by  Pietro  Bartoli1.     His 

contemporary,  Raphael   Fabretti  of  Urbino  (1619 

— 1700),  who  became  director  of  the  archives  of 

Rome,  published  a   clear  and  almost  complete   account  of  the 

Roman  aqueducts  (1680),  and  a  fine  folio  volume  on  Trajan's 

column  (1683).     He  also  did  good  service  by  his  learned  labours 

in  the  field  of  Latin  inscriptions, 

'  His  diligence  in  collecting  inscriptions  was  only  surpassed  by  his  sagacity 
in  explaining  them  ;  and  his  authority  has  been  preferred  to  that  of  any  other 
antiquary.  His  time  was  spent  in  delving  among  ruins  and  vaults,  to  explore 
the  subterranean  treasures  of  Latium;  no  heat,  nor  cold,  nor  rain,  nor  badness 
of  road,  could  deter  him  from  these  solitary  peregrinations.  Yet  the  glory  of 
Fabretti  must  be  partly  shared  with  his  horse.  This  wise  and  faithful  animal, 
named  Marco  Polo,  had  acquired,  it  is  said,  the  habit  of  standing  still,  and  as 
it  were  pointing,  when  he  came  near  an  antiquity  ;  his  master  candidly  owning 
that  several  things  which  would  have  escaped  him  had  been  detected  by  the 
antiquarian  quadruped'2. 

In  Latin  scholarship  the  most  pleasing  product  of  this  century 

is   to  be  found   in   the   Prolusiones  Academicae   of  the   Roman 

Jesuit,   Famianus  Strada  (1572 — 1649),   first  PUD" 

StfcLCld. 

lished  in  1617.  In  the  varied  pages  of  this  compact 
and  compendious  volume  the  author  shows  considerable  taste  in 
dealing  with  large  questions  of  historical,  oratorical  and  political 
style. 

The  most  interesting  of  his  Prolusiones  are  the  fifth  and  sixth  of  the  second 
book,  where  we  have  a  critical  review  of  the  Latin  poets  of  the  age  of  Leo,  and 
a  discourse  on  poetry,  purporting  to  have  been  delivered  by  one  of  their 
number,  Sadoleto.  The  ancient  models  imitated  by  the  poets  of  that  age  are 
next  illustrated  by  a  series  of  six  short  poems  composed  by  Strada  himself, 
with  criticisms  on  each.  The  following  are  the  six  poets  selected,  with  the 
names  of  the  modern  poets  to  whom  the  several  imitations  are  dramatically 
assigned : — Lucan  (Janus  Parrhasius),  Lucretius  (Bembo),  Claudian  (Casti- 
gltone),  Ovid  (Hercules  Strozzi],  Statius  (Pontano),  and  Virgil  (Naugerio)3.  The 
happiest  of  these  parodies  are  those  on  Lucan  and  Ovid  ;  a  lower  degree  of 

1  '635 — 1700;  Stark,  115. 

2  Hallam,  iii  255*,  who  refers  to  Fabroni,  Vitae  Italorum,  vi,  and  Visconti 
in  Biographic  Universelle.     Cp.  Stark,  116. 

3  pp.  322 — 342,  Amsterdam,  1658. 


CHAP.  XVII.]  R.  FABRETTI.      STRADA.  28 1 

success  is  attained  in  the  case  of  Virgil,  Statius  and  Claudian,  and  the  lowest 
in  that  of  Lucretius.     But  this  last  has  an  interest  of  its  own.     The  theme  is 
the  magnet,  and  the  poem  describes  an  imaginary  method  of  communication 
between  absent  friends  by  means  of  two  magnetic  needles  which  successively 
point  towards  the  same  letters  of  the  alphabet,  however  far  the  friends  may  be 
removed  from  one  another, — .in  ingenious  play  of  fancy,  which  almost  antici- 
pates the  electric  telegraph.      This  poem  has  been  specially  mentioned  by 
Addison  in  the  Spectator^,  while  all  the  six  poems  are  noticed  in  the  Guardian"*. 
The  theme  of  the  poem  in  the  style  of  Claudian  is  the  famous  contest  between 
the  nightingale  and  the  player  on  the  lute,  which  (as  observed  by  Addison)  is 
introduced  into  one   of  the   pastorals   of  Ambrose  Philips   (d.   1749)-      But 
Addison  omits  to  observe  that  the  whole  of  the  poem  had  been  elegantly 
translated  by  Richard    Crashaw,   who  died  exactly  a  hundred  years  before 
Philips,  in  fact  in  the  same  year  as  Strada  himself.      Strada's  name  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  Delights  of  the  Muses,  where  the  first  poem,  on  Music's 
Duel,  ends  with  the  following  description  of  the  nightingale's  fate  : 
'  She  fails  ;   and  failing,  grieves  ;    and  grieving,  dies ; — 
She  dies,  and  leaves  her  life  the  victor's  prize, 
Falling  upon  his  lute.     O,  fit  to  have — 
That  lived  so  sweetly — dead,  so  sweet  a  grave'. 

In  the  second  half  of  this  century  there  were  other  Latin  poets,  both  within 
and  without  the  '  Society  of  Jesus'.    Among  these  may  be  men- 
tioned Tommaso  Ceva  (1648 — 1 737),  the  author  of  an  elegant,        Ceva 
though  somewhat   incongruous,    poem   on    the   childhood    of        Sergardi 
Jesus;  and  Sergardi,  who  bitterly  satirises  the  jurist  Gravina3. 
But  to  the  classical  scholar  not  one  of  these  poets   is  equal  in  interest  to 
Strada. 

Strada  was  violently  attacked  in  a  curious  work  by  Caspar 
Scioppius  (1576 — 1649),  the  Infamia  Famiani,  in  which  that 
captious  critic  objects  to  Strada's  use  of  Latin  words  found  only 
in  authors  of  the  Silver  age.  The  critic,  who  was  born  near 
Nuremberg,  had  spent  nearly  half  a  century  in  Italy  after  joining 
the  Church  of  Rome  in  1598.  An  account  of  his  varied  career 
is  reserved  for  the  chapter  on  the  land  of  his  birth4. 

In  the  Italian  literature  of  the  transition  from  the  sixteenth 
to  the  seventeenth  century  the  lyric  poet  Chiabrera 

J  j  c  Imitators 

(1552 — 1637),  who  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits  in       of  Pindar 
Rome  but  spent  most  of  his  life  at  his  birthplace 

1  No.  241  (iii  135  of  Addison's  Works,  eel.  1868). 

*  Nos.  115,  119,  122  (Works'w  221,  237 — 243).     Cp.  Sir  Thomas  Browne's 
Works,  \  152  f,  155,  ed.  1852;  Hallam,  iii  132*. 

3  Hallam,  iii  490  f4.  4  c.  xxi  infra. 


282  ITALY.  [CENT,  xvn  f 

Savona,  endeavoured  to  strike  out  a  new  line  by  the  avowed 
imitation  of  Pindar.  His  ruling  instinct  as  a  scholar  is  revealed 
in  the  sentence : — '  When  I  see  anything  eminently  beautiful,  or 
taste  something  that  is  excellent,  I  say :  It  is  Greek  Poetry %1. 
The  '  Pindaric  Ode ',  with  its  strophe,  antistrophe  and  epode, 
but  without  any  imitation  of  the  poet's  style,  had  been  introduced 
by  Trissino  (d.  1550).  The  study  of  Pindar  is  also  exemplified 
in  the  free  translation  by  Alessandro  Adimari  (d.  1649) 2.  I" 
1671  'Pindaric  Odes'  appear  among  the  works  of  the  great  lyric 
poet  Guidi  (1650 — 1712),  but  Guidi  was  unfamiliar  with  the  text 
of  Pindar  himself3.  Pindar  was  afterwards  translated  by  the 
Abate  Angelo  Mazzo  of  Parma  (d.  1817)*,  but  the  eminent  critic 
Carducci  considers  that  the  only  Italian  lyric  poem,  '  in  the  deep 
Pindaric  sense  of  the  term',  is  the  Sepolcri  of  Ugo  Foscolo 
(d.  i827)5. 

The  Alcaic  odes  of  Horace  were  imitated  by  Chiabrera6,  and 
the  'Roman  Pindar'  was  emulated  by  Fulvio  Testi  of  Ferrara 
(1593 — i6o6)7,  of  whom  it  has  been  said  that  'had  he  chosen 
his  diction  with  greater  care,  he  might  have  earned  the  name 
of  the  Tuscan  Horace18.  The  odes  had  already  been  imitated 
by  Bernardo  Bembo  (1493 — 1569),  by  Bartolomeo  del  Bene  of 
Florence  (d.  1558)°,  and,  later  than  this  century,  by  Luigi  Cerretti 
(d.  1 808) 10  and  others. 

1  Symonds,  vii  316  f.     Cp.  Hallam,  iii  pf4;  portrait  in  Wiese  u.  Percopo, 
It.  Lilt.  399. 

2  Hallam,  iii  1 14.  3  Wiese  u.  Percopo,  409. 
4  Wiese  u.  Percopo,  532.  6  ib.  532. 

6  ib.  401.  7  ib.  400,  402. 

8  Crescimbeni  (Hallam,  iii  io4).  9  ib.  339. 

10  Wiese  u.  Percopo,  532. 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 

FRANCE   IN   THE   SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY. 

WE  have  seen  that,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
the  two  greatest  representatives  of  classical  learning  in  France, 
Scaliger  and  Casaubon,  were  Protestants,  who,  in  1593  and  1610, 
were  compelled  to  leave  their  native  land  for  the  Netherlands  and 
England1.     Owing  to  the  influence  of  the  Counter-Reformation, 
and  the  training   of  the   Jesuits,    the   energies  of  the   classical 
scholars  that  still  remained  in  France  were  diverted  from  pagan 
to  Christian  studies.     Thus  the  Jesuit,  Jacques  Sirmond  (1559 — 
1651),  edited  Apollinaris  Sidonius  (i6i4)2,  together 
with  a  number  of  ecclesiastical  writers.     Another       p'Jtavius 
Jesuit,  Denys  Petau,  or  Petavius,  of  Orleans  (1583 
— 1652),  besides  editing  Synesius  (1612)  and  Epiphanius  (1622), 
devoted   a   large   part   of  his  chronological  work,  the  Doctrina 
Temporum  (1627),  to  the  criticism  of  Scaliger's  De  Emendatione 
Temporum*.     A   third,  Fronton   du    Due   (1558 — 1624),    edited 
Chrysostom;  while  a  pupil  of  the  Jesuits,  Nicolas  Rigault  (1577 — 
1654),  edited  Tertullian   and   Cyprian.     Among   other   eminent 
men  of  learning,   who  were  trained  by  that   Society,  were  the 
brothers  Henri  and  Adrien  de  Valois,  and  Du  Cange,  to  whom  we 
shall  shortly  return4.     The  Catholic  side  was  also  represented  by 
Francois  Guyet  of  Angers  (1575 — 1655),  a  private 
tutor  in  Rome  and  Paris,  whose  posthumous  works       p^resc 
include  acute  criticisms  on  Hesiod  and  Hesychius, 

1  pp.  203,  207  supra. 

2  Cp.  Gibbon's  Life  and  Letters,  56,  ed.  1869. 

3  Hallam,  ii  295-7* ;  Bernays,  Scaliger,  76,  165. 

4  pp.  287-9  i"f''a.     Cp.  Tilley,  in  Cainb.  Afod.  Hist,  iii  61. 


SALMASIUS. 
From  the  engraving  by  Boulonnois  in  Bullart's  Academic,   1682,  ii  226. 


CHAP.  XVIII.]  SALMASIUS.  285 

and  on  Horace,  Phaedrus,  and  Valerius  Maximus,  as  well  as 
recensions  of  Terence  and  Plautus,  with  a  translation  of  the 
latter.  His  contemporary  Nicolas  Peiresc  (1580 — 1637),  wno 
was  educated  by  the  Jesuits  at  Avignon,  and  distinguished  him- 
self in  mathematics  and  in  oriental  languages  at  Padua,  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Camden  and  Saville  on  his  visit  to  England 
in  1605.  On  returning  to  the  South  of  France  he  began  to  form 
his  extensive  collection  of  marbles  and  medals.  Among  those 
whom  he  aided  by  his  liberality  were  Grotius  and  Valesius,  as 
well  as  Scaliger  and  Salmasius1. 

Claude  de  Saumaise,  better  known  as  Salmasius  (1588 — 1653), 
was  a  native  of  Saumur.     His  early  promise  was 

.    ,         „,  .  .  .  01-  Salmasius 

recognised  by  Casaubon,  who,  writing  to  Scaliger 
in  1607,  calls  him  &juvenis  ad  miraculum  doctus^.  In  that  year, 
at  the  age  of  19,  he  had  already  discovered  at  Heidelberg  the 
celebrated  MS  of  the  Anthologia  Palatina  of  Constantine  Cephalas, 
and  was  receiving  letters  from  the  aged  Scaliger3,  to  whom  he 
sent  transcripts  of  many  of  the  epigrams,  and  by  whom  he  was 
strongly  urged  to  edit  the  work.  The  edition  was  repeatedly 
promised,  but  was  never  produced;  in  1623  the  MS  was  carried 
off  to  Rome,  where  it  remained  until  1797  ;  and  it  was  not  until 
1813-4  that  the  text  of  the  whole  work  was  printed  by  Jacobs. 
At  Heidelberg  Salmasius  was  under  the  influence  of  Gruter,  who 
contributed  the  notes  to  his  early  edition  of  Florus  (1609).  In 
his  edition  of  the  Historiae  Augustae  Scriptores  (1620)  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  less  as  a  sound  textual  critic  than  as  an 
erudite  commentator.  It  was  said  that  what  Salmasius  did  not 
know  was  beyond  the  bounds  of  knowledge4,  but  his  erudition 
had  its  limits,  for,  in  a  discussion  on  the  different  varieties  of 
silk,  his  'profound,  diffuse,  and  obscure  researches'5  show  that 
he  was  'ignorant  of  the  most  common  trades  of  Dijon  or 
Leyden'6.  His  most  remarkable  work  is  that  entitled  Plinianae 
Exercitationes,  in  which  more  than  900  pages  are  devoted  to  the 
elucidation  of  the  portions  of  Pliny  included  in  the  geographical 
compendium  of  Solinus  (1629). 

1  Hallam,  iii  238— 240*.  2  Epp.  p.  284. 

3  Epp.  245-8,  pp.  525 — 536.  4  Hallam,  ii  2834;  p.  286  n.  6  infra. 

5  Hist.  Aug.  pp.  388 — 391.  6  Gibbon,  c.  40  (iv  229  Bury). 


286  FRANCE.  [CENT.  xvn. 

The  Chair  of  Scaliger,  which  had  been  left  vacant  at  Leyden 
since  1609,  was  filled  in  1632  by  the  call  of  Salmasius,  who,  like 
Scaliger,  was  expressly  invited  not  to  teach,  but  to  '  shed  on  the 
university  the  honour  of  his  name,  illustrate  it  by  his  writings,  and 
adorn  it  by  his  presence'1.  At  Leyden  he  produced  his  learned 
treatise  De  Usuris  (1638),  which  includes  a  historical  survey  of 
the  subject,  and  insists  on  the  legitimacy  of  usury  for  clergy 
and  laity  alike.  This  was  followed  by  an  appendix  De  Modo 
Usurarum  (1639).  In  his  Funus  linguae  Hellenisticae  (1643)  he 
contends  that  the  language  of  the  Greek  Scriptures  is  not  a 
separate  dialect  but  the  ordinary  Greek  of  the  time2.  In  1649 
the  exiled  king,  Charles  II,  then  living  in  the  neighbourhood  at 
the  Hague,  requested  Salmasius  to  vindicate  the  memory  of 
Charles  I  in  a  Latin  treatise  that  should  appeal  to  the  whole  of 
Europe.  Accordingly,  Salmasius,  'a  man  of  enormous  reading 
and  no  judgment ',  a  pedant  destitute  of  either  literary  or  political 
tact,  and  utterly  ignorant  of  public  affairs,  prepared  his  Defensio 
Regia  Pro  Carolo  7(i649)3.  The  reply  was  entrusted  to  Milton, 
who,  in  his  pamphlet  entitled  Pro  Populo  Anglicano  Defensio 
(1651),  began  by  attacking  Salmasius  for  using  persona  of  an 
individual,  but,  in  the  very  same  passage,  unfortunately  exposed 
himself  to  attack  by  using  vapulandum  instead  of  verberandum*. 
Milton's  pamphlet  teems  with  personalities,  and  the  same  is  true 
of  the  rejoinder  by  Salmasius,  which  was  his  latest  work5.  Neither 
of  the  controversialists  gained  any  credit,  or  even  any  pecuniary 
reward.  Milton  paid  the  penalty  of  his  efforts  in  the  total  loss 
of  sight,  while  Salmasius,  who  had  left  Leyden  in  1650,  for  the 
Swedish  court  of  queen  Christina,  ended  his  days  in  gloom.  He 
left  behind  him  a  vast  reputation  for  learning.  He  is  called  by 
Gronovius  the  Varro  and  Eratosthenes  of  his  age,  and  he  is 
lauded  by  Grotius  as  'optimus  interpres  veteris  Salmasius  aevi'6. 

1  Funeral  Oration  by  Voorst,  in  Pattison's  Casaubon,  iffi. 

'•*  Hallam,  ii  i"]f>*.  *  Pattison's  Milton,  106. 

4  Milton's  Prose  Works,  iv  6  Mitford;  Johnson's  Lives,  i  102,  ed.  1854. 

5  '^53,  printed  in  1660. 

6  Cp.   Blount's  Censura,   7191",  ed.    1690.      He  is  severely  criticised  by 
Baillet,  n.  511.     '  Non  homini  sed  scientiae  deest,  quod  nescivit  Salmasius' 
(Balzac). 


CHAP.  XVIII.]      HERALDUS.      VIGERUS.      VALESIUS.  287 

Meanwhile,    in    the    native   land    of    Salmasius,    Desiderius 
Heraldus  (c.    1579  —  1649),  professor  of  Greek  at       Heraidus 
Sedan,  and  a  member  of  the  parliamentary  bar  in       Paimerius 

Seguier 

Pans,  had  published  '  animadversions  '  on  Martial 
(1600),  besides  writing  a  work  on  Greek  and  Roman  law,  which 
was  published  in  the  year  after  his  death.  Paimerius,  or  Jacques 
le  Paulmier  (1587  —  1670),  who  had  studied  law  and  Greek 
literature  at  Sedan,  passed  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life  at 
Caen,  and,  during  that  time,  published  at  Leyden  a  volume  of 
'  Exercitations  '  on  the  best  Greek  authors  (1668).  Pierre  Seguier 
(1588  —  1672),  President  of  the  French  Academy,  was  at  the  same 
time  collecting  those  MSS,  which  led  to  his  name  being  assigned 
to  the  Lexica  Segueriana  in  a  single  MS  in  the  Paris  Library1. 
The  Jesuit  Francois  Vigier,  or  Vigerus,  of  Rouen  vigerus 
(1591  —  1647),  broke  the  ordinary  Jesuit  tradition  Maussac 
of  the  predominant  study  of  Latin  by  producing  a 
work  on  the  principal  idioms  of  Greek  (1627),  which  had  the 
distinction  of  being  successively  edited  anew  by  Hoogeveen, 
Zeune,  and  Hermann  (i834)2.  Harpocration  had  been  edited 
in  1614  by  Philippe  Jacques  de  Maussac  (1590  —  1650),  president 
in  Montpellier.  That  lexicographer  was  further  expounded  in 
1682  by  the  disputatious  pedant3,  Henri  de  Valois,  or  Valesius 
(1603  —  1676),  who  had  been  educated  by  the  Jesuits  at  Verdun 
and  Paris,  and  is  known  as  the  editor  of  Ammianus  Marcellinus 
(1636)  and  of  the  Excerpta  (Peiresciand)  from  Polybius  (1634). 
Greek  was  also  studied  by  Charles  Labbe  (1582  — 
^5  7),  a  parliamentary  barrister  of  Paris,  who  pub- 
lished  Glosses  on  Greek  law  (1607),  and  prepared 
an  edition  of  the  Glossaries  of  'Cyril  and  Philoxenus',  published 
after  his  death  by  Du  Cange  (1679).  His  namesake,  the  Jesuit 
Philippe  Labbe  of  Bourges  (1607  —  1667),  edited  several  of  the 
Byzantine  historians,  besides  taking  part  in  a  great  work  on  the 
Councils4.  Editions  of  the  Byzantine  historians,  Cinnamus  and 

1  Vol.  i  406',  4i62;  portrait  in  Lacroix,  Science  and  Literature  in  the... 
Renaissance,  fig.  410  (p.  547  E.T.). 

Vigerus,  De  praecipuis  graecae  linguae  idiotismis.     Cp.  Hallam,  ii  275*. 

3  E.  de  Broglie,  Alabillon,  i  60. 

4  He  also   published   numerous  works  on  Greek   Grammar,    Tirocinium 
linguae  graecae,  etc. 


P'. 


Du  CANGE. 
From  a  print  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris. 


CHAP.  XVIII.]  DU   CANGE.  289 

Zonaras,  and  of  the  Chronicon  Paschale,  were  produced  by  the 
erudite  scholar  and  historian,  Charles  du  Fresne, 
sieur  Du  Cange  (1610 — 1688),  who  was  born  at 
Amiens,  and  educated  at  the  local  Jesuit  College.  After  studying 
law  at  Orleans,  he  was  called  to  the  parliamentary  bar  in  Paris, 
but  devoted  himself  mainly  to  historical  studies  at  Amiens 
(1638-68)  and  in  the  capital.  He  is  best  known  for  his  great 
Glossary  of  mediaeval  Latin,  originally  published  in  three  folio 
volumes  (1678)',  and  a  corresponding  Glossary  of  mediaeval 
Greek  in  two  (1688).  The  Jesuit,  Fran£ois  Vavasseur  (1605  — 
1681),  an  elegant  Latin  scholar  and  the  author  of  an  Anti-bar- 
barus,  said  of  the  lexicon  of  late  Latin  : — '  II  y  a  soixante  ans  que 
je  m 'applique  a  ne  me  servir  d'aucun  des  mots  rassembles  si 
laborieusement  par  M.  Du  Cange'.  The  lexicographer  of  the 
latest  Latinity  was  himself  an  accomplished  writer,  and  the  range 
of  his  learning  not  only  included  a  variety  of  languages,  but  also 
extended  over  history  and  geography,  law  and  heraldry,  numis- 
matics and  epigraphy,  and  Greek  and  Latin  palaeography.  His 
lexicographical  works  were  directly  founded  on  the  study  of  an 
infinite  number  of  MSS.  His  work  on  Byzantine  History  was 
illustrated  by  a  two-fold  commentary,  including  an  account  of  the 
families,  as  well  as  the  coins  and  topography,  of  Constantinople 
(1680).  He  also  edited  Ville-Hardouin's  History  of  the  Latin 
conquest  of  that  city,  and  wrote  a  History  of  its  Latin  emperors, 
besides  editing  Joinville's  History  of  Louis  IX.  The  edition  of 
the  Glossaries  ascribed  to  'Cyril  and  Philoxenus'  etc.  (1679)  ls 
closely  connected  with  his  own  glossarial  labours.  He  is  one  of 
the  greatest  lexicographers  of  France,  and  his  work  in  this  depart- 
ment still  remains  unsurpassed.  He  was  a  man  of  unaffected 
piety,  and  his  sociable  temperament  won  him  many  friends,  among 
the  most  learned  being  Mabillon.  He  had  a  small  but  well-knit 
frame,  and  a  fine  figure.  His  statue  in  bronze,  larger  than  life, 
still  adorns  the  Place  St  Denis  in  his  native  city  of  Amiens2. 

1  Ed.  4  in  six  vols.  (1733-6);  ed.  Charpentier  in  ten  (1766) ;  in  six  (Halle, 
1772-84);  ed.  Henschel  in  seven  (1840-50)  ;  ed.  Favre  in  ten  (1883-7). 

2  Cp.  Pref.  to  his  Amiens  (1840);  Hardouin's  Essai  (1849);  Feugere  in 
Journal  de  V Instruction  pnbliqm  (mars,  avril,  1852);   Leltres  Inedites,    1879; 
and  other  literature  quoted  in  Nonv.  Biogr.  Gen. 

S.    II.  19 


FRANCE.  [CENT.  XVII. 


The  Society  of  Jesus,  founded  in  Paris  by  Ignatius  Loyola  in  1534  and 

approved  by  Paul  III  in  1540,  had,  in  spite  of  the  opposition 

of  the   university,  succeeded   in  establishing   the    Collegiiim 

Claromontanum  in  1563.     Expelled  in  1594,  they  returned  in  1609.     In  their 

celebrated  schools  they  did  much  for  the  promotion  of  original  composition 

modelled  on  Cicero  and  Virgil.     Of  their  numerous  Latin  poets,  the  best- 

known   in  the   i7th  century  were  Petavius1,   Rapin2,  and  Santeul   (1630  — 

1697),  and  in  the  i8th,  Sanadon  (d.  1733).     Intensely  conservative  in  their 

adhesion  to  the  ratio  studiorum  of  1599,  they  continued  to  use  Latin  in  their 

text-books  long  after  it  had  been  abandoned  by  other  teachers.     The  use  of 

French  was  one  of  the  characteristics  of  the  '  Little  Schools  ' 

of  the  Jansenists  of  Port-  Royal,  founded  in   1643  near  the 

abbey  of  Port-Royal-des-Champs,  eight  miles  beyond   Versailles,  and   sup- 

pressed in  1660.     Their  text-books  included  the  Latin  Grammar  of  Lancelot 

(1644),  who  also  composed  a  Greek  Grammar  (1655),  and  a  highly  popular 

fardin  des  racines  grecques  (1657),  which  remained  in  use  for  two  centuries. 

The  most  celebrated  pupil  of  Port-Royal  was  Racine,  while  their  opponents, 

the  Jesuits,  claimed  Corneille  and  Moliere.     More  than  a  century  after  the 

suppression  of  Port-Royal,  the  Jesuits  were  themselves  suppressed  in  1762. 

The  anecdotist,  Gilles   Menage  of  Angers  (1613  —  1692),  a 
parliamentary  barrister,  and  prior  of  Mont-Didier, 

Manage  .  .  .  ..  . 

besides  writing  a  discourse  on  the  Hautontimoru- 
menos  of  Terence,  and  notes  on  Lucian,  produced  several  works 
which  were  repeatedly  reprinted,  —  including  notes  on  Diogenes 
Laertius,  the  Amoenitates  juris  civilis,  and  the  Historia  mulierum 
philosopharum.  A  similar  popularity  has  attended  his  Poemata, 
a  pleasing  imitation  of  Ovid  and  Tibullus3,  and  the  light  anecdotes 
of  a  literary  kind  collected  in  the  four  small  volumes  of  his 
Menagiana.  He  confesses  that  he  cannot  read  a  Greek  author 
easily  without  the  aid  of  a  translation4,  but  he  is  quite  capable  of 
finding  flaws  of  prosody  in  the  Greek  verses  of  Scaliger5.  He  is 
the  original  of  Vadius  in  the  Femmes  Savantes  of  Moliere  (1672), 
and  of  the  'Pedant'  in  the  Caracteres  of  La  Bruyere  (1644-96), 
the  translator  as  well  as  the  imitator  of  Theophrastus  (1688). 
La  Bruyere,  Menage,  and  Du  Cange  were  all,  sooner  or  later, 

elected  members  of  the  French  Academy  founded 
Academy  and  by  Richelieu  in  1635.  During  the  five  preceding 
ijnities^6  years,  while  that  Academy  was  coming  into  being, 

one    of    its    original    members,    the    minor   poet 
1  p.  283  supra.  2  p.  291  infra.  3  Hallam,  iii  49i4. 

4  Menagiana,  iii  61,  ed.  1715.  B  Menagiana,  i  326. 


CHAP.  XVIII.]     MENAGE.    .  T.  FABER.      THE   DACIERS.       2pl 

Chapelain,  definitely  formulated  in  France  the  theory  of  the 
Three  Unities,  which  the  dramatic  critics  of  Italy  had  elicited 
from  Aristotle,  who  really  recognises  no  other  Unity  than  that  of 
Action.  Chapelain  converted  Richelieu  to  his  views  and  inspired 
the  attack  directed  by  the  Academy  against  Corneille's  Cid  on 
the  ground  of  its  violation  of  the  Unities.  The  controversy  ended 
in  1640  with  the  victory  of  the  theory  of  the  Unities;  Corneille 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  in  1647,  and  in  1660 
wrote  a  discourse  recanting,  at  the  bidding  of  the  minor  critics 
of  his  day,  the  principles  he  had  himself  followed  in  the  Cid\ 
The  influence  exerted  in  France  by  Italian  commentaries  on 
Aristotle's  treatise  on  Poetry  is  further  exemplified  in  the  survey 
of  the  history  of  the  subject  by  the  Jesuit,  Rene  Rapin  of  Tours 
(1621 — 1687)*,  who  is  also  the  writer  of  an  elegant  Latin  poem 
on  Gardens3,  and  in  his  '  Parallels  of  Great  Men '  prefers  the 
Latins  to  the  Greeks4. 

Tanaquil  Faber  of  Caen  (1615 — 1672),  who  taught  at  Saumur, 
was   a   diligent   editor  of  Greek  and  Latin  texts. 

T.  Faber 

Among   the   former   were   Anacreon  and  Sappho, 
Dionysius    Periegetes,    Agathemerus,    Apollodorus,    '  Longinus ', 
and  Aelian  ;  while  the  latter  included  Florus,  Terence,  Lucretius, 
Virgil,  Horace,  and  Phaedrus.    Menage  effectively  says  of  him  : — 
'  M.  le  Fevre  etoit  un  bon  Gaulois  de  1'ancienne  roche,  qui  faisoit 
autant  gloire  de  sa  pauvrete  que  de  sa  profession'.     He  was  in 
fact  so  poor  that  he  was  compelled  to  part  with  his  library,  but 
he  is  famous,  adds  Me'nage,  not  only  as  the  editor  of  the  works 
he  has  left  behind  him,  but  also  as  the  father  and  the  preceptor 
of  Madame  Uacier5.     Faber's  daughter,  Anne,  was 
married  to  Andre  Uacier  (1651—1722),  a  member     A^Dadet 
of  the  Academy,  and  Librarian  in  Paris.     Dacier, 
besides  producing  new  editions  of  Faber's  Anacreon  and  Sappho, 
edited    '  Festus  and  Verrius  Flaccus '  (1681).     His  translations 
included  Aristotle's  treatise  on  Poetry.     He  edited  Horace,  while 
the  honour  of  producing  a  French  translation  of  that  poet  was 

1  Saintsbury,  ii  257  f;  Spingarn,  210. 

2  Avertissetnent  to  his  Reflexions  sur  I'Art  Poetique  d' 'Aris(6te  (1674). 

3  Cp.  Hallam,  iii  +<)i-T,4.  *  jb.  54 14. 
5  Menagiana,  ii  17  f. 

I9-2 


FRANCE.  [CENT.  XVII. 


shared  by  his  learned  wife.  Madame  Dacier  (1654  —  1720)  was 
also  the  translator  of  Terence,  and  of  three  plays  of  Plautus, 
together  with  the  Plutus  and  Clouds  of  Aristophanes,  Anacreon 
and  Sappho,  and  the  whole  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey.  Her 
rendering  of  Homer  is  her  masterpiece  ;  and,  although  it  has  been 
criticised  for  a  too  frequent  resort  to  periphrasis,  and  for  its 
occasional  anachronisms,  it  deserves  the  praise  of  having  been 
founded  on  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  text,  and  inspired  by  a 
boundless  enthusiasm  for  the  poet1.  As  an  editor  of  the  Classics, 
she  is  represented  in  Greek  by  her  Callimachus2;  and  in  Latin  by 
Florus,  Dictys  and  Dares,  Aurelius  Victor,  and  Eutropius. 

All  these  Latin  works  formed  part  of  the  celebrated  series  of 

the  Delphin  Classics.     The  general  editor  and  organiser  of  the 

series  was  Pierre  Daniel   Huet  of  Caen  (1630  — 

1721),  who  from  1670  to  1680  was  the  coadjutor 

of  Bossuet  in   the  tuition  of  the  Grand  Dauphin,    the   son   of 

Louis  XIV. 

Nearly  sixty  volumes  were  produced  in  less  than  twelve  years  by  thirty-nine 
editors  at  a  cost  equivalent  to  about  ,£15,000.  The  project  marks  an  epoch  in 
the  history  of  classical  literature  in  France.  Learning  had  indeed  been  de- 
clining since  the  days  of  Francis  I,  but  the  Latin  Classics,  though  no  longer 
exclusively  cultivated  for  their  own  sakes,  were  still  recognised  as  forming  a 
part  of  general  literature,  and  popular  editions  of  the  ordinary  Latin  authors 
were  welcome.  In  addition  to  a  Latin  commentary,  each  of  these  editions 
had  an  ordo  verbonim  below  the  text,  and  a  complete  verbal  index.  These 
points  were  not  novel  in  themselves;  the  novelty  lay  in  their  application  to 
the  whole  of  the  Latin  authors  included  in  the  series.  The  best  known  of  the 
editors  are  (besides  Madame  Dacier)  Hardouin  and  Charles  de  la  Rue.  But 
the  only  distinctly  scholarly  edition  was  that  of  the  Panegyrici  Veteres  by 
De  la  Baune,  while  Huet's  conjectural  emendations  on  Manilius  prompted 
Bentley,  the  next  editor  of  that  poet,  to  describe  Huet  and  Scaliger  as  viros 
egregios.  All  the  volumes  of  the  original  edition  have  an  engraving  of  *  Arion 
and  the  dolphin',  and  are  inscribed  with  the  phrase  in  usum  serenissimi 
Delphini.  The  Dauphin,  for  whose  benefit  this  comprehensive  series  of  Latin 
Classics  was  organised  by  Huet,  and  for  whom  the  'Discourse  on  Universal 
History'  was  composed  by  Bossuet,  celebrated  the  completion  of  his  education 
by  limiting  his  future  reading  to  the  list  of  births,  deaths  and  marriages  in  the 
Gazette  de  France.  He  died  four  years  before  Louis  XIV,  who  was  succeeded 
by  the  Dauphin's  eldest  son. 

1  Bellanger,  Traduttion  en  France,  45  —  47.     Cp.  Hallam,  iii  247'. 

2  Bentley  calls  the  editor  jbeWMMnUM  doctissima. 


CHAP.  XVIII.]  HUET.      MABILLON.  293 

Huet,  who  in  early  life  had  seen  Salmasius  at  Leyden,  and 
had  visited  the  court  of  queen  Christina  at  Stockholm,  was  in 
frequent  correspondence  with  many  of  the  scholars  of  Europe. 
He  was  the  founder  of  the  Academy  of  Caen,  and,  in  his  edition 
of  Origen,  showed  a  singular  sagacity  as  a  conjectural  critic. 
After  devoting  ten  years  to  the  tuition  of  the  Dauphin,  he  spent 
ten  summers  at  a  beautifully  situated  abbey  south  of  Caen, 
and  was  afterwards  for  fourteen  years  bishop  of  Soissons  and 
Avranches.  On  his  elevation  to  the  bishopric,  he  did  not  cease 
to  be  a  student,  and  the  disappointed  rustic,  who  was  not  allowed 
to  see  him  at  Avranches,  'because  the  bishop  was  studying',  ex- 
pressed a  hope  that  the  king  would  send  them  a  bishop  'qui  a  fait 
ses  etudes'.  After  resigning  the  mitre,  he  persisted  in  continuing 
his  studies  for  the  remaining  twenty-two  years  of  his  life.  He 
resided  mainly  at  the  abbey  of  Fontenai,  near  Caen,  devoting 
most  of  his  time  to  philosophical  pursuits.  His  keen  interest  in 
classical  studies  led  to  his  opposing  the  Cartesians,  who  despised 
the  ancients.  His  Latin  has  been  described  as  the  characteristic 
Latin  of  the  Jesuits,  faultless,  fluent,  perfectly  clear,  and — insipid. 
A  student  of  philosophy  to  the  very  end  of  a  long  life  of  more 
than  90  years,  he  is  the  modern  counterpart  of  Carneades,  as 
described  by  Valerius  Maximus: — 'laboriosus  et  diuturnus  sapien- 
tiae  miles;  siquidem,  nonaginta  expletis  annis,  idem  illi  vivendi 
ac  philosophandi  finis  fuit". 

Huet  had  survived  for  fourteen  years  his  learned  contemporary, 
Jean  Mabillon  (16^2 — 1707),  one  of  the  greatest 

Mabillon 

ornaments  of  the  Benedictine  Order.  Born  in  a 
simple  cottage  at  Saint-Pierremont  in  the  diocese  of  Reims,  he 
had  delighted  in  passing  his  time  in  meditation  under  the  shadow 
of  an  oak  tree,  the  site  of  which  was  known  long  after  as  '  le 
chene  Mabillon'.  He  was  a  student  at  Reims,  and,  at  the  abbey 
of  Saint- Remi  in  that  city,  he  entered  the  Order  at  the  age  of 
twenty-two.  Part  of  the  next  ten  years  was  passed  at  the  monas- 
teries of  Nogent,  Corbie,  and  Saint-Denis,  where  his  duties  as 
custodian  of  the  treasury  of  the  abbey  enabled  him  to  cultivate  his 
archaeological  tastes.  He  had  already  seized  every  opportunity 

1  Pattison's  Essays,  i  244 — 305. 


MABILLON. 
From  an  engraving  by  Simonneau,  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris. 


CHAP.  XVIII.]  MABILLON.  295 

for  the  study  of  MSS,  when,  at  the  age  of  thirty-two,  he  was  invited 
by  Luc  d'Achery  (1609 — 1685),  the  editor  of  the  thirteen  volumes 
of  the  Veterum  aliquot  Scriptorum  Spicileghtm,  to  take  part  in  the 
learned  labours  of  the  Benedictines  at  the  abbey  of  Saint-Germain- 
des-Pres  in  the  south  of  Paris. 

The  earliest  home  of  the  Benedictine  Order  in  France  was  the  monastery  of 
Saint-Maur  on  the  Loire,  founded  by  St  Benedict's  favourite  pupil,  St  Maun 
The  Order  had  been  reformed  in  Lorraine  and  elsewhere  by  Didier  de  la  Cour 
in  1613-8,  and  this  reform  had  been  taken  up  by  Tarisse,  who  in  1630-48 
presided  over  the  '  Congregation  of  Saint-Maur ',  with  its  head-quarters  at  the 
ancient  abbey  of  Saint-Germain-des-Pres,  which  continued  to  be  a  famous 
centre  of  religious  learning  until  its  suppression  in  I7921. 

Mabillon  was  a  member  of  this  abbey  for  43  years  from  the 
date  of  his  entering  it  at  the  age  of  thirty-two  to  his  death  at  the 
age  of  seventy-five.  During  the  many  years  of  his  residence 
within  its  walls,  the  abbey  was  the  resort  of  the  foremost  repre- 
sentatives of  the  learned  world  in  Paris,  including  classical 
scholars  such  as  Du  Cange  and  Valesius.  In  less  than  three 
years  after  his  admission,  he  produced  the  two  folio  volumes  of 
his  edition  of  St  Bernard,  a  work  in  which  he  proved  himself  a 
sound  critic,  an  able  expositor,  and  the  master  of  a  pure  and  lucid 
Latin  style.  In  the  following  year  he  published  the  first  volume 
of  his  Acta  Sanctorum  Ordinis  Sancti  Benedict^  a  historic  work 
of  the  highest  order,  which  was  characterised  throughout  by  a 
never-failing  love  of  truth.  The  quest  of  manuscript  materials 
for  the  composition  of  this  and  other  learned  works  led  to  his 
visiting  the  monasteries  of  Flanders,  Lorraine,  Burgundy,  Nor- 
mandy, and  Alsace.  In  the  course  of  these  investigations  he 
produced  his  third  great  work,  the  folio  volume  of  635  pages, 
De  Re  Diplomatica  (1681).  The  authority  of  the  charters  of 
Saint-Denis  had  been  attacked,  and  the  general  object  of  the 
treatise  was  to  set  forth  the  proper  method  of  determining  the 
date  and  genuineness  of  ancient  documents.  A  spirit  of  charity 
and  candour  is  conspicuous  in  the  preface ;  the  work  itself 
includes  numerous  facsimiles  from  charters  and  other  ancient  MSS, 
and  it  ends  with  a  special  tribute  of  thanks  to  the  learned  Du 

1  Cp.  Vanel,  Les  Benedictine  de  Saint-Afaur  a  Saint-Germain-dts-Pres 
1630 — 1792  (1896). 


296  FRANCE.  [CENT.  xvn. 

Cange.  Its  publication  was  welcomed  as  an  important  event  by 
the  world  of  scholars  throughout  Europe.  After  its  publication 
the  king  desired  to  see  the  author,  who  was  accordingly  presented 
by  Le  Tellier,  the  archbishop  of  Reims,  and  by  his  rival,  Bossuet, 
bishop  of  Meaux.  In  introducing  Mabillon,  Le  Tellier  said : — 
'  Sire,  I  have  the  honour  of  presenting  to  your  Majesty  the  most 
learned  man  in  your  realm'.  Bossuet,  regarding  this  as  a  reflexion 
on  his  own  learning,  quietly  suppressed  the  proud  archbishop  by 
adding  : — 'and  the  most  humble'.  Even  in  recent  times  the  value 
of  the  treatise  has  been  recognised  by  M.  Leopold  Delisle,  who 
says  of  Mabillon  : — 

The  most  illustrious  of  the  pupils  of  Luc  d'Achery  added  much  to  the 
collections  of  his  master ;  above  all  he  devoted  himself  to  the  task  of  dissi- 
pating the  darkness  that  enveloped  the  historical  documents  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  and,  in  his  immortal  treatise  De  Re  Diplornatica,  laid  down  the  rules 
that  have  resisted  the  most  vigorous  attacks,  rules  whose  truth  has  been  con- 
firmed by  the  most  modern  investigations1. 

The  work  was  dedicated  to  Louis  XIV's  great  minister, 
Colbert.  In  the  following  year  Colbert  invited  Mabillon  to 
examine,  in  the  archives  of  Burgundy,  the  documents  relating  to 
the  reigning  house,  and  afterwards  sent  him  to  the  libraries  of 
Germany  at  the  royal  expense. 

The  time  was  not  entirely  favourable  for  a  tour  in  Germany.  The 
Germans  had  been  exasperated  by  the  sudden  capture  of  Strassburg  by  the 
French  (1681),  and  Vienna  was  being  threatened  by  the  Turks  (1683).  But 
the  tour  was  accomplished  with  very  little  inconvenience  in  the  happy  com- 
panionship of  Michel  Germain,  the  devoted  friend  of  Mabillon.  It  extended 
over  parts  of  Bavaria,  Switzerland,  and  the  Tyrol,  and  included  visits  to 
Luxeuil,  Bale,  Einsiedeln,  St  Gallen,  Augsburg,  Ratisbon,  Salzburg,  Munich, 
Innspruck,  Constance,  Reichenau,  Freiburg  and  Strassburg.  At  the  prompting 
of  Mabillon,  the  manuscript  Chronicle  of  Trithemius  was  printed  in  the  abbey 
of  St  Gallen.  Some  Greek  MSS  had  been  noticed  at  Augsburg,  and  MSS  of 
Virgil  at  Reichenau ;  and  a  collection  of  Roman  inscriptions,  unknown  to 
Gruter,  had  been  discovered.  The  journey  lasted  from  January  to  October 
1683,  and  was  recorded  in  the  Iter  Germanicum,  in  the  last  of  the  four  volumes 
of  the  Analecta  (1685). 

A  similar  journey  in  Italy  was  taken  at  the  king's  charges  by  the  same  two 
monks.  It  lasted  from  April  1685  to  June  1686,  including  a  month  at  Milan, 
eleven  days  in  Venice,  seven  months  in  Rome,  one  in  Naples,  ten  days  at 

1  Cabinet  des  MSS,  1874,  ii  63. 


CHAP.  XVIII.]  MABILLON.  297 

Monte  Cassino,  and  three  at  Bobbio,  and  more  than  one  visit  to  Florence. 
At  Florence  they  were  greatly  aided  by  the  ducal  librarian,  Magliabecchi, 
whom  Mabillon  describes  as  a  'walking  museum  and  a  living  library';  at 
Rome,  they  were  shown  all  the  objects  of  antiquarian  interest  by  the  eminent 
archaeologist,  Fabretti.  Among  the  numerous  MSS,  which  they  acquired  in 
Italy  for  the  royal  library  in  Paris,  was  a  fine  copy  of  Ammianus  Marcellinus. 
The  tour  was  described  under  the  title  of  the  Iter  Italicum  in  the  first  part 
of  the  first  of  the  two  quarto  volumes  of  the  Museum  Italicum  (1687). 

Mabillon  was  subsequently  invited  to  draw  up  a  scheme  of 
study  for  persons  leading  a  monastic  life.  This  was  published  in 
1691,  and  was  received  with  applause  by  the  learned  world.  But 
it  brought  him  into  controversy  with  the  Abbe  Armand  de  Ranee, 
who  had  renounced  all  his  preferments  except  the  small  priory  of 
La  Trappe  (near  Mortagne),  where  he  founded  a  reformed  com- 
munity consisting  of  members  of  the  Cistercian  Order.  In  1683 
he  produced  his  treatise,  Les  Devoirs  de  la  Vie  Monastique, 
permitting  the  monks  no  other  employment  than  that  of  prayer, 
the  chanting  of  the  psalms,  and  manual  labour,  and  enjoining 
perpetual  silence  and  abstinence  from  study.  Mabillon's  lively 
friend,  Michel  Germain,  indignantly  exclaimed  : — '  he  would  con- 
demn us  to  the  spade  and  the  plough!'1  De  Rance"s  views 
reappeared  in  a  modified  form  in  his  Eclairtissements.  On  the 
publication  of  Mabillon's  Traite  des  Etudes  Monastiques,  de  Ranee 
regarded  it  as  a  direct  attack  on  his  own  principles,  although  his 
name  was  nowhere  mentioned.  The  Abbe  published  a  Reponse 
(1692),  and  in  the  same  year  was  answered  by  Mabillon  in  his 
Reflexions.  The  controversy  excited  the  keenest  interest  among 
scholars.  On  the  publication  of  the  Traite,  Mabillon  received 
a  letter  from  Huet,  congratulating  him  on  his  endeavour  to  dis- 
abuse the  minds  of  those  who  had  been  led  to  believe  that 
ignorance  was  a  necessary  qualification  for  a  good  monk'2.  The 
controversialists  were  finally  reconciled  by  the  Christian  charity  ex- 
hibited by  Mabillon  in  an  interview  with  the  Abbe  de  Ranee,  which 
was  brought  about  by  the  latter's  friend,  the  widowed  Duchesse  de 
Guise.  In  1701  the  'Academy  of  Inscriptions'  was  founded  by 
Colbert,  not  with  a  view  to  the  study  of  ancient  inscriptions,  but 

1  Valery,  Correspondence,  ii  329. 

2  13  Aug.  1691  (Valery,  ii  320).     Cp.,  in  general,  Maitland's  Dark  Ages, 
161-5  (ed.  1844). 


298-  FRANCE.  [CENT.  xvn. 

primarily  for  the  composition  of  appropriate  mottoes  for  the 
medals  struck  in  honour  of  the  exploits  of  Louis  XIV.  This 
Academy  soon  became  the  centre  of  the  study  of  language  and 
history  in  France.  By  the  royal  command  Mabillon  was  nominated 
one  of  the  original  members.  Two  years  later  he  produced  the 
first  of  the  four  folio  volumes  of  the  '  Annals '  of  the  Benedictine 
Order,  which  occupied  his  attention  until  his  death  in  1707.  In 
all  his  scholarly  investigations  he  was  inspired  by  a  perfect  charity, 
and  an  unfailing  honesty  of  purpose.  The  guiding  principle  of 
his  life  may  be  found  in  the  motto  prefixed  to  the  particular  work 
which,  among  all  his  learned  labours,  has  the  closest  connexion 
with  scholarship:  scientia  veri justiquevindex^.  His  devoted  friend, 
Thierry  Ruinart,  spent  two  years  in  collecting  his  papers  and  in 
writing  his  life.  In  1819  his  remains  found  their  final  resting- 
place  in  the  second  chapel  to  the  right,  as  one  enters  the  choir  of 
the  ancient  abbey  church  of  Saint-Germain-des-Pres.  The  in- 
scription runs  as  follows  : — 

4  Memoriae  D.  loannis  Mabillon,  Presbyteri,  Monachi  Ordinis  S.  Benedict!, 
Academiae  Inscriptionum  Humaniorumque  Litterarum  Socii,  pietate  doctrina 
modestia  elapso  iam  saeculo  clari,  bibliothecarum  turn  nostratium  turn 
exterarum  diligentissimi  indagatoris,  in  diplomatum  sinceritate  dijudicanda 
facile  principis,  Actorum  Annaliumque  Ordinis  sui  collectoris  conditoris'2. 

The  other  tablets  of  the  same  date  in  the  same  chapel  are  in 

honour  of  Descartes,  and  of  Mabillon's  great  successor  among 

the  scholars  of  the  Benedictine  Order,  Bernard  Montfaucon. 

Montfaucon  belongs  to  the  next  generation  and  is  therefore 

reserved  for  a  subsequent  chapter.     Meanwhile,  the 

Jesuit  Jean  Hardouin  of  Quimper  ( 1 646 — 1 729)  may 

here  be  mentioned  as  the  editor  of  the  Delphin  edition  of  the  elder 

Pliny  (1685),  and  as  the  author  of  works  on  numismatics  (1684  and 

1693),  who  paradoxically  maintained  that  almost  all  the  ancient 

Classics  were  spurious  products  of  the  thirteenth  century.     He 

made  an  exception  in  favour  of  the  Georgics  of  Virgil,  the  Satires 

1  De  Re  Diplomatica,  1681 ;  cp.  Jadart,  89. 

2  On  Mabillon  cp.,  in  general,  Ruinart  (1709),  Chavin  de  Meulan  (1843), 
Valery,  Correspondance  Intdite  (1847),  and  esp.  the  works  of  H.  Jadart  (Reims, 
1879),  E.  de  Broglie,  2  vols.  (1888);  and  S.  Baumer,  Johannes  Mabillon,  ein 
Lebens-  und  Literaturbild  (Augsburg,  1892). 


CHAP.  XVIII.]  HARDOUIN.      SPON.  299 

and  Epistles  of  Horace,  with  Cicero  and  the  elder  Pliny,  and  to 
these  he  was  disposed  to  add  Homer,  Herodotus  and  Plautus. 
Thus  he  held  that  the  Odes  of  Horace  and  the  Aeneid  of  Virgil 
were  written  in  the  middle  ages,  an  opinion  that  prompted  his 
younger  contemporary  Boileau  to  remark  that,  although  he  had  no 
love  for  the  monks,  he  would  not  have  been  sorry  to  live  with 
'  Frere  Horace'  or  'Dom  Virgile'.  Jacob  Vernet  of  Geneva  hit  off 
his  character  in  the  following  epitaph  : — '  in  expectatione  judicii 
hie  jacet  hominum  paradoxotatus...,  credulitate  puer,  audacia 
juvenis,  deliriis  senex'1. 

Classical    archaeology    owed    much    to   his    short-lived   con- 
temporary,  Jacques  Spon  of  Lyon  (1647 — 1685), 
who  travelled  with  George  Wheler  in  Greece  and        S  whefe"? 
the  Levant  (1675-6),  collecting  coins  and  MSS  and 
antique  marbles.     Drawings  of  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon 
were  made  in  1674,  thirteen  years  before  it  was  reduced  to  ruin 
during  the  Venetian  siege  of  1687 2.     These  drawings  were  for- 
merly ascribed  to  the  French  artist,  Carrey,  but  were  probably 
produced  by  one  of  the  two  Flemish  artists  who  accompanied  the 
Marquis  de  Nointel3. 

1  E.  de    Broglie,  Alabillon,  i  105;    borrowed  partly  from    Menage,    Vita 
Gargilii  Mamurrae,  in  Misc.  1652. 

2  Stark,  137  f;  Michaelis,  Parthenon,  62  f,  95  f,  345  f;  Omont,  Atfihies  au 
xviie siecle  (1898),  pi.  i — xix  ;   Springer-Michaelis,  Kunstgeschiclite,  eel.  7,  fig.  44. 

3  Omont,  4  f. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

THE  NETHERLANDS  FROM  1575  TO  1700. 

A  NEW  era   in  the  History  of  Scholarship  in  the  Northern 
Netherlands  is  marked  by  the  foundation  of  the 

Leyden 

university  of  Leyden  in  1575.  When  the  siege  of 
Leyden  had  ended  in  the  repulse  of  the  Spanish  forces,  the 
heroism  of  the  inhabitants  was  publicly  commemorated  by  the 
institution  of  an  annual  fair  and  by  the  establishment  of  a 
university.  The  actual  birth  of  that  university  was  celebrated  by 
a  gorgeous  series  of  ceremonies.  In  the  van  of  an  imposing 
procession  were  the  allegorical  representatives  of  the  faculties  of 
Theology,  Law,  and  Medicine ;  in  the  centre,  a  personification  of 
Minerva,  surrounded  by  Aristotle  and  Plato,  Cicero  and  Virgil ; 
and,  in  the  rear,  the  professors  and  other  officials  of  the  newly- 
founded  seat  of  learning.  Meanwhile,  a  triumphal  barge  floated 
slowly  down  the  Rhine,  bearing  to  the  place  of  landing  the 
radiant  forms  of  Apollo  and  the  Muses.  The  barge  was  steered 
by  Neptune,  who  had  lately  let  loose  the  waters  of  the  Ocean  on 
the  troops  of  Spain,  and  had  thus  relieved  the  siege  of  Leyden. 
As  soon  as  the  procession  of  the  professors  had  reached  the 
landing-place,  each  in  turn  was  embraced  by  the  Muses  and 
Apollo,  and  all  were  welcomed  by  the  recitation  of  a  Latin 
poem1.  It  was  the  happy  inauguration  of  a  seat  of  learning  that 
had  come  into  being  under  circumstances  that  were  absolutely 
unique. 

1  Motley's  Dutch  Republic,  ii  565-8;  cp.  Meursius,  Athenae  Batavae, 
1 8 — 20.  The  current  story  that  Leyden  was  offered  a  choice  between  a  univer- 
sity and  an  annual  fair  free  of  tolls  and  taxes  finds  no  support  in  the  documen- 
tary history  of  Pieter  Bor,  vii  561,  and  (as  I  learn  from  Mr  Hessels)  is 
rejected  by  the  latest  historian  of  the  Netherlands,  Prof.  Blok  of  Leyden. 


CHAP.  XIX.]  LIPSIUS.  301 

The  newly-founded  university  owed  much  to  the  foremost  of 
its  three  Curators,  the   lord  of  Noortwyk,  Janus 

Dousa 

Dousa  (1545 — 1604)1.  As  governor  of  Leyden  he 
had  been  the  brave  leader  of  the  beleaguered  citizens ;  in  Latin 
letters,  he  was  then  known  for  his  poems  alone,  but  he  afterwards 
gave  proof  of  his  interest  in  Plautus  (1587)  and  in  other  poets. 
His  love  of  Plautus  was  inherited  by  his  elder  son,  Janus  (1571 — 
1597),  the  Librarian  of  Leyden,  while  the  younger,  Franciscus 
(1577 — 1606),  produced  in  1597  a  memorable  edition  of  the 
fragments  of  Lucilius,  in  which  the  influence  of  Scaliger  is 
apparent2.  The  first  Rector  of  Leyden  was  Petreius  Tiara 
(1516-88),  professor  of  Greek,  translator  of  the  Sophistes  of  Plato 
and  the  Medea  of  Euripides3.  The  same  professorship  was  held 
from  1588  to  1612  by  Bonaventura  Vulcanius, 

Vulcanius 

or  De  Smet,   of  Bruges    (1538 — 1614),   an    editor 

of  Arrian,  Callimachus,   and  Apuleius,  who  also  published  the 

glossary  of  Philoxenus4. 

One  of  the  two  greatest  services  rendered  to  Leyden  by  its 
first  curator,  Janus  Dousa,  who  was  known  as  the 
'Batavian  Varro'  and  the  'Oracle  of  the  University'5, 
was  his  happily  inducing  the  great  Latin  scholar,  Justus  Lipsius 
(1547 — 1606),  to  take  up  his  residence  at  Leyden  in  1579.  Born 
at  Issche  near  Brussels,  he  had  from  the  age  of  sixteen  been  a 
student  at  Louvain,  where  he  specially  devoted  himself  to  Roman 
Law.  In  1567  he  had  accompanied  Cardinal  Gravella  to  Italy 
as  his  Latin  secretary.  He  spent  two  years  in  Italy,  exploring  the 
libraries  and  examining  all  the  inscriptions  he  could  find.  In 
Rome  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Muretus  and  other  leading 
scholars,  and  collated  transcripts  of  Tacitus,  without  ascertain- 
ing the  existence  of  either  of  the  two  Medicean  MSS.  After 
returning  to  Louvain  for  a  year  of  irregular  life,  he  visited  Dole 
and  Vienna.  On  his  way  back  in  1572  he  stayed  for  more  than  a 

1  Portraits  of  Janus,  father  and  son,  in  Meursius,  87,  151,  and  in  Boissard, 
IV  2  and  vi  14. 

2  Portrait  in  Marx'  Lucilius,  1906. 

3  Portrait  in  Meursius,  83,  and  Boissard,  VI  3. 

4  Portrait  in  Meursius,  102,  and  Boissard,  VI  5. 
8  id.  89  ;  cp.  Hamilton's  Discussions,  332  f. 


LIPSIUS. 

IVSTO  LlPSIO  LlTTERARVM  8TVDIIS  FLORENTISSIMO  SAPIENTIAE  ARTIBVS 
IMMORTALI  VIRO  IOANNES  WOVERIVS  ANTVERPIENSIS  HANG  DIGNISSIMAM 
VVLTVS  VERITATEM  PERENNI  AERE  SVO  AERE  ET  AMORE  INSCRIPTAM 
CVLTVS  ET  OBSERVANTIAE  AETERNVM  SYMBOLVM  L.  M.  CURABAT  ANT- 

VERPIAE    M.IOCV. 

From  Pierre  de  Jode's  engraving  of  portrait  by  Abraham  Janssens  (1605). 
Reduced  from  large  copy  in  Max  Rooses,   Chrislophe  Planlin  (1882),  p.  342  f. 


CHAP.  XIX.]  LIPSIUS.  303 

year  at  Jena,  where  he  held  a  professorship.  He  there  became  a 
Protestant,  and  even  delivered  a  violent  discourse  against  the 
Catholics.  He  left  Jena  for  Cologne,  where  he  spent  nine  months, 
in  1574.  In  the  same  year  his  great  edition  of  Tacitus  was 
published  at  Antwerp.  He  then  withdrew  to  his  old  home  at 
Issche,  but  the  horrors  of  civil  war  soon  drove  him  from  that  de- 
fenceless town  to  the  city  of  Louvain.  In  1576  he  was  lecturing 
at  the  local  university  on  the  Leges  Regiae  et  Decemuirales,  and  on 
the  first  book  of  Livy.  The  memorable  invitation  to  leave  the 
Spanish  Netherlands  for  the  Dutch  university  of  Leyden  led  to 
his  residing  there  with  great  distinction,  as  honorary  Professor  of 
History,  from  1579  to  1591.  In  the  latter  year,  when  a  controversy 
arose  on  the  punishment  of  heretics,  he  asked  for  leave  of  absence, 
and  quietly  went  to  Mainz,  where  he  was  re-admitted  into  the 
Roman  Church.  After  declining  many  tempting  proposals  from 
princes  and  bishops  in  Germany,  in  1592  he  accepted  a  call  to  his 
first  university  of  Louvain,  where,  as  professor  of  History,  he 
lectured  to  large  classes  on  the  Roman  historians  and  on  the 
moral  treatises  of  Seneca.  He  also  received  a  stipend  as  honorary 
professor  of  Latin  at  the  Collegium  Trili/igite,  which  long  remained 
closed  in  consequence  of  the  disturbed  state  of  the  country.  In 
One  of  his  Dialogues  he  writes  of  Louvain  in  1602  : — nunc  jacent 
ibi  omnia  el  silent^.  Even  the  office  of  President  of  the  College 
continued  vacant  for  thirty  years  until  1606, — the  year  of  the 
death  of  Lipsius2. 

His  main  strength  lay  in  textual  criticism  and  in  exegesis. 
His  masterpiece  in  this  respect  was  his  Tacitus,  of  which  two 
editions  appeared  in  his  life-time  (1574,  1600),  and  two  after  his 
death,  the  latest  and  best,  that  of  1648,  including  Velleius.  It 
was  not  until  1600  that  the  readings  of  the  two  Medicean  MSS 
were  published  (by  Pichena),  when  one  of  the  earliest  of  his 
emendations,  gnarum  (for  G.  navuni)  id  Caesari3,  was  confirmed. 
He  was  so  familiar  with  the  text  of  Tacitus,  that  he  '  offered  to 
repeat  any  passage  with  a  dagger  at  his  breast,  to  be  used  against 
him  if  his  memory  failed  him'4.  The  exegesis  of  his  edition  rests 
on  a  profound  and  accurate  knowledge  of  Roman  history  and 

1  Lovaniniii,  lib.  in,  c.  iv.  -  Neve,  Mem.  103. 

3  Ann.  \  5.  4  Niceron,  xxiv  119  (Hallam,  i  4S64). 


304  THE    NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVI. 

antiquities.  It  is  a  work  that  places  him  in  the  front  rank  of 
Latin  scholars,  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  he  also  produced 
editions  of  Valerius  Maximus  and  Velleius  Paterculus,  and  of 
Seneca  and  the  Panegyric  of  the  younger  Pliny.  Except  in 
the  case  of  Seneca's  Tragedies  and  Plautus,  he  did  little  for 
Latin  Verse,  and  his  work  was  of  far  greater  service  for  the 
authors  of  the  Silver  Age  than  for  Cicero.  His  familiarity  with 
Cicero  is,  however,  proved  by  his  Variae  Lectiones,  and  by  his 
decisive  rejection  of  the  Consolatio  published  by  Sigonius1.  His 
thorough  acquaintance  with  Latin  literature  and  Roman  history 
is  conspicuous  in  his  numerous  treatises,  especially  in  those 
entitled  De  Militia  Romana  and  Poliorcetica  (the  former  including 
a  commentary  on  the  Roman  camp  as  described  by  Polybius2),  in 
his  Variae  and  Antiquae  Lectiones  of  1569  and  1575  respectively, 
and  in  his  Epistolicae  Quaestiones  (1577).  His  Politica  is  mainly 
a  digest  of  Aristotle,  Tacitus,  and  other  ancient  authors.  A 
special  interest  attaches  to  the  work  on  the  pronunciation  of 
Latin,  dedicated  to  Sir  Philip  Sidney  (1586),  in  which  he  is  dis- 
tinctly in  favour  of  always  pronouncing  C  as  K,  and  V  as  W, 
while  he  allows  of  some  variation  in  the  sounds  of  the  vowels3. 
His  study  of  the  authors  of  the  Silver  Age  led  to  his  abandoning 
the  moderate  Ciceronianism  of  his  earlier  Letters  and  of  his  Variae 
Lectiones  for  a  style  founded  on  Tacitus  and  Seneca,  and  even  on 
Gellius  and  Apuleius4.  Though  he  was  fond  of  quoting  Greek, 
his  strength  did  not  lie  in  that  branch  of  scholarship.  Scaliger 
said  of  him  :  Lipsius  n'est  Grec  que  pour  sa  provision* ;  and  a  remark 
in  one  of  the  Letters  of  Lipsius,  '  Graecas  litteras  homini  erudito 
decoras  esse,  necessarias  non  item',  met  with  a  protest,  in  his 
life-time,  from  Casaubon6,  and,  after  his  death,  from  Ruhnken7, 

1  Lipsii  Opera  Critica  (Hallam  i  so84  n.) ;  p.  144  supra. 

2  Cp.  Hallam,  i  527*;  founded  on  Fr.  Patrizzi  (cp.  Seal.  Sec.  143). 

3  Opera  (Antwerp,  1637),  441  f. 

4  H.  Stephanus,  De  Lipsii  Latinitate  (1595);  cp.  C.  Nisard,  Triumvirat, 
39—42,  140-6. 

6  Seal.  Sec.  143. 

6  Epp.  291,  294;  with  Lipsius'  reply,  Ep.  356  (Burman,  Sylloge,  i  376). 

7  Opera,  i  268.     On  the  Life  and  Works  of  Lipsius,  cp.  Meursius,  109 — 
115  (portrait,   ib.  and  in   Boissard,  n  ii  28);    his   portrait  was  painted  by 
Rubens,  Van  Dyck,  and  Abraham  Janssens  (see  p.  302  supra).    Cp.  also  Blount, 


CHAP.  XIX.]  SCHOTT.      SCALIGER.  305 

who  describes  him  as  '  perfectus  literis  Latinis,  Graecarum  medi- 
ocriter  peritus'. 

The  Jesuit  Andreas  Schott  of  Antwerp  (1552 — 1629)  was,  like  Lipsius,  a 

pupil  of  Cornelius  Valerius,   professor   of  Latin  at  Louvain 

Schott 
(1557-78).     After  visiting  Douai  and  Paris,  he  spent  several 

years  in  Spain,  as  a  professor  at  Toledo  and  Saragossa.  Thereupon  he 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  was  a  teacher  in  Rome  at  the  Collegio 
Romano.  In  1597,  at  the  age  of  45,  he  returned  to  Antwerp,  which  remained 
his  home  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  To  the  Ciceronian  controversy  he  contributed 
a  pamphlet  entitled  Cicero  a  calumniis  vindicates  (1613).  His  name  is  con- 
nected with  the  discovery  of  the  Monumentum  Ancyranum,  first  copied  by 
Busbequius  (1555),  Legationis  Turcicae  Epp.  iv  (1595),  65;  and  first  published 
by  Schott  with  Aurelius  Victor  (Antwerp,  1579)  65  f.  He  edited  Aurelius 
Victor,  Pomponius  Mela,  and  Seneca  the  rhetorician;  while  his  study  of  Greek 
is  attested  by  his  edition  of  the  Bibliotheca  of  Photius  (1606),  and  the  Chresto- 
mathy  of  Proclus  (1615).  He  was  the  first  to  edit  the  Proverbs  of  Diogenianus 
(1612);  all  his  notes  on  those  Proverbs  were  reprinted  by  Gaisford,  and  a  small 
selection  only  by  Leutsch  and  Schneidewin.  Although  he  was  a  Jesuit,  he 
was  on  friendly  terms  with  Casaubon,  their  correspondence  beginning  in  1602. 
But  in  writing  to  Protestants  he  exercised  a  certain  degree  of  caution ;  at  the 
end  of  a  letter  to  G.  J.  Vossius  he  simply  subscribes  himself  as  '  the  darkling 
{tenebrid)  who  translated  Photius  '  *. 

At  Louvain,  Lipsius  was  succeeded  in  1607  by  h'5  PUP''>  Erycius  Puteanus 
of  Venloo  (1574 — 1646),  who  at  an  early  age  was  appointed 
professor  of  Eloquence  at  Milan,  where  he  was  honoured  with 
the  friendship  of  Cardinal  Frederic  Borromeo,  the  founder  of  the  Ambrosian 
Library.     He  was  the  correspondent  of  many  scholars  throughout  Europe,  but 
the  topics  treated  in  his  Latin  works  were  unimportant,  and  he  succeeded  in 
his  blameless  ambition  of  being  bonus  potius  quam  conspicnus^. 

At  Leyden,   the  place  of  distinction  filled  by   Lipsius  until 
1590  was  offered  by  Janus  Dousa  to  Scaliger,  who 
there    produced    his    great    work,    the     Thesaurus 
Temporum  (1606).     His  life  and  works  have  been  already  noticed 
in  connexion  with   the  land  of  his   birth3.     In  the  land  of  his 

591-4;  Reiffenberg  (1823);  C.  Nisard,  Triumvirat,  i — 148;  Neve,  Me  HI. 
166—172,  322  f;  G.  H.  M.  Delprat,  Lettre.s  Inedites  (1580-97),  Amst.  1858; 
Van  der  Haeghen,  Bibliographic  ;  L.  Miiller,  24 — 29,  33 — 35;  Urlichs,  62-  f. 

1  Colomies,  Melange  Curieux,  833.    Cp.,  in  general,  Baguet  in  Alt' in.  Acad. 
Belg.  xxiii  1-49;  van  Hulst  in  Revue  de  Liege  (1846) ;  de  Backer,  Bibliographie 
i  710—727;  Neve,  Mem.  342  f;  Pattison's  Casaubon,  396 — 400-  n. 

2  Neve,  Mem.  172—180;  portrait  in  Boissard,  vil  //  3;  Blount,  Centura, 
689;  Max  Rooses,  Musee  Plantin  (1883),  32. 

3  p.  199  supra. 

S.    IL  20 


306  THE    NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVI  f 

adoption  he  continued  to  be  famous  as  the  greatest  scholar  of  his 
age.  Among  those  who  came  under  his  immediate  influence  at 
Leyden  was  Daniel  Heinsius,  to  whom  we  shall  shortly  return. 
Wowerius1  (1574 — 1612),  a  native  of  Hamburg,  was  Scaliger's 
pupil  at  Leyden,  and,  after  living  at  Antwerp,  travelled  for  some 
years  in  France  and  Italy.  He  was  aided  by  Scaliger  in  his 
edition  of  Petronius ;.  he  also  edited  Apuleius.  A  greater  interest 
attaches  to  his  Tractatio  de  Polymathia,  a  fragment  of  a  vast 
work  on  the  learned  studies  of  the  ancients,  the  first  attempt  at  a 
general  survey  of  the  whole  domain  of  classical  learning  (i6c>4)2. 
He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Philip  Rubens  (1574 — 1611),  the 
elder  brother  of  the  artist.  Both  of  the  friends  were  pupils  of 
Lipsius,  and  their  friendship  has  been  immortalised  by  the  artist 
in  a  picture  now  in  the  Pitti  Palace.  The  two  friends  are  seated 
at  a  table  covered  with  books,  and  between  them  is  Lipsius.  In 
a  niche  of  the  wall  to  the  right,  we  see  a  copy  of  the  bronze  bust 
of  'Seneca'  (whose  works  had  been  edited  by  Lipsius  in  1605), 
with  four  Dutch  tulips  in  a  glass  beside  it;  in  the  middle  distance, 
we  have  a  glimpse  of  a  beautiful  Italian  landscape ;  while  the 
artist  himself  is  standing  on  the  left3. 

The  teaching  of  History  at  Leyden  was  taken  up  in  1597  by  Paulus  Merula 
of  Dordrecht  (1558 — 1607),  who  had  travelled  extensively  in 
France,  Italy,  Germany,  and  England,  and  was  then  practising 
as  a  barrister.     Several  of  his  antiquarian  and  geographical  works  were  pub- 
lished after  his  death.     Two  years  before  his  appointment,  he  published  an 
edition  of  the  Fragments  of  Ennius  (1595).     He  professed  to  have  found  some 
of  these  in  a  MS  of  L.  Calpurnius  Piso  at  the  monastery  of  Saint-Victor  in 
Paris4,  but  this  is  now  regarded  as  a  fraudulent  statement5.    Merula's  successor 

was  Dominicus  Baudius  (1*61 — 1613),  an  excellent  composer 
Baudius 

in  verse  and  prose,  as  is  proved  by  his  Ainores  and  his  Orationes. 

One  of  these  was  addressed  to  queen  Elizabeth,  another  to  James  I,  while  a 

1  Jan  van  der  Wouwer.  2  Bursian,  i  303,  Urlichs,  74*. 

3  Cp.  Emile  Michel,  Rubens,  i  155.     It  is  clear,  from  chronological  con- 
siderations, that  it  is  not  Grotius   who  is  here  represented  as  the  friend  of 
Philip  Rubens;  and  this  opinion  is  confirmed,  on  other  grounds,  by  Max 
Rooses    as   well   as    Emile    Michel.      A    portrait   of    Lipsius,    engraved   for 
Wowerius,  p.  302  supra. 

4  p.  424  of  Hessel's  ed.  of  Ennius,  1707. 

5  Lawicki,  De  fraude  P.  Merulae,  Bonn,  1852. — Cp.  Meursius,  Ath.  Bat. 
158  f;  portrait  ib.,  and  in  Boissard,  VI  16. 


CHAP.  XIX.]    P.  MERULA.     SCRIVERIUS.     G.  J.  VOSSIUS.     307 

third  is  the  funeral  oration  in  honour  of  Scaliger  (1609).     Of  his  numerous 

letters  many  are  addressed  to  Grotius1.     Petrus  Scriverius  of 

i  •    i  i  Scnverius 

Haarlem  (1576 — 1660),  who  lived  at  .Leyden  as  an  independent 

scholar,  is  best  known  as  an  editor  of  Martial  (1619).  He  also  edited  the 
tragedies  of  Seneca  and  the  works  of  Apuleius,  but  he  was  probably  much 
more  interested  in  writing  his  own  poems  and  in  printing  repeated  editions  of 
the  Basia  of  Joannes  Secunclus2. 

A  far  wider  field  of  learning  was  covered   by  Gerard  John 
Vossius  (1577 — 1649),  the  greatest  '  Polyhistor  '  of 

,-,  .  G-  J-  Vossius 

his  age.  Born  of  Dutch  parentage  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Heidelberg,  he  was  educated  at  Dordrecht  and 
Leyden,  ultimately  becoming  Rector  of  the  former  in  1600  and 
of  the  latter  in  1615.  In  1622  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
Eloquence  at  Leyden,  and,  after  holding  that  office  for  ten  years, 
accepted  the  professorship  of  History  at  Amsterdam  in  i63i3. 
Seventeen  years  later,  at  the  age  of  72,  when  he  was  climbing  a 
ladder  in  his  library,  he  had  a  fall  that  proved  fatal,  thus  dying 
(as  Reisig  has  phrased  it)  '  in  the  arms  of  the  Muses'.  The 
subjects  of  his  most  important  works  were  Grammar,  Rhetoric, 
and  the  History  of  Literature.  His  earliest  literary  distinction 
was  won  at  Leyden  in  1606,  when  he  published  a  com- 
prehensive treatise  on  Rhetoric,  which,  in  the  edition  printed 
thirty  years  later,  fills  1000  quarto  pages.  On  its  first  appearance, 
Scaliger  declared  that  he  had  learnt  an  infinite  amount  from  its 
perusal,  while  Casaubon  lauded  its  critical  power  and  its  wide 
erudition4.  His  text-book  of  Latin  Grammar  (1607)  was  re- 
peatedly reprinted  in  Holland  and  Germany,  while  his  learned 
and  scholarly  work  on  the  same  general  subject,  published  in  four 
volumes  in  1635,  under  the  title  of  Aristarchus,  sive  de  Arte 
Grammatica,  was  warmly  welcomed  by  Salmasius,  and  went 
through  several  editions,  the  latest  of  which  appeared  at  Halle 
after  the  lapse  of  two  centuries5.  He  also  wrote  a  treatise  De 
Vittis  Sermonis  et  Glossematis  Latino-barbaris  in  nine  books. 

1  Epp.  et  Orationcs,  ed.  nova,   1642,  portrait  ib.,  and  in  Meursius,  154, 
and  Boissard,  vi   15. 

2  Portrait  of  Scriverius  in  Meursius,  220,  and  Boissard,  vi  27. 

3  Meanwhile,  he  was  offered  a  professorship  of  History  at  Cambridge  in 
1624,  and  was  made  Canon  of  Canterbury  in  1629. 

4  See  also  Saintsbury,  ii  358.  5  Cp.  Hallam,  ii  2884. 

2O — 2 


GEJtARDVS    IOAN.  VOSSIVS. 

. 

(_  ?/*/?*. . 


fafrsrtm: 

•/  '''r     ' 


I/  a.'l;  ,'is,'  <ist<j  •.•<-';r.r-'t  •//.'.  .-        (  +t~-vacrfc'~c/vr' 


G.  J.  Vossius. 
From  Bloteling's  engraving  of  portrait  by  Sandrart. 


CHAP.  XIX.]  G.  J.  VOSSIUS.      SALMASIUS.  309 

Four  of  these,  published  during  his  life-time  (1645),  may  be 
briefly  described  as  an  Anti-barbarus  •  of  the  remaining  five 
(1685),  printed  after  his  death,  the  most  interesting  part  is  on  the 
verbafalso  suspecta,  giving  lists  of  many  good  Latin  words  that  do 
not  happen  to  be  found  in  Cicero1.  In  the  interval  between  these 
two  works  on  Grammar,  he  published  two  important  treatises  on 
the  History  of  Literature,  entitled  De  Historitis  Graecis  (1623-4) 
and  Latinis  (1627),  and  a  new  edition  of  the  former  appeared  at 
Leipzig  as  late  as  1833.  His  treatise  on  Poetry  (1647)  was  a 
work  of  wide  influence.  It  resembles  the  corresponding  treatise 
of  the  elder  Scaliger2.  His  interest  in  Art  is  attested  by  his  brief 
treatise  De  Graphice,  while  •  he  is  also  the  author  of  one  of  the 
earliest  works  on  Mythology3.  The  brother  of  his 

Junius 

second  wife  was  Franciscus  Junius  (1589 — 1677), 

author  of  the  De  plctura  veterum  (1637  and  1694),  and  for  thirty 

years  librarian  to  the  earl  of  Arundel4. 

The  Chair  of  History  at  Leyden,  left  vacant  from  the  death 
of  Scaliger  in  1609  to  the  year  1631,  might  well  have  been 
offered  to  Gerard  John  Vossius,  who  had  produced  both  of  his 
important  works  on  the  Greek  and  Latin  historians  before  the  end 
of  1627.  But  in  1631  a  native  of  another  land, 

„,        ,  .  .  Salmasius 

Claude  Saumaise,  was  invited  to  fill  the  vacant 
Chair,  and  it  cannot  be  regarded  as  an  entirely  accidental  co- 
incidence that  in  that  very  year  Vossius  resigned  the  professorship 
of  Eloquence  at  Leyden  for  that  of  History  at  Amsterdam. 
Saumaise,  or  Salmasius,  whose  earlier  career  we  have  already 
noticed  in  connexion  with  the  land  of  his  birth5,  had  produced  in 
1629  his  great  work  on  Solinus,  but,  after  his  appointment  at 
Leyden,  he  edited  authors  of  minor  importance  only,  such  as 
Scylax,  Cebes,  Simplicius,  and  Achilles  Tatius,  while  he  added 

1  Cp.  Hallam,  ii  sS?4. 

2  See  Saintsbury,  ii  359. 

3  De  Origitie  et  Progressu   Idololatriae,  sine  de    Theologia    Genlili.      On 
G.  J.  Vossius,  cp.  Meursius,  Ath.  Bat.  267 — 275  (portrait  ib.  and  in  Boissard, 
ix  n  %  i;  also  on  p.  308  supra) ;  Blount,  680;  C.  Tollius  (1649) ;  H-  Tollius 
(1778);  Ue  Crane  (1820);  Hallam,  ii  287-*  f ;  L.  Miiller,  40. 

4  Michaelis,    Ancient  Marbles    in    Great  Britain,    25;    Stark,    126.     Cp. 
Lessing's  iMokoon,  c.   2  and  c.   29. 

5  p.  285  supra. 


IGANNES  MEURSIUS  I.G.ET 
HISTORIC  CRJLCA  PROFESS. 


MEURSIUS. 
From  the  engraving  in  Meursius,  Athenae  Batavae  (1625),  p.  191. 


CHAP.  XIX.]  MEURSIUS.  311 

little  to  his  reputation  for  learning,  except  by  his  work  on  usury, 
and  his  treatise  disproving  the  existence  of  a  separate  Hellenistic 
dialect. 

Jan  de  Meurs,  or  Joannes  Meursius  (1579 — 1639),  who  was 
born  near  the  Hague,  was  a  student  at  Leyden, 

....  /-   T->  •      T  Meursius 

and,  after  receiving  the  degree  of  Doctor  in  Law  at 
Orleans,  became  professor  of  History  and  of  Greek  in  his  own 
university  (1610).  During  the  fourteen  years  of  his  professorial 
activity,  he  printed  for  the  first  time  a  number  of  Byzantine 
authors;  he  also  produced  the  editio  princeps  of  the  Elementa 
Harmonica  of  Aristoxenus  (1616),  and  edited  the  Timaeus  of 
Plato  with  the  commentary  and  translation  of  Chalcidius  (1617). 
Most  of  his  numerous  lucubrations  are  concerned  with  Greek 
Antiquities,  including  the  festivals,  games,  and  dances  of  Greece, 
and  the  mysteries  of  Eleusis.  Gronovius,  who  has  gathered  many 
of  these  into  his  Thesaurus,  describes  Meursius  as  '  the  true  and 
legitimate  mystagogue  to  the  sanctuaries  of  Greece'.  He  wrote 
much  on  the  Antiquities  of  Athens  and  Attica,  and  the  vast 
amount  of  rather  confused  learning  that  he  has  thus  collected  has 
been  largely  utilised  by  later  writers  on  the  same  subject.  His 
treatise  on  the  Ceramicus  Geminus  was  first  published  by  Pufendorf 
(1663),  to  whom  Graevius  dedicated  his  edition  of  the  Themis 
Attica  of  Meursius  (1685).  He  commemorated  the  first  jubilee 
of  Leyden  by  producing,  under  the  name  of  Athenae  Batavae,  a 
small  quarto  volume  in  two  books,  (i)  a  history  of  the  Town  and 
University  with  curious  cuts  representing  incidents  connected 
with  the  siege,  and  (2)  a  series  of  biographies  of  the  principal 
professors,  contributed  by  themselves,  with  lists  of  their  works 
and  with  their  portraits.  The  date  of  its  publication  (1625) 
marks  a  turning  point  in  his  career.  The  work  is  dedicated  to 
the  chancellor  of  the  king  of  Denmark,  who  had  lately  invited 
him  to  accept  the  professorship  of  History  at  the  Danish  university 
of  Soroe,  where  he  passed  the  last  fourteen  years  of  his  life.  The 
portrait  prefixed  to  his  autobiography  in  the  Athenae  Batavae, 
presents  us  with  a  face  marked  with  an  exceptional  alertness  and 
keenness  of  expression'. 

1  p.  191,  and  Boissard,  vi  23.  See  also  D.  W.  Moller's  Dispu.'atio  (1693); 
J.  V.  Schramm  (1715);  and  A.  Vorst,  in  preface  to  posthumous  ed.  of  Theo- 
phrastus,  Char.  1640  (reprinted  in  Gronovius,  Thes.  x);  Opera,  Flor.  1741-63. 


DANIEL  HEINSIUS. 
From  Snyderhuis'  engraving  of  portrait  by  S.  Merck.     Print  Room,   British  Museum. 


CHAP.  XIX.]     PUTSCHIUS.     CLUVERIUS.     D.  HEINSIUS.     313 

Helias  Putschius  of  Antwerp  (1580 — 1606)  was  educated  at 
Stade,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe,  and  at  Leyden, 

•  v  r^  Putschius 

where  he  came  under  the  influence  of  Scaliger.     To 

Scaliger,   who  calls  him  an   egregius  juvenis1,   he  dedicated  his 

comprehensive  collection  of  Grammaticae  Latinae  atictores  antiqui 

(1605),  printed  from  manuscript  sources  at  Heidelberg,  one  of  the 

many  places  in  Germany  where  he  lived  before  that  early  death 

at  Stade,  which  prevented  his  completing  the  notes  to  that  great 

work2. 

Cluverius  of  Danzig  (1580 — 1623)  visited  Poland  and  Germany  before  he 

was  sent  to  learn  Law  at  Leyden.      But  he  was  much  more 

Cluverius 
attracted  to  the  study  of  Geography,  and,  under  the  influence 

of  Scaliger,  he  devoted  himself  entirely  to  that  subject.  He  served  as  a 
soldier  for  two  years  in  Hungary,  travelled  in  Bohemia,  and  in  England  and 
Scotland,  as  well  as  in  France,  Germany,  and  Italy.  He  had  a  wide  know- 
ledge of  modern  languages,  and  the  Italian  Cardinals  endeavoured  to  retain 
him  in  Rome,  but  he  remained  true  to  Leyden,  where  he  ended  his  days  in 
receipt  of  an  annual  stipend,  which  did  not  involve  any  public  duties  as  a 
teacher.  He  produced  three  important  works  on  the  ancient  geography 
of  Germany  (1616),  Sicily,  with  Sardinia  and  Corsica  (1619),  and  Italy  (1624). 
The  first  of  these,  as  well  as  his  Introduction  to  Geography,  which  was  pub- 
lished after  his  death,  was  twice  reprinted3. 

A  far  longer  life  than  that  of  Putschius  the  grammarian,  or 
Cluverius  the  geographer,  was  allotted  to  one  who 

D.    Heinsius 

was  born  in  or  about  the  same  year  as  both.  Daniel 
Heinsius  of  Ghent  (1580-1  — 1655)  studied  Law  at  Leyden,  but 
his  real  interest  lay  in  Plato  and  Aristotle.  He  found  a  friend  in 
Scaliger,  who  bequeathed  to  him  a  number  of  his  books,  while 
Heinsius  was  deeply  devoted  to  the  memory  of  that  great  scholar, 
and  published  three  orations  in  his  honour4.  His  work  on  Greek 
authors,  such  as  Hesiod  and  Aristotle's  treatise  on  Poetry,  was 
(except  in  the  case  of  Theocritus)  better  than  his  work  on  Latin 
authors.  He  studied  the  treatise  of  Aristotle  in  connexion  with 
the  Ars  Poctica  of  Horace.  His  edition  of  the  former  (1611)  is 
the  only  considerable  contribution  to  the  criticism  and  elucidation 

1  Seal.  Sec.  s.  v. 

-  Life    by    Ritterhusius,    1608    and    1706,   and  by  Wilcken,   Lindcnbrogii 
(1723),   82—112. 

3  Cp.  Meursius,  Alh.  Bat.  290  f,  with  portrait,  and  D.  Heinsius,  Oratio  ix. 

4  Or.  ii,  iii,  xxix. 


314  THE    NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVII. 

of  the  work  that  was  ever  produced  in  the  Netherlands.  It 
includes  several  satisfactory  corrections  of  the  text,  a  Latin 
translation  completed  in  'two  or  three  days',  and  a  number  of 
original  notes.  In  his  pamphlet  De  Tragoediae  Constitutione, 
published  in  the  same  year,  he  deals  with  all  the  essential  points 
in  Aristotle's  treatise,  giving  proof  that  he  has  thoroughly  imbibed 
the  author's  spirit,  and  adding  illustrations  from  the  Greek  tragic 
poets,  and  from  Horace  and  Seneca1.  It  was  through  this  work 
that  he  became  a  centre  of  Aristotelian  influence  in  Holland2. 
His  influence  extended,  in  France,  to  Chapelain  and  Balzac3,  to 
Racine  and  Corneille4 ;  in  Germany,  to  Opitz5;  and,  in  England, 
to  Ben  Jonson,  who  in  his  Discoveries  (1641)  borrows  largely  from 
Heinsius,  without  mentioning  his  name6.  He  also  borrows  from 
the  criticisms  of  Heinsius  on  Plautus  and  Terence,  first  printed 
in  that  scholar's  edition  of  Horace  (i6i2)7. 

His  transpositions  in  the  text  of  the  Ars  Poelica  and  his  verbal 
conjectures  in  the  other  works  of  Horace  have  been  disapproved 
by  Bentley  and  other  critics;  but  his  treatise  De  Satyra  Horatiana 
is  not  without  merit.  His  critical  notes  on  Silius  (1600),  on  the 
tragedies  of  Seneca  (1611),  and  on  Ovid  (1629),  are  not  much 
more  valuable  than  those  on  Horace8.  Nevertheless,  his  criticisms 
were  highly  praised  by  his  contemporaries  and  by  his  immediate 
successors9.  His  Latin  orations  are  sometimes  deemed  to  be 
unduly  grandiloquent,  but  his  elegiac  poems  have  a  more  uniform 
elegance  than  those  of  Buchanan,  which  they  closely  resemble. 
His  Juvenilia  in  particular  are  marked  by  a  repeated  preference 
for  a  polysyllabic  ending  to  the  pentameter  line10.  He  was  highly 
honoured  at  home  and  abroad;  he  was  made  a  Councillor  of  State 
by  Gustavus  Adolphus,  and  a  knight  of  St  Mark  by  the  Republic 

1  Saintsbury,  ii  356  f. 

2  Jonkbloet,  Geschiedenis  der  Nederlandsche  Lefterkunde,  1889*,  iv  214  f. 

3  ib.  iii  60  f.  4  Pref.  to  Don  Sanche. 

5  Beckherrn,  Opilz,  Ronsard,  und  Heinsius,  1888. 

6  This  has  been  pointed  out  to  me  by  Prof.  Spingarn,  to  whom  all  the 
above  references  are  due. 

7  See  esp.  Spingarn's  Sources  ofjonsorfs  '  Discoveries ',  in  Modern  Philology, 
ii  (1905)  451—460,  and  M.  Castelain's  critical  ed.  (Paris,  1907). 

8  L.  Muller,  39.  9  Blount,  698. 
10  Hallam,  iii  5i4. 


CHAP.  XIX.]  GROTIUS.  315 

of  Venice;  and  was  invited  to  the  papal  court  by  Urban  VIII  'to 
rescue  Rome  from  barbarism'1. 

Hugo  Grotius  (1583 — 1645),  w^°  was  born  at  Delft  and 
educated  at  Leyden,  was  eminent  as  a  statesman,  a 

...  .  11-  i  11  TT-ri  Grotius 

diplomatist,  a  theologian  and  a  scholar.  His  father 
wrote  Latin  poems,  and  corresponded  with  Lipsius  in  Latin  prose^ 
The  son  began  writing  Latin  verses  at  the  tender  age  of  eight,  and 
constantly  practised  the  art  until  he  was  at  least  thirty-four.  At 
the  age  of  fifteen,  under  the  influence  of  Scaliger,  he  began  to 
prepare  an  edition  of  the  mediaeval  text-book  of  the  liberal  arts 
by  Martianus  Capella.  In  the  same  year  he  attended  Olden- 
Barneveldt  on  an  important  mission  to  France,  and  was  presented 
to  Henry  IV2,  who  gave  the  young  attache  a  gold  chain  with  his 
portrait.  On  his  return  to  the  Netherlands  the  youthful  Grotius 
published  his  commentary  on  Capella,  with  a  portrait  of  himself 
wearing  the  gold  chain  and  the  medallion.  The  work  was 
welcomed  by  Scaliger,  who  divined  the  editor's  future  greatness3. 
In  the  year  of  its  publication  his  father,  fearing  he  might  be  unduly 
attracted  to  the  pursuit  of  literature,  removed  him  from  Leyden 
as  soon  as  he  had  taken  the  degree  of  Doctor  in  Law,  and  entered 
him  as  an  advocate  at  the  Hague.  The  early  part  of  his  public 
career  was  an  unbroken  series  of  distinctions.  He  was  successively 
historiographer  of  the  Netherlands,  advocate-general  of  Holland 
and  Zealand,  a  member  of  the  States-general,  and  envoy  to  Eng- 
land. His  earliest  work  on  international  law  was  the  Mare  Liberum 
(1609),  and  he  was  well  content  with  the  terms  of  the  answer  to 
that  work  in  the  Mare  Clausiim  of  the  learned  Selden  (1636). 
The  controversy  excited  by  the  two  theological  professors  of 
Leyden,  Arminius  and  Gomar,  continued  long  after  the  death  of 
the  former  in  1609;  and  the  Arminian  (or  anti-Calvinistic)  opinions 
of  Barneveldt  led  to  his  being  sentenced  to  death  with  the  approval 
of  the  Synod  of  Dort  (1619).  Grotius,  who  sympathised  with 
Barneveldt,  was  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  life.  The  same 
sentence  was  pronounced  on  the  president  of  the  council  of  Ley- 

1  Cp.,  in  general,  Meursius,  Ath.  Bat.  209 — 219  (portrait  ib.,  and  in 
Boissard,  VI  16,  bearing  his  modest  motto,  quantum  est  quod  nescinnts); 
Thysius,  Orat.  Funebris,  1655.  Portrait  on  p.  312  supra. 

-  Poemata  (1617),  p.  307  f.  3  ib.  519  f. 


316  THE    NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVII. 

den,  who,  on  hearing  his  doom,  exclaimed  in  the  words  of  Horace: 
hie  murus  aeneus  esto,  nil  conscire  sibi,  nnlla  pallescere  culpa. 
Grotius  received  his  sentence  in  silence,  reserving  for  a  future  time 
the  publication  of  the  proof  of  its  scandalous  injustice1.  In  his 
prison  he  wrote  in  Dutch  verse  the  first  draft  of  his  future  treatise 
De  Veritate  Religionis  Christianae ;  and  the  '  dulces  ante  omnia 
Musae'  were  now  dearer  to  him  than  ever2.  All  that  he  composed 
at  this  time  was  sent  to  G.  J.  Vossius  at  Leyden,  and  Vossius  in 
his  turn  was  permitted  to  send  large  parcels  of  books  for  the  use 
of  the  imprisoned  scholar.  The  books  passed  to  and  fro  in  a  box 
about  four  feet  long,  and,  by  the  ingenuity  of  his  wife,  it  was  in 
this  box  that,  after  the  lapse  of  a  year  and  ten  months,  the  prisoner 
made  his  escape.  In  March,  1622,  he  fled  to  Paris,  where  he 
found  friends  among  the  scholars  of  the  time,  such  as  Salmasius 
and  Peirescius.  Once,  in  the  company  of  the  latter,  a  stranger 
asked  how  he  could  become  as  learned  as  Peirescius  and  Grotius, 
when  Grotius  replied:  'Lege  Veteres,  sperne  recentiores,  et  eris 
noster'3.  When  Puteanus  wrote  to  console  the  exile  with  the 
examples  of  Themistocles  and  Coriolanus,  Grotius  preferred  to 
think  of  Aristides,  and  of  Phocion,  who  in  his  last  words  sent  a 
message  to  his  son,  bidding  him  never  to  reproach  Athens  with 
the  penalty  she  had  inflicted  on  his  father4.  In  1622  he  published 
his  Defence  in  Dutch  and  in  Latin.  In  the  following  year  he 
produced  his  edition  and  translation  of  the  poetic  passages  in 
Stobaeus,  accompanied  by  the  treatises  of  Plutarch  and  Basil  on 
the  study  of  the  poets,  and  followed,  three  years  later,  by  excerpts 
from  the  tragic  and  comic  poets  of  Greece5.  The  Latin  version  of 
the  extracts  in  Stobaeus  had  occupied  him  during  the  imprison- 
ment at  the  Hague  immediately  before  his  trial,  and,  curiously 
enough,,  he  had  just  reached  the  4pth  Section,  On  the  Criticism  of 
Tyranny,  when  the  pen  was  taken  from  his  hand6.  In  the  three 
short  years  between  the  publication  of  his  Stobaeus  and  1625  he 
composed  his  classic  work  De  Jure  Belli  et  Pads1.  In  the  same 
year  he  completed  the  Latin  version  of  the  De  Veritate  and  offered 

1  Afologeticiis,  c.  19.  '2  Ep.  125. 

3  Luden,  171  n.  *  Ep.  164,  p.  62. 

5  1626;  enlarged  by  Gataker  in  his  Miscellanies, 

6  Ep.  200,  p.  71.  7  Hallam,  ii  544—589*. 


CHAP.  XIX.]  GROTIUS.  317 

Scriverius  some  memoranda  on  the  tragedies  of  Seneca1.  He  also 
put  together  certain  notes  and  emendations  on  Tacitus,  which 
reminded  him  to  resume  his  Latin  History  of  Holland.  The 
emendations  were  subsequently  printed  in  1640  in  a  new  issue 
of  the  edition  of  Lipsius.  His  translation  of  Procopius  was  not 
published  until  ten  years  after  his  death.  His  rendering  of  the 
Phoenissae  of  Euripides  in  Latin  Verse,  begun  in  prison,  was 
completed  and  published  in  1630. 

His  attempt  to  return  to  his  native  land  was  rudely  met  by  a 
decree  of  perpetual  banishment.  But  the  treatise  De  Jure  Belli 
et  Pads  had  been  specially  admired  by  the  great  warrior  Gustavus 
Adolphus ;  Grotius  entered  the  service  of  Sweden,  and  in  1635 
began  his  career  as  envoy  of  the  young  queen  Christina  at  the 
court  of  France.  Fourteen  years  later,  he  asked  for  his  recall; 
the  request  was  granted;  on  his  way  to  Sweden,  he  was  welcomed 
by  his  friends  at  Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam.  He  had  an 
interview  with  the  queen  at  Stockholm,  and  left  for  Liibeck 
(presumably)  in  the  hope  of  returning  to  his  native  land.  His 
ship  was,  however,  wrecked  on  the  Pomeranian  coast,  and  he  was 
only  able  to  drive  as  far  as  Rostock,  where  he  died.  His  em- 
balmed body  was  afterwards  buried  in  the  tomb  of  his  ancestors 
at  Delft,  and  the  place  of  his  rest  was  marked  by  an  epitaph,  which 
he  had  himself  composed: — 

'  Grotius  hie  Hugo  est,  Batavus,  Captivus  et  Exul, 
Legatus  Regni,  Suecia  magna,  tui '. 

Apart  from  his  important  works  in  the  domain  of  theology,  law, 
and  history,  his  productions  as  a  scholar  alone  would  be  enough 
to  lend  distinction  to  his  name.  In  his  early  youth  (as  we  have 
seen)  he  had  commented  on  Martianus  Capella  ;  in  1601  and  1608 
respectively,  he  had  written  two  Latin  tragedies,  on  the  Exile  of 
Adam  and  the  death  of  Christ,  and  the  former  of  these  was  imi- 
tated by  Vondel  and  by  Milton.  He  had  translated  the  Phoenissae 
of  Euripides,  and  the  poetic  extracts  in  Stobaeus;  he  had  edited 
Lucan  (1614),  and  Silius  (1636);  and  had  corrected  the  text  of 
Seneca's  Tragedies  and  of  Tacitus.  At  Paris  in  1630  he  began 
his  renderings  of  the  Planudean  Anthology.  In  the  course  of  this 
work  he  corrected  the  original  text  in  many  passages,  and  in  this 
1  Ep.  101,  p.  784. 


3l8  THE   NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVII. 

connexion  consulted  Salmasius1,  who  had  made  his  memorable 
discovery  of  the  more  comprehensive  Palatine  Anthology  in  1 606, 
and  was  still  contemplating  an  edition  of  the  same.  For  the 
appearance  of  that  edition  Grotius  waited  in  vain;  he  continued 
to  revise  and  polish  his  renderings,  and  lived  in  the  hope  of  seeing 
this  work  printed,  not  in  France,  but  in  Holland2.  The  printing 
had  even  begun3,  when  the  work  was  laid  aside,  and  these  admir- 
able renderings  did  not  see  the  light  until  150  years  after  the 
translator's  death4. 

He  was  less  skilful  as  a  critic  of  the  text  of  the  tragic  and 
comic  poets  of  Greece,  than  as  a  translator;  but  he  had  a  singular 
faculty  for  illustrating  any  passage  with  the  aid  of  apt  parallels  from 
his  wide  reading  of  the  Classics.  His  Latin  poems  give  abundant 
proof  of  his  poetic  taste;  and  his  immature  verses  of  1598  were 
superseded  by  the  edition  of  his  poems  collected  by  his  brother 
in  1617.  Of  the  Latin  poets  of  that  age,  Baudius  may  excel  in 
fancy;  Broukhusius,  and  the  elder  and  younger  Heinsius,  in 
smoothness  of  style;  but  Grotius  surpasses  all  in  the  success  with 
with  he  reproduces  the  spirit  of  classical  poetry,  and  clothes 
modern  thoughts  in  ancient  forms.  Lucian  Miiller,  in  the  course 
of  a  long  and  interesting  examination  of  his  Latin  verse,  quotes, 
as  a  solitary  example  of  a  departure  from  classical  usage,  the 
following  couplet  referring  to  a  portrait  of  Scaliger  painted  shortly 
before  the  death  of  that  great  scholar: — 

'haec  est  Scaligeri  mortem  meditantis  imago, 
luminis  heu  tanti  vespera  talis  erat '. 

'The  evening  of  life'  (adds  the  critic)  'is  a  modern,  not  an  ancient, 
metaphor'5.  On  the  contrary,  the  'evening  of  life'  is  a  metaphor 
approved  by  Aristotle6,  who  quotes  a  parallel  from  Empedocles 
and  might  have  quoted  another  from  Aeschylus7;  and  Daniel 

1  Epp.  368,  418.        a  Epp.  527,612,  1698  etc.  ;  Suppl.  402,  486,  ed.  1687. 

3  Ep.  1721. 

4  His  secretary,  E.  le  Mercier,  deposited  the  original  in  the  library  of  the 
Jesuits'  College  in  Paris  in  1665.     It  was  published  by  Jerome  de  Bosch  at 
Utrecht  in  1795-8,  with  the  aid  of  a  transcript  from  England,  corrected  by 
Grotius  himself  (Luden,  278).     It  has  since  been  reproduced  as  part  of  the 
Didot  ed.  of  the  Greek  Anthology. 

5  p.  203.  6  Poet.  c.  21  §  6.  7  Agam.  1123. 


CHAP.  XIX.]  GRONOVIUS.  319 

Heinsius,  who,  like  Grotius,  was  one  of  the  favourite  pupils  of 
Scaliger,  had  translated  in  161 1  the  very  treatise  in  which  Aristotle 
approves  this  metaphor1.  Grotius  could  hardly  have  failed  to  be 
familiar  with  this  work. 

Of  all  the  scholars  to  whom  he  addresses  his  poems,  the  first  place 
belongs  to  Heinsius2,  who,  as  it  happened,  was  afterwards  Secretary  of  the 
Synod  of  Dort,  which  condemned  Grotius.  Among  the  rest  are  Scaliger3 
and  Meursius4.  A  scholarly  interest  attaches  to  his  iambic  poem  on  Docta 
Ignorantia,  the  point  of  which  is  driven  home  in  the  final  line: — 'Nescire 
quaedam,  magna  pars  Sapientiae  est'5.  In -the  preface  he  confesses  to  an 
ingenium  sequax  ac  ductile,  which  made  it  easy  for  him  to  imitate  any  Latin 
poet  in  whose  works  he  happened  to  be  interested.  His  vocabulary  is  even 
coloured  occasionally  by  his  study  of  Roman  law,  which  is  directly  represented 
by  his  poetic  paraphrase  of  a  long  passage  in  the  Institutes  of  Justinian6.  He 
skilfully  imitates  the  Apophoreta  of  Martial  in  a  long  series  of  couplets  on  the 
articles,  which  the  thrifty  Dutchman,  so  far  from  presenting  to  his  friends, 
carefully  keeps  for  himself.  In  this  series  the  couplet  on  Pocula  cerevisiaria, 
in  which  the  contents  of  those  glasses  are  lauded  v&pretiosior  undo,  Lyaeo7,  led 
to  an  amusing  controversy  with  the  French  scholar,  Fran9ois  Guyet,  who 
patriotically  preferred  the  national  beverage  of  France8. 

The  next  generation  to  that  of  Grotius  is  represented  by 
Tohann  Friedrich  Gronov  (1611 — 1671).  He  was 

...  .  .  Gronovius 

born  at  Hamburg  and  studied  at  Leipzig  and  Jena, 

entered  Leyden  in  1634,  and  completed  his  academic  education 

1  p.  47,  Dicet  ergo . .  .senectutem  vesperam  vitae. 

2  PP-  73.  23°.  251,  324.  335.  372,  373.  3/6-     Cp.  Heinsius  ad   Grotium, 
531-3;  and  Baudius  on  Grotius  and  Heinsius,  527,  529. 

3  pp.  299,  300,  344,  360  ;  and  seven  poems  on  his  death,  357  f. 

4  pp.   247,  288,  335,  336,  362.      There  are  also  poems  on  Gruter's  In- 
scriptions (235) ;  on  Gorlaeus  (322)  and  his  Dactyliotheca  (176);  on  Scriverius, 
editor  of  Martial  (381) ;  and  on  the  death  of  Lipsius  (239,  345) ;  lastly,  a  poem 
by  Vossius  on  the  works  of  Grotius  (541). 

5  331  :  cp.  Quint,  i  8,  21  ;  Scaliger,  Poemata,  Iambi,  xx ;  and  Gibbon, 
Autob.  54,  ed.  1869  ;  also  Sir  W.  Hamilton's  Appendix  on  'Learned  Ignorance" 
in  Discussions,  601-7. 

6  PP-  433—452.  7  p-  428. 

8  On  the  life  and  works  of  Grotius,  cp.  Burigny  (1750  f);  H.  Luden, 
Berlin,  1806;  Caumont,  £tude,  Paris,  1862;  Neumann,  Berlin,  1884;  and 
literature  in  Eckstein,  and  Pokel,  s.  v.  Testimonia  in  Blount,  663-7,  Portrait 
in  Meursius,  Ath.  Bat.  204,  and  elsewhere ;  also  a  coloured  print,  including 
his  escape  from  prison,  published  by  J.  Wilkes,  1806;  see  also  Fred.  Muller's 
Catalogits  (Amst.  1853). 


J.  F.  GRONOVIUS. 
From  an  engraving  by  J.  Munnickhuysen. 


CHAP.  XIX.]  GRONOVIUS.  321 

at  Groningen.  Thereupon  he  travelled  in  France,  Italy  and 
England ;  and  the  MSS  examined  in  the  course  of  his  travels 
supplied  him  with  materials  for  his  future  editions  of  the  Latin 
Classics.  He  owed  his  interest  in  scholarship  to  the  influence  of 
Vossius,  Grotius,  Daniel  Heinsius,  and  Scriverius,  and  to  the 
teaching  of  Salmasius.  He  describes  the  large  classes  that 
attended  the  lectures  of  Heinsius,  whom  he  succeeded  at  Leyden, 
while  the  younger  Heinsius  was  one  of  his  most  intimate  friends. 
His  miscellaneous  Observations  were  warmly  welcomed  by 
Grotius  (1639),  and  his  commentary  De  Sestertiis  was  received 
with  equal  enthusiasm  by  Vossius  (1643).  As  an  editor,  he 
devoted  himself  mainly  to  the  classical  writers  of  Latin  prose, 
sharing  with  Lipsius  a  preference  for  the  authors  of  the  first 
century,  and  especially  for  those  that  gave  peculiar  scope  for  the 
elucidation  of  their  subject-matter.  His  editions  mark  an  epoch 
in  the  study  of  Livy,  of  both  the  Senecas,  and  of  Tacitus  and 
Gellius.  He  also  edited  the  great  work  of  the  elder  Pliny.  This 
preference  for  prose  had  possibly  been  inspired  at  Leyden  by  the 
example  of  Salmasius.  The  extension  of  his  interest  to  the 
textual  criticism  of  Latin  poetry  was  due  to  the  discovery  of 
the  Florentine  MS  of  the  tragedies  of  Seneca.  His  diatribe  on  the 
Silvae  of  Statius  is  an  immature  work,  but,  in  his  riper  years,  the 
acumen  exhibited  in  his  handling  of  prose  is  also  exemplified  in 
his  treatment  of  the  text  of  poets  such  as  Phaedrus  and  Martial, 
Seneca  and  Statius.  His  edition  of  Plautus  is  marred  by  an 
imperfect  knowledge  of  metre,  which  has  been  noticed  by  Bentley1. 
His  breaking  ground  in  Greek  is  hailed  with  delight  by  the  French 
scholar,  Tanaquil  Faber3,  but  his  published  work  was  almost 
entirely  confined  to  Latin3.  His  son  and  grandson  will  be 
mentioned  in  the  sequel. 

Meanwhile,  we  turn  to  certain  scholars  of  the  same  generation, 
the  sons  of  a  distinguished  father,  G.  F.  Vossius. 

1  Em.  in  Men.  et  Phil.  p.  484  Meineke,  '  Gronovius  senariorum  rationes 
parum  intelligebat  '. 

*  Ep-  75- 

3  Testimonia  in  Blount,  741  f;  cp.  L.  Miiller,  42 — 44;  also  the  Life  by 
N.  Wilckens  (1723),  and  in  the  Lectiones  Plautinae  (1740);  and  J.  Holier, 
Cimbria  Litterafa,  iii  265 — 282. 

S.    II.  2  I 


322  THE   NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVII. 

All  of  his  sons  were  singularly  precocious.     Dionysius  (1612-33)  was  the 
short-lived  librarian  of  Amsterdam;   and  Gerhard  ([620-40) 
edited  Velleius  Paterculus  at  the  age  of  nineteen.      His  second 
son,  Isaac  Vossius  (1618 — 1689),  who  was  born  at  Leyden,  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  History  at  Amsterdam  at  the  age  of  fifteen.    Nine  years  later  he  visited 
Italy,  and  we  find  him  giving  his  friend  N.  Heinsius  a  graphic  account  of  the 
difficulties  he  experienced  in  seeking  admission  to  the  libraries  in  Rome1.     In 
1649  ne  l6^  Amsterdam  for  the  court  of  queen  Christina.    He  taught  the  queen 
Greek,  and  sold  her  a  large  number  of  his  father's  valuable  MSS.     She  is  the 
'Xanthippe'  of  his  letters  to  Heinsius.     He  left  Sweden  in  1652  owing  to 
a  dispute  with  Salmasius,  and,  six  years  later,  in  an  edition  of  Pomponius  Mela, 
had  the  satisfaction  of  noticing  some  of  the  geographical  mistakes  made  in  his 
opponent's  work  on  Solinus.     He  repeatedly  visited  Paris,  and  was  tempted  to 
enter  the  service  of  France,  which  would  have  made  it  necessary  for  him  to 
become   a   Catholic.      But   he   preferred   becoming  an   Anglican,    not   (like 
Casaubon)  on  grounds  of  real  belief,  but  because  he  desired  to  retain  the  right 
to  a  certain  degree  of  speculative  freedom.     His  sponsor  in  England  was  John 
Pearson,  the  scholarly  Master  of  Trinity,  who  had  been  attracted  by  his  work 
on  Ignatius.     He  received  an  honorary  degree  at    Oxford  (1670),  and  was 
presented  by  Charles  II  with  a  prebend  at  Windsor  (1673),  but  he  scandalised 
his  colleagues  by  reading  Ovid  during  the  services  in  St  George's  Chapel,  and 
by  saying  of  one  of  their  number  who  was  absent  from  Windsor  but  was 
loyally  doing   his   duty  at  his   country-living : — '  est  sacrificulus   in   pago   et 
rusticos  decipit '.     With   his   scepticism   he   combined   a   singular  degree  of 
credulity,  and  it  was  possibly  the  credulity  exhibited   in   his  work  on   the 
Sibylline  Oracles  (1679)  that  prompted   Charles  II  to  say  of  him:    'He  is 
a  strange  man  for  a  divine;  there  is  nothing  that  he  will  not  believe,  if  only  it 
is  not  in  the  Bible '.     He  is  said  to  have  been  intimately  acquainted  with  the 
manners  and  personages  of  all  ages  but  his  own.      Evelyn,  who  met   '  the 
learned  Isaac  Vossius'  at  dinner  'at  my  Lord  Chamberlain's'2,  discourses,  ten 
years  later,  on  the  erudite  note  on  tacking,  which  Vossius  had  introduced  into 
his  commentary  on  Catullus3.      The  miscellaneous  character  of  his  learning  is 
also  illustrated  by  his  telling  Evelyn  '  of  a  certain  harmony  produced  by  the 
snapping  of  carters'  whips,  used  of  old  in  the  feasts  of  Bacchus  and  Cybele ' 4. 
Evelyn  further  notes  that,  with  the  aid  of  MSS,  he  had  corrected  Justin  'in 
many  hundreds  of  places  most  material  to  the  sense  and  elegancy' 5.     He  held 
his  prebend  at  Windsor  for  sixteen  years,  and,  when  he  died,  his  fine  library 
of  762  MSS  was  offered  '  at  a  great  price '  to  the  Bodleian,  and  Bentley,  who 
was  then  at  Oxford,  did  his  best  to  bring  about  its  purchase6;  but  the  executors 

1  Burman's  Sylloge,  iii  561. 

2  Diary,  31  Oct.  1675. 

3  iv  20.  4  Evelyn  to  Pepys,  23  Sept.  1685  (Diary  etc.  iii  278,  q.v.). 
*  ib.  iii  190. 

Monk's  Life  of  Bentley,  i  21  f ;  and  Bentley's  Correspondence,  6—8. 


CHAP.  XIX.]       ISAAC   VOSSIUS.      N.   HEINSIUS.  323 

carried  the  MSS  back  to  Holland,  where  they  expected  'a  quicker  market'. 
'  I  wished  with  all  my  heart '  (says  Evelyn)  '  some  brave  and  noble  Maecenas 
would  have  made  a  present  of  them  to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge'1.  Had 
the  MSS  remained  in  England,  instead  of  being  bought  by  Leyden,  Bentley, 
who  was  then  working  at  Lucretius,  might,  with  the  aid  of  the  two  Vossian 
MSS  of  that  poet,  have  anticipated  Lachmann's  discoveries  by  a  century  and 
a  half2.  Isaac  Vossius  (as  we  have  seen)  edited  Justin,  and  the  minor 
geographers,  Scylax  and  Pomponius  Mela,  his  edition  of  the  former  including 
an  anonymous  periplus  from  trie  library  of  Salmasius.  His  Catullus,  published 
in  London  in  1684,  is  rich  in  curious  erudition,  but  is  not  highly  esteemed. 
One  of  his  best  works  is  his  treatise  Depoematum  cantu  et  vocibus  rhythmicis, 
published  anonymously  at  Oxford  in  1673.  He  there  'retraces  the  ancient 
alliance  between  poetry  and  music,  insists  on  a  strict  adherence  to  the  rules  of 
prosody',  and  'dwells  on  the  beauty  of  rhythmical  movement'3.  His  principal 
characteristic  is  a  not  inconsiderable  versatility,  but  he  is  unquestionably 
inferior  to  his  father4.  It  may,  however,  be  remembered  to  his  credit  that  his 
learning  attracted  the  interest  of  bishop  Pearson,  and  that  his  correspondents 
included  Laud  and  Ussher,  as  well  as  his  accomplished  countryman,  the 
younger  Heinsius5,  who  follows  next  in  order. 

Niklaas  Heinsius  (1620 — 1681),  the  only  son  of  Daniel 
Heinsius,  was  born  in  Leyden.  He  travelled  in 
England  (1641),  France  (1645),  Italy  (1646),  and 
Sweden  (1649).  In  1651  he  resided  in  Italy  as  the  envoy  of 
queen  Christina ;  he  represented  the  Netherlands  at  the  Swedish 
court  in  1654;  was  Secretary  of  State  at  Amsterdam  in  1656; 
and  was  once  more  in  Sweden  in  1659.  In  1671  he  visited 
Moscow ;  he  afterwards  lived  in  retirement  at  Vianen,  a  small 
place  on  the  lower  Rhine,  S.  of  Utrecht;  and  he  died  at  the 
Hague.  His  library,  which  was  sold  by  auction  for  a  considerable 
sum  after  his  death,  included  all  branches  of  learning,  but  was 
peculiarly  rich  in  editions  of  the  Latin  poets6.  For  a  large  part 
of  his  career  he  was  engaged  in  diplomatic  and  political  work; 

1  Evelyn  to  Pepys,  12  Aug.  1689  (iii  306). 

2  Munro's  Lucretius,  i  p.  1 y3.  3  D.  N.  B.  s.  v. 

4  Hallam,  iii  2444,  is  not  sufficiently  decisive  on  this  point. 

5  On  Isaac  Vossius,  cp.  Aa's  Wbordebook,  xix  416;  Danou  in  Biogr.  Univ. 
xlix ;    and   authorities   quoted    in  D.   N.   B.     Correspondence   in    Vossii    et 
Clarontm    Virorum   Epistolae   (1690),    and  with  N.    Heinsius  in   Burman's 
Sylloge,  iii  556—692. 

6  Peerlkamp,   De   Vita,  Doctrina,  et  Facilitate  Nederlandonitn,  qui  car- 
mina  Latina  compositerunt,  426. 

21 — 2 


N.  HEINSIUS. 
From  the  frontispiece  to  his  Adversaria  (1742). 


CHAP.  XIX.]  N.   HEINSIUS.  325 

he  never  held  any  academic  appointment;  and  it  was  only  the 
leisure  hours  of  his  public  life  that  he  could  devote  to  the 
pursuits  of  scholarship.  His  natural  tastes  inclined  him  to 
poetry.  His  Latin  poems  are  brighter  in  style  than  those  of  his 
father  and  of  Grotius,  and  are  fully  as  graceful  as  those  of 
Baudius  and  Broukhusius.  Of  his  three  volumes  of  Latin  verse, 
two  had  been  published  before  he  had  edited  a  single  Latin 
author.  His  practice  in  versification,  his  wide  reading  in  classical 
and  post-classical  Latin,  and  his  knowledge  of  Greek  literature, 
made  him  an  accomplished  scholar,  and  a  well-equipped  editor  of 
classical  texts.  As  a  textual  critic,  he  had  acquired  an  extensive 
knowledge  of  various  readings  by  his  study  of  MSS  during  his 
residence  abroad.  Few  scholars  have  examined  so  many  Latin 
MSS,  and  his  careful  collations  of  such  MSS  compare  favourably 
with  those  prepared  by  others  on  his  behalf.  In  making  his 
selection  from  the  vast  mass  of  variants,  he  was  guided  by  a  fine 
taste  and  a  sound  judgement  acquired  by  long  experience1. 
While  Gronovius  had  devoted  himself  entirely  to  the  writers  of 
Latin  prose,  his  friend,  the  younger  Heinsius,  was  almost  ex- 
clusively an  editor  of  Latin  poets.  He  produced  editions  of 
Claudian  (1650),  Ovid  (1652),  Virgil  (1664),  Prudentius  (1667), 
and  Valerius  Flaccus  (1680),  besides  leaving  notes  on  Catullus, 
Propertius,  Phaedrus  and  Silius  Italicus,  which  were  published 
long  after  his  death2.  In  Latin  prose  he  only  edited  Velleius 
Paterculus  (1678),  but  he  left  behind  him  notes  on  Curtius, 
Tacitus,  and  Petronius.  His  editions  of  the  Latin  poets  above- 
mentioned  laid  the  foundation  of  the  textual  criticism  of  those 
authors,  and  he  has  thus  obtained  the  title  of  sospitator  poet  arum 
Latinorum.  He  had  a  singular  aptitude  for  conjectural  emenda- 
tion, while  his  vast  reading  enabled  him  to  support  his  conjectures 
by  parallel  passages  that  were  exactly  to  the  point.  As  a  critic, 
he  is  more  concerned  with  single  words  or  phrases,  than  with  the 
composition  as  a  whole.  The  fact  that  Virgil  and  Ovid  formed  a 
kind  of  conventional  phraseology,  which  became  current  in  Latin 
poetry,  made  it  comparatively  easy  for  one  who  was  familiar  with 
that  phraseology  to  correct  the  texts  of  the  Latin  poets.  Cicero 
and  Livy  had  no  similar  influence  on  their  immediate  successors, 
1  L.  Miiller,  51  f.  2  Adversaria  (1742). 


326  THE   NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVII. 

who  have  in  general  a  definite  individuality.  This  may  explain 
the  fact  that  Heinsius  is  less  successful  as  a  corrector  and  a  critic 
of  Velleius  Paterculus,  Curtius  and  Tacitus,  than  of  Claudian  and 
Silius  Italicus1.  But  we  may  also  attribute  his  success  as  a  critic 
of  the  poets  to  the  fact  that  he  was  himself  endowed  with  a  high 
degree  of  imaginative  power  and  with  a  singularly  felicitous  taste. 
In  his  works  in  general  he  wears  his  learning  'lightly,  like  a 
flower '.  While  his  pressing  engagements  as  a  diplomatist  and  a 
statesman  robbed  him  of  the  leisure  which  might  have  enabled 
him  to  produce  a  longer  array  of  learned  lucubrations,  it  can 
hardly  be  doubted  that  his  experience  of  public  life  preserved 
him  from  the  perils  of  pedantry,  and  contributed  to  the  formation 
of  a  sound  and  sober  judgement,  a  practical  sense  of  proportion, 
and  an  aptitude  for  clear  and  lucid  expression.  In  his  Latin 
verse,  he  shares  with  the  other  poets  of  the  Netherlands  a  certain 
partiality  for  Catullus,  Tibullus,  and  Propertius,  but  his  own 
model  is  mainly  Ovid.  Two  of  the  happiest  of  his  elegiac  poems 
are  those  on  the  Bay  of  Naples2,  and  on  the  girls  skating  on  the 
frozen  Rhine3.  His  eulogy  of  General  Monk  as  the  restorer  of 
the  Stuarts  includes  the  couplet : — 

'  Harmodios  Atthis,  Brutos  ne  Roma  loquatur ; 
Pulchrius  haec  longe  dextra  peregit  opus'4. 

Among  his  many  '  occasional '  poems,  a  special  interest  attaches 
to  those  concerned  with  Menage  and  Balzac5;  Thomas  May,  the 
continuator  of  Lucan6;  Scriverius,  the  editor  of  Martial7;  and 
J.  F.  Gronovius  : — 

'  Optimus  antiqui  Gronovius  arbiter  aevi, 
Cui  nihil  ignotum  saecula  cana  ferunt'8. 

In  his  Latin  letters,  his  chief  correspondents  are  Gronovius9  and 
Graevius 10. 

1  Ruhnken's  Praef.  in  Velleium,  '  haec  tantopere  celebrata  felicitas  ilium 
destituit  in  prosae  orationis  scriptoribus,  Velleio,  Petronio,  Curtio,  Tacito'. 

2  p.  12  f,  ed.  1666.  3  p.  234. 

4  p.  82.  8  pp.  255—260. 

6  p.  274.  7  p.  203. 

8  p.  85;  cp.  18,  107,  228. 

9  342  Letters  in  Burman's  Sylloge,  iii  i — 555- 

10  699  Letters,  ib.  iv  i — 733.    Portrait  in  his  Adversaria  (1742),  reproduced 
on  p.  324. 


CHAP.  XIX.]  SPANHEIM.      GRAEVIUS.  327 

Among  the  scholars  who,  like  Heinsius,  were  connected  with  the  queen 

of  Sweden,  was  Marcus  Meibomius  (1630 — 1710),  who  lived 

Meibomms 
for  a  short  time  at  the  Swedish  court.      He  was  a  professor  at 

the  Danish  university  of  Soroe,  and  at  Amsterdam.  An  interval  of  forty  years 
separates  his  Latin  translation  of  the  Antiqui  Musici  Scriptores  (1652)  from 
that  of  Diogenes  Laertius  (1692). 

The  cosmopolitan  scholar,  Ezechiel  Spanheim  (1629 — 1710), 
was  born  in  Geneva.     His  father  was  celebrated 

Spanheim 

as  a  theological  professor,  first  at  Geneva  and  next 
at  Leyden,  where  the  son  continued  his  early  education  from 
1642  to  his  father's  death  in  1649.  At  the  age  of  twenty-two 
he  became  professor  of  Eloquence  at  his  native  town;  travelled  in 
Italy  until  1665  as  tutor  to  the  son  of  Charles  Louis,  Elector- 
Palatine,  and  subsequently  represented  the  Elector  in  London ; 
and  was  the  envoy  of  Frederic  III,  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  at 
Paris  in  1680,  and,  on  that  Elector's  becoming  the  first  king 
of  Prussia  in  1701,  represented  him  in  London  for  the  last  eight 
years  of  his  life.  His  principal  work,  De  Praestantia  et  Usu 
Veterum  Numismatum,  was  published  at  Rome  during  his  visit 
to  Italy  (I664)1.  He  also  contributed  a  prolix  commentary  to 
the  posthumous  edition  of  Callimachus  (1697)  bearing  the  name 
of  Theodorus  Graevius  (1669-92),  a  son  of  J.  G.  Graevius2. 
Lastly,  he  produced  an  edition,  and  a  French  translation,  of 
Julian  (1696).  Wyttenbach  thought  more  highly  of  Petavius 
than  of  Spanheim  as  a  commentator  on  the  first  Oration  of  Ju- 
lian :  '  Spanheimius  multa,  non  multum  legerat ;  at  eruditio  ejus 
censeri  debeat  multitudine  ac  varietate,  non  vi  ac  ratione  '3. 

Johann  Georg  Greffe,  or  Graeve,  better  known  as  Graevius 
(1632 — 1703),  was  born  at  Naumburg,  educated 

„  .......  Graevius 

at  bchulpforta,  and  at  the  universities  of  Leipzig, 

Deventer  and  Leyden.     He  was  professor  of  Eloquence  at  Duis- 

burg  (1656)  and  Deventer  (1658),  and  at  Utrecht  (1662),  where 

1  Ed.  2  (1671);  ed.  nova  (London,  1706;  Amst.  1717),  with  portraits. 

"  Monk's  Life  of  Bentley,  i  62,  76,  189,  195. 

3  Juliani . . .  Oralio,  166,  ed.  Schaefer  (1802).  —  Opera  omnia  in  3  folio  vols. 
(Leyden,  1701-3);  many  papers  in  Graevius,  Thesaurus.  Portrait  in  Trinity 
Lodge,  bequeathed  by  Spanheim;  engravings  dated  1683  and  1700  in 
F.  Midler's  Catalogs,  5044-6,  also  in  editions  of  his  principal  work,  and 
in  Niceron  etc. — Cp.  Cambridge  ed.  of  Matthew  Prior,  ii  (1907)  183. 


328  THE   NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVII. 

he  lived  and  worked  for  the  last  forty  years  of  his  strenuous  life. 
His  Hesiod  (1667)  is  almost  his  only  edition  of  a  Greek  Classic; 
his  Catullus,  Tibullus,  and  Propertius  (1680),  his  only  recension 
of  any  of  the  Latin  poets.  As  a  pupil  of  Gronovius,  he  limited 
his  attention  mainly  to  writers  of  Latin  prose,  and  primarily  to 
Cicero,  whom  Gronovius  had  admired  without  either  imitating 
his  style  or  editing  his  works.  Graevius  edited  Cicero's  Letters 
(1672-84),  De  Offiriis,  Cato,  Laelius,  Paradoxa  and  Somniiim 
Scipionis  (1688)  and  the  Speeches  (1695-9),  a"d  also  the  Opera 
cum  notis  variorum,  which  extended  to  eleven  volumes  and  then 
remained  unfinished  (1684-99).  He  further  edited  the  Latin 
historians,  Justin,  Suetonius,  Florus,  and  Caesar.  Finally  he  pub- 
lished the  Inscriptions  Antiquae  (1707),  and  the  works  of  earlier 
scholars  collected  and  reprinted  in  the  three  Thesauri,  (i)  eru- 
ditionis  scholasticae  (1710) ;  (2)  antiquitatum  Romanarum,  in  twelve 
folio  volumes  (1694-9);  and  (3)  antiquitatum  et  historiarum  Italiae, 
in  nine  volumes  (1704),  continued  by  Burman  (1725).  In  so  vast 
an  output  of  learned  labour,  we  cannot  expect  all  the  parts  to 
be  equally  excellent,  and  it  is  in  his  recension  of  Cicero's  Letters 
that  we  may  most  clearly  trace  the  salutary  influence  of  Grono- 
vius. The  Latin  style  of  his  Prefaces,  his  Speeches  and  his 
Letters,  is  elegant,  but  he  did  not  succeed  in  creating  a  school 
of  style  among  his  pupils1.  The  correspondence  begun  by 
Bentley  in  1692  was  continued  with  little  intermission  until  the 
death  of  Graevius  in  i7032.  Bentley  supplied  Graevius  with  a 
collection  of  more  than  400  fragments  of  Callimachus  as  his 
contribution  to  an  edition  of  that  poet  begun  by  his  correspondent's 
short-lived  son ;  and  Graevius,  whose  attention  was  first  drawn  to 
Bentley  by  the  Epistle  to  Mill,  hailed  him  as  the  novum  sed 
splendidissimum  Britanniae  lumen' z, 

The  successor  of  Gronovius  at  Leyden  in  1672  was  his  pupil  Theodor 
Rycke  of  Arnheim  (1640 — 1690),  who  produced  an  annotated 
edition  of  Tacitus  (1687),  and  a  small  volume  of  Animadver- 

1  Praefatioties  et  Epp.  (1707);  L.  Miiller,  45. 

3  Monk's  Life  of  Bentley,  \  49  f;  Correspondence  (1842),  4r — 270  passim, 
and  Epistolae  (1825),  i — 125  (with  portraits  of  both);  also  in  Haupt's  Opusc. 
iii  89 — 107. 

3  Praef.  ad  Callimachum.  Cp.,  in  general,  Frotscher's  Narraliones,  1826, 
i  134—204. 


CHAP.  XIX.]      J.   GRONOVIUS.      BROUKHUSIUS.  329 

stones  (r686),  which  attained  the  distinction  of  being  reprinted  in  three  volumes 
at  Dublin  (1730).  Another  pupil  of  Gronovius  was  his  son 
Jakob  (1645 — 1716),  who  studied  under  his  father  at  Deventer  Gronovius 
and  Leyden,  visited  England,  Spain  and  Italy,  and  was  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  at  Pisa,  and  at  Leyden  from  1679  *°  h's  death  thirty-seven 
years  later.  Besides  producing  new  editions  of  his  father's  Tacitus,  Gellius, 
and  Seneca's  tragedies,  he  edited  Herodotus  and  Polybius,  Cicero,  Livy  and 
Ammianus  Marcellinus,  as  well  as  Harpocration,  and  Stephanus  Byzantinus. 
He  also  produced  a  Thesaurus  Antiquitatnm  Graecanim  in  thirteen  folio 
volumes  (1697 — 1702),  volume  12  including  an  enlarged  Latin  edition  of 
Potter's  Antiquities.  A  special  interest  attaches  to  his  editio  princeps  of 
Manetho  (1689).  Bentley's  success  in  correcting  the  fragments  of  Callimachus 
aroused  the  envious  spirit,  the  angry  temper  and  the  vituperative  tongue  of 
Jakob  Gronovius,  whose  failings  as  an  editor  of  Cicero  led  him  to  be  described 
by  Bentley  ten  years  later  in  language  of  unwonted  severity1.  Bentley's  sub- 
sequent correction  of  a  fragment  of  Menander,  and  of  the  errors  committed  by 
Gronovius  in  attempting  to  correct  it,  prompted  the  latter  to  attack  Bentley 
once  more  in  a  pamphlet,  in  which  the  bitterness  of  the  tone  is  only  equalled 
by  the  harshness  of  the  style  2.  The  reputation  of  this  industrious  scholar  has 
been  unduly  enhanced  by  the  credit  he  derived  from  his  father's  fame,  which, 
in  the  third  generation,  descended  in  a  diminished  degree  on  Abraham 
Gronovius  (1695 — 1775),  an  editor  of  Aelian,  and  Librarian  of  Leyden3. 

Jan  van  Broekhuyzen,  or  Janus  Broukhusius  of  Amsterdam 
(1649 — 1707),  was  a  pupil  of  Hadrianus  Tunius. 

Broukhusius 

Skilfully  discriminating  between  the  special  apti- 
tudes of  two  of  his  pupils,  Hadrianus  recommended  Ovid  as  the 
best  model  for  Petrus  Francius,  and  Propertius  for  Broukhusius. 
So  successful  was  the  latter  that  he  became  known  as  the  '  Pro- 
pertius of  Holland'.  The  love  of  Latin  literature,  with  which 
he  had  heen  inspired  by  his  master,  never  deserted  him.  On 
the  death  of  his  father,  his  uncle  vainly  endeavoured  to  apprentice 
him  to  an  apothecary.  Rather  than  submit  he  enlisted  as  a 
soldier,  and  rose  to  the  command  of  one  of  the  bodies  of  troops 
stationed  at  his  native  city  of  Amsterdam.  But  he  never  ceased 
to  read  and  to  imitate  the  Latin  poets,  and  especially  Propertius 
and  Tibullus,  and  also  to  prove  himself  an  original  poet  in  his 
lyric  as  well  as  his  elegiac  pieces4.  He  began  his  literary  career 

1  homunciilus  ernditione  mediocri,  ingetiio  nullo  ;  Monk's  Life  of  Bmtlty, 
i  226. 

2  ib.  i  276.  3  Cp.  L.  Miiller,  44. 
4  Foemata,  1684  and  i/n;  Peerlkamp,  455 — 460. 


330  THE   NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVII. 

as  an  editor  of  the  modern  Latin  poems  of  Aonio  Paleario  (1696), 
and  his  edition  of  Sannazaro  was  published  in  1728,  twenty-one 
years  after  his  death.  The  former  of  these  works  was  followed 
by  an  elaborate  edition  of  Propertius  (1702,  ed.  2  1727),  in  which 
he  is  far  too  apt  to  reduce  the  poet's  rough  and  vigorous  phrases 
to  an  Ovidian  smoothness.  After  the  publication  of  his  first 
edition,  he  transcribed  all  the  notes  of  N.  Heinsius  on  Propertius, 
and  his  transcript  was  printed  by  Burman,  at  the  end  of  his 
publication  of  the  Adversaria  of  Heinsius  (I742)1.  His  own 
edition  of  Propertius  was  followed  by  one  of  his  other  favourite 
poet,  Tibullus  (1708). 

Petrus  Francius  (1645 — 1704),  the  fellow-pupil  of  Broukhusius, 
had  the   honour  of  reciting  a  Virgilian   poem    in 

Francius  ° 

the  'New  Church'  of  Amsterdam  in  memory  of 
the  heroic  Admiral  Ruyter,  who  had  fallen  in  a  victorious  en- 
gagement off  the  shore  of  Sicily.  So  vast  was  the  crowd  which 
thronged  the  church  to  listen  to  the  poem,  that  the  poet's  friend, 
the  scholar-soldier,  Broukhusius,  who  was  in  command  of  the 
troops  on  that  occasion,  resorted  to  the  use  of  the  Latin  language 
in  addressing  every  applicant  for  admission,  and  all  who  replied 
in  Latin  were  immediately  admitted.  His  skill  in  carrying  out 
his  master's  injunction  to  imitate  Ovid  is  fully  proved  by  his 
published  poems  (1697).  His  early  travels  in  England,  Italy, 
and  France,  were  followed  by  his  election,  first  to  the  Chair  of 
History  and  Eloquence,  and,  next,  to  that  of  Greek  at  Amsterdam. 
He  carried  out  a  small  part  of  his  plan  for  rendering  all  the  Greek 
epigrams  of  the  Planudean  Anthology  into  Latin  verse2.  He  also 
published  some  Latin  Orations,  which  were  attacked  by  an  in- 
ferior composer,  the  learned  Perizonius  (1651 — 

Perizonius 

1715).  Ihe  vernacular  name  of  the  latter  was 
Voorbroek,  and  under  the  Latinised  name,  Accinctus,  he  wrote 
a  Latin  letter  'ad  P.  Francium  Barbarum'.  But,  as  a  Latin 
composer,  Perizonius  only  excited  the  ridicule  of  Francius.  His 
strength  lay  in  another  line.  He  produced  an  annotated  edition 
of  the  Minerva  of  Sanctius,  while  he  was  still  a  professor  at 
Franeker  (1607).  He  was  called  to  Leyden  in  1693.  His  best 

1  Burman's  Funeral  Oration  (1708),  and  Peerlkamp,  /.  c. 
•i  Peerlkamp,  446 — 453. 


CHAP.  XIX.]      FRANCIUS.      PERIZONIUS.      CUYPERS.  33! 

work  as  an  editor  is  his  recension  of  Aelian's  Varia  Historia 
(1701).  He  also  produced  a  learned  dissertation  on  Dictys  (1702). 
In  his  Origines  Babylonicae  et  Aegyptiacae  (1711),  he  was  the  first 
to  suggest  the  spuriousness  of  the  royal  lists  of  Manetho,  and 
he  defended  the  chronology  of  Scaliger  against  the  criticisms  of 
Sir  John  Marsham.  His  Animadversiones  Historicae  (1685)  are 
recognised  as  a  masterpiece  of  historical  criticism,  and  as  an 
anticipation  of  Niebuhr's  method  of  dealing  with  the  early  history 
of  Rome1. 

Classical  archaeology  in  the  Netherlands  is  best  represented 
by  his  contemporary  Gisbert  Cuypers  (1644 — 1716), 
a  pupil  of  Gronovius  at  Leyden,  who  become  pro- 
fessor of  History  (1668),  and  Biirgermeister  at  Deventer.  His 
volume  of  Observationes  (1670),  which  included  explanations  of 
various  rites,  and  illustrations  from  Roman  coins,  was  twice 
reprinted.  In  his  Harpocrates  (1676)  he  published  a  number 
of  monuments  that  were  previously  unknown,  and  in  1683  he 
lavished  a  considerable  amount  of  learning  on  the  famous  relief 
called  the  Apotheosis  Homeri,  found  at  Bovillae,  formerly  in  the 
Colonna  Palace  and  now  in  the  British  Museum2. 

We  have  already  noticed  the  early  printers  of  the  Classics  in  the  Southern 
Netherlands,  at  Louvain  and  Antwerp3.  We  have  here  to  mention  a  famous 
family  of  printers  belonging  to  the  Northern  Netherlands,  and,  in  particular,  to 
Leyden  and  Amsterdam. 

The  founder  of  the  family  was  Louis  Elzevier  (1540 — 1617),  who,  when  his 
native  place,  Louvain,  had  been  ravaged  by  war  and  pestilence, 
left  it  for  Leyden,  where  he  established  himself  as  a  bookseller 
and  bookbinder  in  1580,  five  years  after  the  foundation  of  the  university.     His 
fame  as  a  printer  began  about  1595.     In  the  works  issued  from  his  press,  he 
was  the  first  to  draw  a  distinction  between  the  consonant  v  and  the  vowel  ;/. 
Of  his  five  sons,  two,  namely  Matthys  and  Bonaventura,  succeeded  their  father 
at  Leyden;  the  business  continued  to  flourish  until  i68r,  and  then  declined 
between  that  date  and  1712.     Two  other  sons  of  Louis  became  booksellers  at 
the  Hague,  and  the  fifth  at  the  university  of  Utrecht. 

1  Niebuhr,  History  of  Rome,  i  251  f  (E.  T.,  1831);  Schwegler,  i  135; 
Kramer's  E/ogium,  Berlin,  1828;  Urlichs,  8i'2. 

-  Third  Graeco-Roman  Room,  no.  159.  First  published  in  Kircher's 
Latium,  Amsterdam,  1671.  Cp.  L.  Miiller,  21;  Urlichs,  8o2;  Stark,  Ha nd- 
buch,  122  f. 

3  p.  213  supra. 


332  THE   NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVII. 

Meanwhile,  another  firm  had  been  founded  at  Amsterdam  in  1638  by 
another  Louis  (d.  1670),  who  was  joined  in  1654  by  Bonaventura's  son,  Daniel, 
who  died  in  1680.  The  business  passed  into  the  hands  of  another  family 
in  1 68 1,  a  date  which  marks  the  close  of  the  best  days  of  the  Elzeviers  of 
Amsterdam,  and  of  Leyden. 

The  beautiful  editions  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Classics  that  continued  to 
appear  down  to  1681  were  produced  at  Leyden  in  and  after  1595  and  especially 
between  1622  and  1651,  the  era  of  the  i2mo  and  i6mo  volumes  of  Bona- 
ventura  and  of  his  nephew  Abraham,  the  son  of  Matthys.  Similar  editions 
were  produced  at  Amsterdam  in  and  after  1638.  The  Greek  Testament  was 
repeatedly  printed  at  Leyden  (1624  and  1633)  and  Amsterdam  (1656,  1662, 
1670,  1678).  It  is  the  preface  to  the  second  Leyden  edition  that  contains  the 
oft-quoted  words : — textum  habes  mine  ab  omnibus  receptum 1.  All  the  Elzevier 
editions,  of  the  Greek  Testament  and  the  Classics  alike,  fully  deserve  their 
place  among  the  dainty  little  volumes  described,  in  the  preface  to  the  former, 
in  the  Homeric  phrase: — oXlyois  Tf  Q&ois  re. 

1  E.  Reuss,  Bill.  N.  T.  (1892)  109  f.  On  the  Elzeviers,  cp.,  in  general, 
Willems,  Les  Elzevier,  Bruxelles,  1880,  and  Eckstein's  Nomenclator,  642  f, 
with  the  literature  there  quoted;  also  Berghman's  Etudes,  Stockholm,  1885; 
Goldsmid's  Catalogue,  Edinburgh,  1885  (abridged  from  Willems);  and  R.  C. 
Christie's  Essays,  297 — 308. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

ENGLAND  IN  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. 

IN  the  reign   of  queen   Elizabeth  one  of  the  most  learned 
representatives  of  classical  scholarship  in  England 

.  Savile 

was  Sir  Henry  Savile  (1549 — 1622).  After  matricu- 
lating at  Brasenose,  he  became  Fellow  and  mathematical  Lecturer, 
and  ultimately  (from  1585  to  1622)  Warden  of  Merton.  On 
taking  his  M.A.  degree  in  1570,  he  'read  his  ordinaries  in  the 
Almagest  of  Ptolemy',  thus  attaining  a  two-fold  reputation,  as  a 
mathematician  and  as  a  Greek  scholar.  In  1578  he  went  abroad, 
collecting  MSS  and  making  the  acquaintance  of  scholars  on  the 
continent.  He  is  said  to  have  represented  the  queen  for  a  short 
time  in  the  Netherlands1.  On  his  return  he  became  her  tutor 
in  Greek,  and  it  was  in  her  presence  at  Oxford  that  he  delivered  a 
memorable  discourse  on  the  merits  of  the  mediaeval  Schoolmen2. 
As  Warden  of  Merton  he  showed  great  judgement  in  selecting 
men  of  learning  as  Fellows.  In  1591  he  translated  four  books  of 
the  Histories,  and  the  Agricola  of  Tacitus3.  His  translation  was 
eulogised  in  verse  by  Ben  Jonson,  and,  within  fifty  years,  had 
passed  through  six  editions.  In  the  Agricola*,  the  correction 
Intemelio  for  in  templo  is  due  to  Savile.  The  notes  were  after- 
wards reproduced  in  Latin  by  Gruter  (1649).  Savile  added  'A 
view  of  certain  militar  matters,  for  the  better  understanding  of 
ancient  Roman  stories',  which  was  translated  into  Latin  by 
M.  Freher  of  Heidelberg  (1601).  (It  is  generally  regarded  as 

1  Wotton,  English  Baronetage,  i  60. 

2  Oratio,  printed  1658. 

3  The  Annals  and  Ger mania  were  translated  in  the  same  reign  by  Richard 
Grenawey. 


334  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVII. 

the  first  contribution  made  by  any  English  scholar  to  the  study 
of  Roman  Antiquities ;  but  we  must  not  forget  that,  half-a-century 
previously,  Robert  Talbot,  of  Winchester  and  New  (c.  1505 — 1558), 
had  published  Latin  'annotations'  on  the  Antonine  Itinerary.) 
When  the  office  of  Provost  of  Eton  fell  vacant,  he  aspired  to  fill 
it,  although  he  was  a  layman,  and  the  holder  of  the  office  was 
required  to  be  in  priest's  orders.  Early  in  1595  the  queen  gave 
him  the  Latin  Secretaryship  and  the  Deanery  of  Carlisle,  'in 
order  to  stop  his  mouth  from  importuning  her  any  more  for 
the  provostship  of  Eton".  However,  in  May,  he  was  actually 
appointed  Provost,  and  was  as  strict  a  disciplinarian  as  in  his 
other  high  office,  that  of  Warden  of  Merton.  At  Eton  we  are  told 
he  could  not  abide  'witts',  and  much  preferred  'the  plodding 
student'2.  In  1604  he  was  knighted  after  a  banquet  given  at  Eton 
to  James  I.  He  was  subsequently  one  of  the  scholars  associated 
in  the  preparation  of  the  authorised  version  of  the  Bible,  being  one 
of  those  entrusted  with  the  Acts  and  Revelation,  and  with  part  of 
the  Gospels.  The  loss  of  his  only  son,  in  the  year  of  the  father's 
knighthood,  led  to  his  devoting  the  larger  part  of  his  private 
fortune  to  the  advancement  of  learning.  He  collected  MSS,  and 
secured  the  aid  of  scholars  at  home  and  abroad,  for  a  great 
edition  of  Chrysostom.  Through  Casaubon,  he  obtained  colla- 
tions of  MSS  in  the  royal  library  of  Paris,  but  he  failed  in  his 
attempt  to  purchase  the  set  of  matrices  of  the  royal  type,  which 
Henri  Estienne,  the  father-in-law  of  Casaubon,  had  taken  from 
Paris  to  Geneva3.  Thereupon  Savile  purchased  a  special  fount 
of  type,  probably  from  the  founders  employed  by  the  firm  of 
Wechel  at  Frankfurt4,  engaged  the  king's  printer,  and  himself 
superintended  the  work  at  Eton.  In  1611  Casaubon  tells  a 
friend  abroad  that  the  work  was  being  produced  privata  impensa, 
animo  regio,  and  that  he  found  some  solace  for  all  his  troubles 
in  reading  the  proofs5.  The  printing  of  the  eight  folio  volumes 

1  Anthony  Bacon  to  Hawkins,  5  March,  1595. 

2  Aubrey's  Lives,  n  ii  525  (ii  214,  ed.  1898). 

3  Pattison's  Casaubon,  23 12. 

4  To  Hoeschel,  Ep.  738. 

5  R.  Proctor,  The  French  Greek  Types  and  the  Eton  Chrysostom,  in  Essays 
(1905),  110-7. 


CHAP.  XX.]  SAVILE.  335 

was  completed  in  1613,  at  a  total  cost  of  ^8000,  the  paper  alone 
costing  a  quarter  of  that  sum. 

'This  worthy  knight'  (says  Fuller)  'carefully  collected  the  best  Copies  of 
St  Chrysostome,  and  employed  learned  Men  to  transcribe,  and  make  Anno- 
tations on  them1 ;  which  done,  he  fairly  set  it  forth,  on  his  own  cost,  in  a  most 
beautiful  edition ;  a  burthen  which  he  underwent  without  stooping  under  it, 
though  the  weight  thereof  would  have  broken  the  back  of  an  ordinary 
Person ' 2. 

In  splendour  of  execution,  and  in  breadth  of  erudition,  it  far  sur- 
passed all  the  previous  productions  of  English  scholarship3.  An 
edition  of  Xenophon's  Cyropaedia  was  printed  at  Eton  at  the 
same  press  in  1615.  After  Savile's  death  the  'elegant  types', 
which  that  '  learned  knight  procured  with  great  cost ',  were 
scattered  about  the  Provost's  lodge  and  lost4.  All  the  type  had 
been  bequeathed  to  the  University  of  Oxford;  in  1632,  some  of 
it  was  lent  to  the  University  Press  at  Cambridge;  but  nothing 
more  is  known  of  it5. 

It  was  on  the  completion  of  the  great  edition  of  Chrysostom 
that  Savile  (as  we  have  seen)  had  the  satisfaction  of  driving 
Casaubon  in  his  coach  from  Eton  to  Oxford  and  showing  him 
the  Library  and  all  the  other  sights  of  the  University6.  He 
aided  Bodley  with  his  advice  in  founding  his  famous  Library. 
His  own  MSS  are  mentioned  on  almost  every  page  of  the  Greek 
ecclesiastical  historians  edited  by  Valesius".  In  1619  he  founded 
the  two  professorships  of  Geometry  and  Astronomy  at  Oxford  ; 
and,  two  years  later,  published  his  prelections  on  Euclid.  On 
his  death  in  1622  he  was  commemorated  by  sculptured  monu- 
ments at  Eton  and  at  Merton  College,  Oxford. 

The  latter  includes  a  portrait  representing  him  clad  in  a  Roman  toga  and 
resting  his  hand  on  a  closed  book,  with  figures  of  Chrysostom  and  Ptolemy  on 
one  side  of  the  monument,  and  of  Euclid  and  Tacitus  on  the  other.  In  the 

1  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  Richard  Montagu,  of  Eton  and  King's, 
afterwards  bishop  of  Norwich,  and  Andrew  Downes,  professor  of  Greek  at 
Cambridge. 

2  Worthies  of  England,  Yorkshire,  iii  431  Nuttall. 

3  Cp.  Hallam,  ii  27j4. 

4  Evelyn  to  Pepys,  12  Aug.  1689  (iii  300,  ed.  1854). 

5  Proctor,  /.  c.  1 1 7. 

6  p.  207  f  supra.  7  Evelyn,  iii  307. 


336  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVII. 

upper  part  are  two  Genii,  one  of  them  gazing  at  Savile's  face  in  a  mirror,  and 
the  other  writing  his  name  in  the  Book  of  Life ;  while  above  them  is  a  figure 
seated  on  his  coat  of  arms  and  blowing  the  trumpet  of  fame1. 

Munificent  in  his  patronage  of  learning,  he  was  polished  in 
his  manner,  courtly  in  his  speech,  and  vain-glorious  in  his 
character.  '  He  would  faine  have  been  thought  to  have  been 
as  great  a  scholar  as  Joseph  Scaliger'2.  He  is  reported  to  have 
been  an  'extraordinary  handsome  man,  no  lady  having  a  finer 
complexion'3.  There  is  a  portrait  at  Eton,  and  another  in  the 
university  gallery  at  Oxford. 

Among  those  who  aided  Savile  by  their  learning  was  Andrew 
Downes  (c.  1^49 — 1628),  'whose  pains  were  so  in- 

Downes  .  v         J^  " 

laid  with  Sir  Henry  Savile's  edition  of  Chrysostom, 
that  both  will  be  preserved  together'4.  He  was  educated  at 
Shrewsbury  and  at  St  John's,  Cambridge,  where  he  held  a 
fellowship  from  1571  to  1586.  Amid  the  conflict  of  theological 
controversies,  the  knowledge  of  Greek  was  '  almost  lost  and 
forgot'  in  St  John's,  'had  it  not  been  restored'  by  Downes5. 
After  migrating  to  Trinity  in  1586,  he  held  the  professorship  of 
Greek  for  nearly  forty  years  (1586 — 1625).  He  is  characterised 
by  Fuller  as  a  scholar  '  composed  of  Greek  and  industry'.  His 
lectures  on  Demosthenes,  De  Corona,  were  attended  in  1620 
by  Simonds  D'Ewes,  who  in  his  Diary  describes  the  lecturer 
as  follows  : 

'He  had  been  Greek  professor  in  the  University  about  30  years,  and  was  at 
this  time  accounted  the  ablest  Grecian  of  Christendom,  being  no  native  of 
Greece  ;  which  Joseph  Scaliger  himself  confessed  of  him  long  before... When  I 
came  to  his  house  near  the  public  Schools,  he  sent  for  me  up  into  a  chamber, 
where  I  found  him  sitting  in  a  chair  with  his  legs  upon  a  table  that  stood  by 
him.  He  neither  stirred  his  hat  nor  body,  but  only  took  me  by  the  hand,  and 
instantly  fell  into  discourse... touching  matters  of  learning  and  criticisms.  He 
was  of  personage  big  and  tall,  long-faced  and  ruddy-coloured,  and  his  eyes 
very  lively,  although  I  took  him  to  be  at  that  time  at  least  70  years  old'6. 

1  Ant.  Wood,  De  Coll.  Merton. ;  epitaph  in  Blount's  Censura,  651. 

2  Aubrey,  Lives,  ii  524  (ii  214,  ed.  1898).  3  ib. 
4  Fuller's  Cambridge,  310,  ed.  1840. 

6  Baker's  Hist,  of  St  John's,  180,  171,  ed.  Mayor. 

6  Life,  ed.  Halliwell,  i  139;  Diary,  17  Mar.  1620;  Baker-Mayor,  598. 
Cp.  [Marsden's]  College  Life  in  the  Time  of  James  I,  30 — 34. 


CHAP.  XX.]  DOWNES.  337 

D'Ewes,  after  repeatedly  absenting  himself  from  the  Greek  professor's  lectures, 
received  from  the  professor,  by  the  hands  of  a  bachelor  in  divinity,  '  a  scroll 
containing  certain  notes  of  his  last  lecture '. 

Dowries  had  been  appointed  one  of  the  six  final  revisers  of 
the  authorised  version  of  the  Bible,  but  he  would  never  leave 
Cambridge  for  the  meetings  at  Stationers'  Hall  '  till  he  was  either 
fetcht,  or  threatened  with  a  Pursivant'1.  Another  of  the  six  was 
his  pupil  John  Bois,  who,  like  himself,  had  aided  Savile  in  his 
Chrysostom,  and  whose  notes  survived  in  the  Benedictine  edition, 
while  those  of  Downes  were  omitted2.  Downes  published  his 
lectures  on  Lysias,  De  caede  Eratosthenis  (1593),  and  on  Demos- 
thenes, De  Pace  (i62i)s.  John  Taylor,  in  the  preface  to  his 
Lysias  (1739),  says  of  him:  'multum  de  juventute  Academica 
et  renascente  Graecismo  meruit  vir  ille  laboriosissimus'.  For  the 
first  of  his  Colleges,  he  wrote  a  letter  of  thanks  in  Greek  to  a 
lady  identified  as  Mildred  lady  Burghley4;  corresponded  in  Greek 
with  Casaubon 5 ;  and,  on  the  death  of  James  I,  wrote  a  Greek 
epigram  stating  that  Peitho  had  rested  on  the  lips  of  the  departed 
monarch.  He  deprecates  criticism  on  his  verses ;  he  was  then 
77  years  of  age.  Two  years  later  he  resigned  his  Professorship, 
and  retired  to  the  village  of  Coton,  near  Cambridge,  where  he 
died  early  in  i6288.  The  Diarist,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for 
part  of  the  above  description  of  Andrew  Downes,  gives  us  a 
glimpse  of  a  young  classical  student's  range  of  reading  in  those 
days,  when  he  writes  : 

'  I... finished  Florus,  transcribing  historical  abbreviations  out  of  it  in  mine 
own  private  study  ;  in  which  also  I  perused  most  of  the  other  authors,  and  read 
over  Gellius'  Attic  Nights,  and  part  of  Macrobius'  Saturnals'7 . 

1  Peck,  Desiderata  Curiosa,  viii  48  §  9. 
"  Mullinger's  Cambridge,  ii  506  n. 

3  Dedicated  to  James  I ;  reprinted  in  C.  D.  Beck's  eel.  (1799),  pp-  10.5 — 318. 
Valckenaer,  on  Herodotus  iii  70,  refers  to  'Andreae  Dounaei,  viri  Graece  per- 
docti,  Praelect.  in  Demosth.  Philipp.  p.  99'. 

4  Baker- Mayor,  396. 

5  Epp.  108  (1596),  949  (1614),  995  (1595)  etc. 

6  Epitaph  in  chancel,  copied  in  Taylor's  Lysias,  xv,  and  in  Baker- Mayor, 

599- 

7  Simonds  D'Ewes,  Life,  i  12  r. 

S.     II.  22 


338  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVII. 

A  far  wider  range  of  study  is  represented  by  Francis  Bacon 
(1561 — 1629),  who  'had  taken  all  knowledge  to 
be  his  province'1.  At  the  age  of  twelve,  he  came 
into  residence  at  Cambridge,  as  a  fellow-commoner  of  Trinity 
College;  and,  among  the  books  with  which  he  was  furnished 
by  the  Master,  were  Cicero,  Livy,  Sallust,  Caesar;  Homer, 
Xenophon,  Plato  and  Aristotle2.  We  are  confidently  assured  by 
his  earliest  biographer  that,  even  '  whilst  he  was  commorant  at 
the  university,  about  sixteen  years  of  age,  he  first  fell  into  the 
dislike  of  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle, ...being  a  philosophy  only 
strong  for  disputations  and  contentions,  but  barren  of  the  pro- 
duction of  works  for  the  benefit  of  the  life  of  man'3.  His 
general  attitude  towards  ancient  philosophy  is  briefly  summed 
up  by  Macaulay :  '  Two  words  form  the  key  of  the  Baconian 
doctrine,  Utility  and  Progress.  The  ancient  philosophy  dis- 
dained to  be  useful,  and  was  content  to  be  stationary'4.  In 
Bacon's  Essays  (1597 — 1625),  a  History  of  Scholarship  is  only 
concerned  with  a  single  sentence  from  that  on  '  Studies ' : — To 
spend  too  much  time  in  Studies  is  Sloth ;  To  use  them  too  much 
for  Ornament  is  Affectation ;  To  make  Judgement  wholly  by 
their  Rules  is  the  Humour  of  a  Scholler'.  In  the  Advancement 
of  Learning  (1605),  the  principal  classical  authors  quoted  are 
Cicero  and  Seneca,  Livy  and  Tacitus :  Xenophon  and  Plato, 
Demosthenes  and  Aristotle.  In  the  same  work  the  absence  of 
any  adequate  history  of  learning  is  noticed5.  We  have,  however, 
a  'survey'  or  'general  and  faithful  perambulation  of  learning'6; 
and  indications  of  the  author's  familiarity  with  certain  stages 
in  its  history. 

Thus,  of  the  attitude  of  the  early  and  mediaeval  Church  towards  the 
Classics,  he  writes : — '  We  find  that  many  of  the  ancient  bishops  and  fathers  of 
the  Church  were  excellently  read  and  studied  in  all  the  learning  of  the 
heathen ' ;  and  '  it  was  the  Christian  Church,  which,  amid  the  inundations  of 
the  Scythians...  and  Saracens...,  did  preserve  in  the  sacred  lap  and  bosom 
thereof  the  precious  relics  even  of  heathen  learning,  which  otherwise  had  been 
extinguished'7. 

1  Letter  to  Burleigh. 

2  Advancement  of  Learning,  ed.  Aldis  Wright,  pref.  p.  vi. 
8  ib.  vii.  4  Essays,  383,  ed.  1861. 

6  II  i  a.  8  II  Ded.  15.  7  I  vi  14. 


CHAP.  XX.]  BACON.  339 

As  an  instance  of  the  '  contentious '  type  of  learning,  Bacon  selects  the 
schoolmen,  '  who,  having  sharp  and  strong  wits,  and  abundance  of  leisure,  and 
small  variety  of  reading,  but  their  wits  being  shut  up  in  the  cells  of  a  few 
authors  (chiefly  Aristotle  their  dictator)...,  and  knowing  little  history,  either  of 
nature  or  time,  did,  out  of  no  great  quantity  of  matter  and  infinite  agitation  of 
wit,  open  out  unto  us  those  laborious  webs  of  learning  which  are  extant  in 
their  books'1.  Of  their  dependence  on  Aristotle  he  adds: — 'As  water  will 
not  ascend  higher  than  the  level  of  the  first  springhead  from  whence  it 
descendeth,  so  knowledge  derived  from  Aristotle,  and  exempted  from  liberty 
of  examination,  will  not  rise  again  higher  than  the  knowledge  of  Aristotle'1*. 
'  Notwithstanding,  certain  it  is  that,  if  those  schoolmen  to  their  great  thirst  of 
truth  and  unwearied  travail  of  wit  had  joined  variety  and  universality  of 
reading  and  contemplation,  they  had  proved  excellent  lights,  to  the  great 
advancement  of  all  learning  and  knowledge'3. 

In  connexion  with  the  Revival  of  Learning,  the  credit,  now  generally 
assigned  to  Petrarch  and  the  early  humanists,  is  here  attributed  to  Luther, 
who,  '  finding  his  own  solitude,  being  no  ways  aided  by  the  opinions  of  his 
own  time,  was  enforced  to  awake  all  antiquity,  and  to  call  former  times  to  his 
succours  to  make  a  party  against  the  present  time.  So  that  the  ancient 
authors,  both  in  divinity  and  in  humanity,  which  had  long  slept  in  libraries, 
began  generally  to  be  read  and  revolved'....  'The  admiration  of  ancient 
authors,  the  hate  of  the  schoolmen,  the  exact  study  of  languages '  were  among 
the  causes  that  contributed  to  the  study  of  eloquence.  '  This  grew  speedily  to 
an  excess ',  as  might  be  seen  in  the  '  flowing  and  watery  vein  of  Osorius  '4,  in 
the  superstitious  cult  of  Cicero  which  had  been  satirised  by  Erasmus  and 
exemplified  by  Ascham  and  Sturm,  and  in  the  almost  deification  of 
Demosthenes  by  Car  of  Cambridge5.  All  these  are  examples  of  the  'first 
distemper  of  learning,  when  men  study  words  and  not  matter'6. 

In  the  age  of  the  Reformation,  he  points  out  that  '  it  was  ordained  by  the 
Divine  Providence,  that   there   should   attend  withal  a   renovation  and  new 
spring  of  all  other  knowledges  ;  and,  on  the  other  side '  he  recognises  that  the    / 
Jesuits7  'have  much  quickened  and  strengthened  the  state  of  learning'8. 

Lastly,  in  the  reign  of  James  I,  he  feels  persuaded  '  that  this  third  period 
of  time  will  far  surpass  that  of  the  Grecian  and  Roman  learning  '9. 

The  Advancement  of  Learning  is  expanded  in  a  Latin  form 
in  the  De  Augmentis  Scientiarum  (1623).  The  Wisdom  of  the 
Ancients  (1609)  gives  a  moral  or  political  interpretation  to  many 

1  i  iv  5.  2  i  iv  12.  3  i  iv  7. 

4  p.  163  supra. 

5  Nicholas  Carr  (1523-68),  Greek  professor  1547,  translator  of  Dem.  01. 
and  Phil.,  etc. 

6  i  iv  2.  7  Cp.  i  iii  3,  and  De  Angmentis,  vi  4. 
8  i  vi  15.  9  II  xxiv. 

22 — 2 


340  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVH. 

of  the  fables  of  Greek  Mythology.  Finally,  in  the  Novum  Or- 
ganum  (1620),  by  the  very  title  of  that  memorable  work,  the 
author  boldly  enters  the  lists  against  the  logical  text-book  of 
Aristotle;  and,  although  it  has  been  censured  by  Hallam'  for 
the  'general  obscurity'  of  its  style,  it  has  been  highly  commended 
by  the  learned  author  of  the  Polyhistor,  who  'had  found  little 
in  the  books  since  written  by  Englishmen,  the  grounds  of  which 
he  had  not  long  before  met  with  in  Bacon'2. 

A  remarkable  variety  of  classical  erudition  is  the  main  characteristic  of 
Robert  Burton  (1576 — 1640),  Fellow  of  Brasenose,  and 
Student  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  the  celebrated  author  of 
the  Anatomy  of  Melancholy  (162 1)3.  He  is  quaintly  described  in  Wood's 
Athenae  Oxonienses*  as  '  a  general  read  scholar,  a  thoro'  pac'd  philologist ' ; 
'by  many  accounted  a  severe  student,  a  devourer  of  authors';  but  'very 
merry,  facete,  and  juvenile'.  The  Latin" elegiacs  which  he  addresses  to  his 
book  show  a  turn  for  pleasant  raillery.  Dr  Johnson  has  justly  described  the 
work  as  '  perhaps  overloaded  with  quotations ' ;  '  but  there  is  great  spirit  and 
great  power '  (he  adds)  '  in  what  Burton  says  when  he  writes  from  his  own 
mind'5. 

Thomas  Dempster  of  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge  (c.  1579 — 
1625),  was  born  some  three  years  later  than 
Robert  Burton  and  died  fifteen  years  before  him. 
He  belonged  to  an  ancient  family  in  Scotland,  which  lost  all 
its  fortunes  owing  to  its  fidelity  to  the  catholic  cause.  He 
graduated  at  Douay  and  Paris,  and  was  a  professor  at  Toulouse 
and  Nimes,  and  at  several  Colleges  in  Paris.  In  Paris  he  edited 
Claudian  (1607)  and  Corippus  (1610).  At  Cologne  in  1613  he 
reprinted,  with  corrections  and  large  additions,  the  Antiquitates 
Romanae  of  Johann  Rossfeld,  or  Rosinus  (1585).  He  afterwards 
professed  civil  law  at  Pisa,  and  the  humanities  at  Bologna,  where 
he  died.  Meanwhile  he  had  been  knighted  by  Urban  VIII.  In 
addition  to  a  critique  on  Historians,  he  wrote  an  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  Scotland6,  in  which  he  was  prompted  by  his  patriotism 
to  exaggerate  the  literary  fame  of  his  country,  and  even  to  claim 
Turnebus  as  of  Scottish  descent7.  His  work  De  Etruria  Regali, 

1  »  43°  *• 

2  Morhof,  ii  124  f,  ed.  1747.  3  17  other  edd.  before  1850. 
4  ii  652  f,  Bliss.  B  Boswell,  ii  259,  Napier. 

6  1627;  new  ed.  1828.  7  p.  185  n.  supra. 


CHAP.  XX.]  BURTON.  DEMPSTER.  BARCLAY.  GATAKER.  34! 

printed  nearly  a  century  later  (1723-6),  with  an  illustrated 
supplement  by  Philip  Buonarroti,  aroused  a  fantastic  interest  in 
Etruscan  Art,  and  an  exaggerated  sense  of  the  antiquity  and 
extent  of  Etruscan  civilisation1.  He  also  wrote  on  mythology 
and  cosmography,  and  was  famous  as  a  Latin  poet,  his  poem 
entitled  Musca  being  admired  as  a  lepidum  carmen,  sed  non 
indoctum*.  He  had  a  frank  and  open  manner,  and  a  pugnacious 
temper.  He  had  also  a  remarkably  good  memory,  and  spent 
fourteen  hours  a  day  in  reading3.  He  is  described  by  Ussher 
as  a  man  of  much  reading,  and  absolutely  no  judgement4. 

His  contemporary  John  Barclay  (1582 — 1621),  who  was  born 
in  Lorraine  of  Scottish  descent  and  was  probably 

.  Barclay 

educated  by  the  Jesuits,  has  some  reputation  as  a 
Latin  writer.  At  the  beginning  of  the  ten  years  of  his  residence 
in  London,  he  produced  the  Latin  poems  of  his  Sylvae  (1606), 
and,  at  the  close  of  the  five  years  spent  in  Rome  towards  the 
end  of  his  life,  he  completed  a  political  satire  in  Latin  prose 
called  the  Argents  (1621).  The  latter  is  an  allegory,  partly 
founded  on  the  state  of  France  during  the  latter  years  of 
Henry  III,  and  it  was  a  favourite  with  Richelieu5.  Coleridge 
even  preferred  the  Latin  style  of  this  work  to  that  of  Livy  or 
Tacitus,  but  Hallam  is  more  judiciously  content  to  compare  it 
with  that  of  Petronius6.  His  Latin  verse  is  modelled  mainly 
on  Statius  and  Claudian.  He  is  the  theme  of  a  couplet  com- 
posed by  Grotius  : — 

'  Gente  Caledonius,  Gallus  natalibus  hie  est, 
Romam  Romano  qui  docet  ore  loqui'7. 

The  puritan  divine  and  critic,  Thomas  Gataker  (1574 — 1654), 
was  a   Scholar   of  St   John's,  a   Fellow  of  Sidney 

.  Gataker 

Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  and  subsequently  lec- 
turer at  Lincoln's  Inn  and  rector  of  Rotherhithe.     In   1620  he 

1  Stark,  183. 

2  Borrichius,  De  Poet 'is,  151.  3  Aub.  Miraeus,  ap.  Blount. 

4  Antiy.  Britann.  Eccl.  c.  i.     Cp.  Blount,  642  f,  and  D.  N.  B. 

5  Vita,  prefixed  to  Argents. 

6  Hallam,  ii  2844,  iii  165  f4. 

7  For  other  Testimonia,  cp.   Blount,  655  f.      See  also  sketch  of  Life  by 
Lord  Hales,   1783. 


342  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVII. 

travelled  in  the  Netherlands.  He  wrote  a  curious  treatise  on  the 
'  Nature  and  Use  of  Lots ',  and,  apart  from  works  on  the  Hebrew 
prophets  and  on  the  ecclesiastical  controversies  of  the  day,  pub- 
lished a  Greek  text  of  the  Meditations  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  with 
a  Latin  version  and  a  copious'commentary1, — '  the  earliest  edition 
of  any  classical  writer  published  in  England  with  original  anno- 
tations's.  The  Stoic  philosophy  is  reviewed  in  the  Introduction 
and  many  parallel  passages  from  Greek  and  Latin  philosophical 
writings  are  cited  in  the  notes.  His  Adversaria  Miscellanea 
(1651)  and  Posthuma,  with  an  autobiography  (1659),  include 
many  observations  relating  to  classical  antiquity.  His  translation 
of  Marcus  Aurelius  is  reprinted  in  the  Opera  Crttica,  published 
at  Utrecht  in  1698,  with  a  Life  by  Herman  Witsius.  He  has 
been  placed  by  a  foreign  writer  among  the  six  Protestants  con- 
spicuous for  depth  of  reading,  and  has  been  characterised  as  a 
vir  stupendae  leclionis  magnique  judicii*. 

Gataker's  slightly  younger  contemporary,  the   learned  jurist, 
John  Selden  (1584 — 1654)  of  Hart  Hall,  Oxford, 

Selden  .  . 

and  of  the  Inner  Temple,  M.P.  for  his  university 
in  the  Long  Parliament,  produced  in  1617  two  works  of  profound 
learning,  his  '  History  of  Tythes '  in  English,  and  his  treatise 
De  Diis  Syr  is  in  Latin.  As  the  author  of  the  latter  he  earned 
from  Gataker  the  epithet  of  TroXv/zafo'crraTos4.  A  more  immediate 
service  to  scholarship  was  rendered  in  1628-9  by  his  publication  of 
the  Marmora  Arundelliana,  a  description  of  the  marbles  brought 
from  Asia  Minor  by  William  Petty,  a  Cambridge  man,  who  was 
acting  as  agent  for  Thomas  Howard,  the  second  Earl  of  Arundel 
(1586 — 1646).  Petty  found  at  Smyrna  a  number  of  Greek  in- 
scriptions originally  collected  by  an  agent  of  the  Provengal 
scholar,  Peiresc5.  Owing  to  some  intrigues  on  the  part  of  the 
sellers,  the  agent  had  been  thrown  into  prison  and  the  collection 
dispersed.  Petty  recovered  them,  and  purchased  them,  at  a  high 
price,  for  Lord  Arundel,  and  the  marbles  reached  Arundel  House 
in  the  Strand  in  1627.  The  greatest  interest  was  excited  by  the 

1  1652;  reprinted,  1697,  1707. 

2  Hallam,  iii  250*. 

3  Morhof,  Polyhistor,  i  926,  ed.  1747. 

4  De  Tdragr.  5   Vila,  by  Gassendi,  227. 


CHAP.  XX.]  SELDEN.  343 

two  large  fragments  of  a  chronological  table  which,  from  the  place 
of  its  original  discovery,  became  known  as  the  Marmor  Parium. 
The  table  begins  with  Cecrops  and  goes  down  to  354  B.C.,  the 
latter  part,  ending  with  263-2  B.C.  (the  year  of  its  composition), 
having  been  lost1.  The  deciphering  and  interpretation  were 
undertaken  by  Selden,  the  magnus  dictator  doctrinae gentis  Anglicae, 
with  the  aid  of  Patrick  Young  and  Richard  James.  The  fame  of 
the  inscriptions  and  their  collector  was  spread  abroad  by  the 
publication  of  Selden's  work,  and  Peiresc  now  learnt  for  the  first 
time  the  fate  of  his  former  property,  but  he  generously  rejoiced 
that  the  task  of  appreciating  the  inscriptions  had  fallen  into  such 
good  hands2.  The  work  is  lauded  by  Baillet,  who  adds  that,  even 
if  men  were  to  refuse  to  Selden  the  eulogies  that  were  his  due, 
'  les  pierres  parleroient  pour  luy'3.  Forty  years  after  the  marbles 
had  arrived  in  England,  the  inscriptions,  which  Selden's  volume 
had  made  famous,  are  described  by  Evelyn  as  '  universally 
neglected  and  scattered  up  and  down  about  the  garden,  and 
other  parts  of  Arundel  House',  'exceedingly  impaired'  by  the 
'corrosive  air  of  London'4.  Part  of  them  were  used  in  the 
repair  of  the  house,  and  in  this  way  the  upper  half  of  the 
Marmor  Parium  had  disappeared  in  the  chimney,  and  would 
have  been  lost  to  the  learned  world,  had  it  not  been  discovered 
betimes  by  Selden  and  his  friends5.  Under  the  influence  of 
Evelyn,  the  marbles  were  presented  to  the  university  of  Oxford, 
but,  of  the  original  number  of  250  inscribed  stones,  only  136 
reached  that  destination.  These  were  at  first  'inserted  in  the 
walls  that  compass  the  area  of  the  (Sheldonian)  theatre',  where 
the  author  of  the  Sylva  judiciously  advised  the  planting  of  a 
hedge  of  holly  to  prevent  idle  persons  from  scratching  and 
injuring  them6.  They  were  edited  afresh  by  Prideaux  (1676), 
and  afterwards  transferred  to  the  interior  of  the  Ashmolean 
Museum,  and  ultimately  to  the  University  Galleries. 

1  A  fragment  covering  336 — 2996.0.  has  been  found  (At/i.  Milt.  1897,  183). 

2  Michaelis,  Ancient  Marbles  in  Great  Britain,  17  f,  34  f. 

3  Jugfwens  des  Sfavans,  1685,  ii  401  ed.  1722. 

4  Diary,  19  Sept.  1667  (ii  29). 

5  Prideaux,  Marmora  Oxoniensia,  1676,  pref. 

6  Evelyn,  Diary,  13  July,  1669  (ii  41  f). 


344  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVII. 

When  Grotius,  in  his  Mare  Liberum  (1633),  denied  England's 
right  to  exclude  the  fishermen  of  the  Netherlands  from  the  seas 
claimed  by  England,  that  right  was  maintained  by  Selden  in  his 
Mare  Clausum  (1636),  and  Grotius,  who  had  already  described 
Selden  as  the  Honor  Britanniae  (1625)',  was  (as  we  have  already 
seen)  well  content  that  the  controversy  should  be  in  such  good 
hands2.  His  dissertation  on  the  Civil  Year  and  the  Calendar 
of  the  Jews  was  lauded  by  Vossius3.  His  Table-Talk  has  been 
characterised  as  '  far  less  rude,  but  more  cutting  than  that  of 
Scaliger  '4.  Selden  must  have  been  thinking  mainly  of  theological 
learning,  when  he  said  of  the  English  clergy  of  his  day,  'All 
Confess  there  never  was  a  more  learned  Clergy — no  Man  taxes 
them  with  Ignorance';  and  of  learning  in  a  larger  sense,  when  he 
says  elsewhere,  '  The  Jesuits  and  the  Lawyers  of  France,  and  the 
Low-Countrymen,  have  engrossed  all  Learning;  the  rest  of  the 
world  make  nothing  but  Homilies'5.  His  own  preference  for 
quoting  original  authorities  is  expressed  with  some  rudeness,  when 
he  remarks  :  '  To  quote  a  modern  Dutch  Man,  where  I  may  use 
a  Classic  Author,  is  as  if  (in  justifying  my  reputation)  '  I  were 
to... neglect  all  persons  of  Note  and  Quality  that  know  me,  and 
bring  the  Testimonial  of  the  Scullion  in  the  Kitchen'6.  He  is 
described  by  Burnet  as  'the  most  learned  Mr  Selden,  one  of 
the  greatest  men  that  any  age  has  produced".  His  industry, 
and  his  strength  of  frame,  the  exactness  of  his  memory  and  the 
sureness  of  his  judgement,  have  been  lauded  in  the  Memoirs  of 
Dr  Lloyd,  who  adds  that  his  'Fancy'  was  'slow';  nevertheless 
he  made  '  several  sallies '  into  poetry  and  oratory,  and  was  proud 
of  the  fact  that  he  had  been  taught  by  Ben  Jonson  'to  relish 
Horace  '8. 

Thomas  Young  (1587 — 1655),  curate  to  Gataker  at  Rother- 

hithe,  and  afterwards  the  Puritan  Master  of  Jesus 

College,    Cambridge,   was    John    Milton's    private 

tutor,  and  is  the  theme  of  the  fourth  of  his  Latin  Elegies  and  of 

1  De  Jure  Belli  et  Pads,  lib.  II,  c.  2. 

2  p.  315  supra.  :!  De  Scient.  Math.  466. 
4  Hal  lam,  ii  5i84.                                  8  pp.  37,  67  Arber. 

6  ib.  31.  7  Hist.  Kef.  book  3,  p.  264,  ed.  1539. 

8  Blount,  696. 


CHAP.  XX.]  MILTON.  345 

two  of  his  Latin  Letters1.  In  the  Elegy  the  poet  confesses  that 
he  has  derived  from  his  private  tutor  his  first  taste  for  classical 
literature  and  poetry  : — 

'  Primus  ego  Aonios,  illo  praeeunte,  recessus 

Lustrabam,  et  bifidi  sacra  vireta  jugi ; 
Pieriosque  hausi  latices,  Clioque  favente, 
Castalio  sparsi  laeta  ter  ora  mero  '. 

Milton  (1608 — 1674),  who  was  educated  at  St  Paul's  School, 
London,  and  for  seven  years  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  tells 
us  in  his  'Apology'  that  at  Cambridge  he  was  not  'unstudied  in 
those  authors  which  are  most  commended',  the  'grave  Orators 
and  Historians ',  '  the  smooth  Elegiack  Poets ',  and  the  '  divine 
volumes  of  Plato  and  Xenophon'2.  During  his  five  years  at 
Horton,  he  '  enjoyed  a  complete  holiday  in  turning  over  Latin 
and  Greek  authors'3.  His  common-place  book,  ascribed  to  the 
latter  part  of  his  time  in  that  rural  retreat,  includes  quotations 
from  as  many  as  sixteen  Greek  authors,  cited  mainly  for  historical 
facts,  and  not  for  poetic  phrases4.  His  reading  was  that  of  a  poet 
and  a  general  scholar  rather  than  that  of  a  professional  philologer; 
and  he  '  meditated '  what  he  read5,  thus  escaping  the  reproach  of 
being  '  deep  verst  in  books,  and  shallow  in  himself'6. 

At  Paris,  in  1638,  he  saw  Grotius,  who  'took  his  visit  kindly, 
and  gave  him  entertainment  suitable  to  his  worth,  and  the  high 
commendations  he  had  heard  of  him  '7.  During  his  year  in  Italy 
(1638-9)  he  attended  two  of  the  meetings  of  one  of  the  Florentine 
Academies,  and  recited  from  memory  some  of  the  Latin  verses 
of  his  youth.  He  spent  two  months  in  Rome,  viewing  the  an- 
tiquities, and  cultivating  the  acquaintance  of  scholars,  such  as 
Lucas  Holstein  of  Hamburg,  who  had  lived  for  three  years  at 
Oxford,  and  was  then  librarian  of  the  Vatican.  He  was  shown 
the  sights  of  Naples  by  Manso,  the  patron  of  Tasso  and  Marini, 
and  on  his  departure  presented  his  host  with  his  Virgilian  Eclogue 
of  Mansus.  On  his  way  back  he  spent  two  more  months  in 

1  Mitford's  Milton,  \  216,  vii  369,  373. 

-  ill.  iii  269,  272.  3  ib.  vi  287. 

4  Pattison's  Milton,  19.  5  Aubrey's  Lives  (ib.  18). 

6  P.  A',  iv  326. 

7  Philips,  Life  of  Milton  (1649)  'n  ^-  Godwin's  Lives  (1815),  p.  358. 


346  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVII. 

Rome,  and  two  in  Florence,  where  he  saw  Galileo.  After  a 
month  in  Venice,  he  returned  to  England  via  Geneva,  the  home 
of  the  uncle  of  his  bosom-friend,  Carolus  Diodati,  the  Damon  of 
the  Epitaphium,  a  pastoral  elegy  inspired  by  a  genuine  emotion. 
It  was  composed  on  his  return  from  abroad,  and  is  the  latest  of 
the  poet's  serious  efforts  in  Latin  verse.  His  Lycidas,  which  pre- 
ceded his  visit  to  Italy,  and  his  Epitaphium  Damonis,  which 
immediately  followed  his  return,  were  both  of  them  modelled  on 
the  Latin  Eclogues  of  Virgil  and  of  later  Italian  poets1.  'The 
Latin  pieces '  (says  Dr  Johnson)  '  are  lusciously  elegant ;  but  the 
delight  which  they  afford  is  rather  by  the  exquisite  imitation  of 
the  ancient  writers,  by  the  purity  of  the  diction,  and  the  harmony 
of  the  numbers,  than  by  any  power  of  invention,  or  vigour  of 
sentiment'2.  He  also  describes  the  Epitaphium  Damonis  as 
'  written  with  the  common  but  childish  imitation  of  pastoral  life  '3. 
The  poem  is,  however,  defended  by  Warton,  who  observes  that 
'  there  are  some  new  and  natural  country  images,  and  the  common 
topicks  are  often  recommended  by  a  novelty  of  elegant  ex- 
pressions'4. Leland's  hendecasyllables  and  epigrams  are  an 
unimportant  exception  to  the  statement  that  Milton  is  'the 
first  Englishman,  who,  after  the  restoration  of  letters,  wrote 
Latin  verses  with  classick  elegance'5.  His  early  Latin  poems 
belong  to  'the  spring-time  of  an  ardent  and  brilliant  fancy'6; 
and  his  Latin  poems  in  general  are  'distinguished  from  most 
Neo-Latin  verse  by  being  a  vehicle  of  real  emotion  '7. 

In  1640  Milton  was  engaged  in  the  tuition  of  his  two  nephews,  who  were 
joined  by  other  pupils  in  1643.  One  of  those  nephews  has  preserved  an 
impressive  list  of  the  authors  studied  : — in  husbandry,  Cato,  Varro,  Columella, 
Palladius;  Celsus,  and  a  great  part  of  Pliny;  Vitruvius;  the  Stratagems  of 
Frontinus;  Lucretius  and  Manilius,  In  Greek  verse,  Hesiod,  Aratus,  Diony- 
sius,  Oppian,  Quintus  Smyrnaeus,  Apollonius  Rhodius;  in  prose,  Plutarch's 
Placita  Philosophorum,  and  On  the  Education  of  Children;  Xenophon's 
Cyropaedia  and  Anabasis;  the  Tactics  of  Aelian,  and  the  Stratagems  of 
Polyaenus8. 

1  p.  1 1 4,  n.  7  supra. 

2  Lives  of  the  English  Poets,  i  139,  ed.  Cunningham. 

3  il>.  i  91.  4  Todd's  Milton,  iv  506. 
5  Todd's  Milton,  iv  363.                            6  Hallam,  iii  564. 

7  Pattison's  Milton,  41.  8  Todd's  Milton,  i  29. 


CHAP.  XX.]  MILTON.  347 

The  Tractate  on  Education  (1642)  is  mainly  a  scheme  for  the  acquirement 
of  useful  knowledge  with  the  aid  of  Greek  and  Latin  books.  After  suggesting 
that  the  speech  of  his  ideal  students  should  be  '  fashion'd  to  a  distinct  and 
clear  pronuntiation,  as  near  as  may  be  to  the  Italian,  especially  in  the  Vowels', 
he  would  have  'some  easie  and  delightful  Book  of  Education'  read  to  them, 
such  as  '  Cebes,  Plutarch,  and  other  Socratic  discourses',  or  '  the  two  or  three 
first  Books  of  Quintilian'.  'The  next  step  would  be  to  the  Authors  of 
Agriculture,  Cato,  Varro,  and  Columella'.  'The  difficulties  of  Grammar  being 
soon  overcome,  all  the  Historical  Physiology  of  Aristotle  and  Theophrastus 
are  open  before  them'.  'The  like  access  will  be  to  Vitruvius,  to  Seneca's 
Natural  Questions,  to  Mela,  Celsus,  Pliny,  or  Solinus'.  'Then  also  those 
Poets  which  are  now  counted  most  hard,  will  be  both  facil  and  pleasant, 
Orpheus,  Hesiod,  Theocritus,  Aratus,  Nicander,  Oppian,  Dionysius,  and,  in 
Latin,  Lucretius,  Manillas,  and  the  rural  part  of  Virgil '.  Thereupon  '  their 
young  and  pliant  affections  are  led  through  all  the  moral  works  of  Plato, 
Xenophon,  Cicero,  Plutarch,  Laertius,  and  those  Locrian  remnants';  'some 
choice  Comedies,  Greek,  Latin,  or  Italian ;  those  Tragedies  also  that  treat  of 
Houshold  matters,  as  Trachiniae,  Alcestis,  and  the  like ' ;  '  those  extoll'd 
remains  of  Grecian  Lawgivers,  Lycurgus,  Solon,  Zaleucus,  Charondas,  and 
thence  to  all  the  Roman  Edicts  and  Tables  with  their  Justinian'.  '  Then  will 
the  choise  Histories,  Heroic  Poems,  and  Attic  Tragedies  of  stateliest  and 
most  regal  argument,  with  all  the  famous  Political  Orations  offer  themselves; 
which,  if  they  were  not  only  read,  but  some  of  them  got  by  memory,  and 
solemnly  pronounc't  with  right  accent,  and  grace,  as  might  be  taught,  would 
endue  them  even  with  the  spirit  and  vigor  of  Demosthenes  or  Cicero,  Euripides 
or  Sophocles'.  Logic,  also,  'so  much  as  is  useful',  to  be  followed  in  due 
course  by  '  a  gracefull  and  ornate  Rhetorick  taught  out  of  the  rule  of  Plato, 
Aristotle,  Phaleretis,  Cicero,  Hermogenes,  Longinus';  and,  lastly,  'that 
sublime  art  which,  in  Aristotle's  Poetics,  in  Horace,  and  the  Italian  Com- 
mentaries of  Castelvetro,  Tasso,  Mazzoni,  and  others,  teaches  what  the  laws 
are  of  a  true  Epic  Poem,  what  of  a  Dramatic,  what  of  a  Lyric,  what  Decorum 
is,  which  is  the  grand  master-piece  to  observe'1. 

Milton's  copies  of  Pindar,  Euripides,  Lycophron,  and  Aratus 
are  still  extant  with  marginal  memoranda  proving  that  he  read  the 
Greek  poets  with  the  eye  of  a  critic.  His  Pindar,  the  Saumur 
edition  of  1620,  is  now  in  the  Harvard  Library.  His  Euripides, 
printed  by  Paul  Stephens  at  Geneva  in  1602,  was  bought  in 
1634,  the  year  in  which  he  wrote  the  Conius,  and  is  now  in  the 
possession  of  Mr  W.  W.  Vaughan,  head-master  of  Giggleswick2. 
His  Lycophron  was  once  in  the  library  of  the  late  Lord 

1  Todd's  Milton,  iv  384-9. 

2  Emendations  in  Museum  Criticum,  1814;  cp.  Bacch.  188  n,  ed.  Sandys. 


348  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVII. 

Charlemont ;  his  Aratus  (1559)  is  now  in  the  British  Museum. 
Milton's  debt  to  the  Classics  is  shown  far  less  by  any  direct 
adaptations  of  their  phraseology  than  by  the  classical  flavour  that 
pervades  his  poems.  A  tribute  to  his  Latin  scholarship  was  paid 
by  his  appointment  as  Latin  Secretary  to  the  Council  of  State 
from  1649  to  1659,  and  England's  communications  with  foreign 
powers  lost  none  of  their  dignity  by  being  couched  in  Miltonic 
Latin.  For  the  task  of  replying  to  the  Eikon  Basilike,  the  first 
name  suggested  was  that  of  Selden,  but  it  was  finally  entrusted  to 
Milton.  He  also  discharged  the  duty  of  answering  the  Defensio 
regia  of  Salmasius,  but  the  only  passages  of  his  Defence  of  the 
People  of  England,  and  of  his  Second  Defence,  that  retain  their 
original  interest,  are  those  that  tell  of  the  author's  studies  and 
travels.  When  he  had  finished  these  pamphlets,  there  were  many 
to  whom  he  was  only  a  blind  man  that  wrote  Latin1.  Paradise 
Lost  was  not  published  until  1667,  and  1670  saw  the  publication 
of  Paradise  Regained  and  Samson  Agonistes.  The  latter  is  founded 
on  the  earlier  Attic  models,  the  Chorus  throughout  takes  part  in 
the  dialogue,  and,  '  according  to  ancient  rule  and  best  example ', 
the  drama  begins  and  ends  '  within  the  space  of  twenty-four 
hours  '.  Aristotle's  famous  definition  of  tragedy  is  quoted  on  the 
title-page,  but  while  the  much-disputed  term  katharsis  is  there 
translated  by  lustratio,  the  preface,  probably  composed  under 
the  influence  of  the  Italian  commentators,  is  more  in  accord  with 
the  best  modern  interpretation,  when  it  states  that  tragedy  is 
'said  by  Aristotle  to  be  of  power  by  raising  pity  and  fear,  or 
terror,  to  purge  the  mind  of  those  and  such  like  passions'2.  This 
aim  is  attained  in  Samson  Agonistes,  which  finds  its  close  in  'calm 
of  mind,  all  passion  spent'. 

As  a  Latin  poet,  Milton  had  been  preceded  in  England  by 

Thomas  May  of  Sidney  Sussex  College,  Cambridge 

(1595 — 1650),  whose  translations  of  the  Classics3  are 

praised  by  Ben  Jonson,  and  whose  skill  in  imitating  the  style  of 

Lucan  is  shown  in  his  Latin  continuation  of  the  Pharsalia  (1640). 

1  Whitelock's  Memorials  (1656),  p.  645  of  folio  ed.     Cp.  Pattison,  117. 

2  Cp.  vol.  i  62. 

3  Virgil's  Georgia,  1622,  1628;  and  Lucan's  Pharsalia,  1627,  with  a  Con- 
tinuation in  English  verse,  1630,  and  in  Latin  (Leyden),  1640. 


CHAP.  XX.]  MAY.      COWLEY.      DUPORT.  349 

As  a  Latin  poet,  not  only  May,  but  also  Cowley  (1618 — 1667),  is 
preferred  to  Milton  by  Dr  Johnson1 ;  but  the  merits  of  May,  who 
is  a  '  sonorous  versifier ',  '  accomplished  in  poetical  declamation  ', 
are  mainly  those  of  a  skilful  parodist,  while  the  metaphysical 
conceits  of  Cowley  are  ill-adapted  for  the  garb  of 

.  .         .  Cowley 

Latin  verse2.  A  passing  mention  is  due  to  Cowley's 
Naufragium  Joculare,  and  to  his  little  volume  De  Plantis,  in 
which  he  discourses  in  Latin  verse  on  the  qualities  of  herbs,  the 
beauties  of  flowers,  and  the  uses  of  trees.  In  the  final  couplet  of 
the  Latin  dedication  of  his  English  Poems  to  his  Alma  Mater,  he 
recalls  the  happy  days  of  his  quiet  life  beside  the  Cam  : — 

'  Qualis  eram  cum  me  tranquilla  mente  sedentem 
Vidisti  in  ripa,  Came  serene,  tua'. 

James  Duport  (1606 — 1679),  who  was  the  son  of  a  Master  of 
Jesus,  and  was  educated  at  Westminster  and  Trinity, 
and  elected  Fellow  in  1627,  may  well  have  known 
Milton,  who  was  only  two  years  junior  to  himself,  in  Cambridge. 
But  this  is  only  an  inference  from  his  omission  of  Milton's  name 
in  his  invectives  against  regicides.  Duport  was  professor  of  Greek 
from  1639  to  1654,  and  during  the  Civil  War  went  on  quietly 
lecturing  on  the  Characters  of  Theophrastus3.  After  the  Restora- 
tion he  became  Dean  of  Peterborough  (1664)  and  Master  of 
Magdalene  (1668-79).  In  contrast  to  the  Cambridge  Platonists 
of  his  day,  he  was  an  adherent  of  Aristotle,  but  he  devoted  most 
of  his  energies  to  the  composition  of  Greek  and  Latin  verse.  His 
models  were  Homer  and  Martial,  but  he  allowed  himself  metrical 
licences  unrecognised  by  either.  He  broke  into  verse  on  the 
slightest  provocation.  An  episcopalian  and  a  royalist,  he  could 
not  refrain  from  joining  in  celebrating  the  peace  with  Holland  in 
a  collection  of  verses  addressed  to  Cromwell.  In  his  Horae  Sub- 
serivae  he  supplies  us  with  a  set  of  Latin  elegiacs  on  the  Trinity 

1  Lives,  i  12  f. 

2  T.  Warton,  Preface  to  Milton  s  Minor  Poems,  xviii,  ed.  i. 

3  The  MS  of  his  lectures  was  lent  to  Stanley,  the  editor  of  Aeschylus,  on 
whose  death  it  came  into  possession  of  Moore,  bishop  of  Ely  ;  the  bishop  lent 
it  to  Peter  Needham,  who  published  it  in  his  own  edition  (1712).     Needham 
assumed  it  had  been  composed  by  Stanley,  until  Bentley  proved  from  internal 
evidence  that  it  was  the  work  of  Duport. 


350  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVII. 

fountain ',  and  represents  the  Master  lamenting  the  death  of  the 
Vice-Master  in  a  grandiloquent  series  of  Greek  hexameters 
addressed  to  a  meeting  of  the  Senior  Fellows2.  Essaying  a  far 
longer  flight,  he  rendered  in  Homeric  verse  the  whole  of  the  Book 
of  Job  (1637),  as  well  as  those  of  Proverbs  and  Ecclesiastes,  and 
the  Song  of  Solomon  (1646).  In  his  Homeri  Gnomologia  (1660) 
he  collected  all  the  aphorisms  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  and  illus- 
trated them  from  the  Scriptures  and  the  Classics3. 

At  the  Restoration,  Duport  had  been  invited  to  resume  the 
Chair  of  Greek,  which  had  been  vacant  for  six  years.     He  de- 
clined the  honour,  and  recommended  that  it  should  be  conferred 
on  his  favourite  pupil,  Isaac  Barrow  (16^0 — 1677). 

Barrow 

Barrow's  inaugural  oration  opens  with  a  brief  review 
of  the  earlier  teachers  of  Greek  in  Cambridge,  beginning  with 
Erasmus,  Sir  Thomas  Smith  and  Sir  John  Cheke,  and  ending 
with  Downes  and  Creighton;  but  the  lectures,  which  were  so 
auspiciously  begun,  were  but  scantily  attended.  'I  sit  like  an 
owl',  he  says,  'driven  out  from  the  society  of  other  birds'4.  Within 
four  years  he  exchanged  the  Chair  of  Greek  for  the  newly-founded 
Lucasian  Professorship  of  Mathematics.  His  introductory  lecture 
reveals  him  as  a  philosopher  and  a  divine,  as  well  as  a  scholar. 
He  confesses  that  'though  far  from  viewing  with  morose  disdain 
the  amusing  employment  of  verbal  criticism,  his  warmest  affections 
have  ever  been  given  to  the  graver  investigations  of  nature';  and 
he  reminds  his  hearers  that  the  ancient  Greek  philosophers  had 
ever  blended  the  study  of  philosophy  with  that  of  mathematics5. 
He  resigned  the  Lucasian  Chair  in  favour  of  his  pupil,  Isaac 
Newton  (1669).  As  Master  of  Trinity  (1672),  he  founded  the 
Library.  He  published  a  Latin  text  of  Euclid  before  his  election 
as  Professor  of  Greek,  and  a  Latin  text  of  Archimedes  after  his 

1  318  f.  2  ib.  497- 

3  Monk  in  Museum  Criticum,  ii  672,  and  Mullinger,  Cambridge  Charac- 
teristics in  the  Seventeenth  Century.     Cp.  Hallam,  iii  -248  f4.      Quern  Jupiter 
vult  perdere,  elemental  prius  is  the  rendering  in  Duport's  Gnomologia,  282,  of 
the  tragic  fragment,  8rav  5'  6  Sal^uv  dvdpl  -jropffuvrj  KO.KO.,  rbv  vovv  tfi\a.\f/e  irpCi- 
TOV  $  /SouXetferat  (in  Schol.  on  Soph.  Ant.  620),  subsequently  rendered  in 
Joshua  Barnes'  Euripides  (1694),   Index  Prior  D,   Deus  quos  vult  perdcre, 
dementat  prius. 

4  Opuscula,  iv  ut.  B  Mullinger,  191. 


CHAP.  XX.]      BARROW.      PEARSON.      STANLEY.  351 

appointment  as  Master  of  Trinity.  He  came  to  the  end  of  his 
great  career  as  a  scholar,  a  mathematician,  and  a  divine  at  the 
early  age  of  forty-seven. 

We  have  already  noticed  the  names  of  Meric  Casaubon  (1599 — 
I67I)1,  and  of  Isaac  Vossius2  (1618 — 1689).  The  early  work  of 
the  latter  on  the  Letters  of  Ignatius  attracted  the 

Pearson 

interest  of  John  Pearson  (1613 — 1686),  the  author 
of  the  'Vindiciae  Ignatianae,'  of  whose  unfinished  work  on 
Ignatius  we  find  Bentley  saying  that  'the  very  dust  of  his  writings 
is  gold'3.  He  was  also  an  annotator  on  Diogenes  Laertius,  but  is 
now  far  better  known  as  the  author  of  the  'Exposition  of  the 
Creed',  as  Master  of  Jesus  and  Trinity,  Cambridge,  and  as  Bishop 
of  Chester. 

Thomas  Stanley  of  Pembroke  Hall  (1625 — 1678),  a  barrister, 
who,  after  travelling  abroad,  settled  in  London,  was 

Stanley 

a  descendant  of  the  third  earl  of  Derby,  and  a 
cousin  and  intimate  friend  of  Lovelace.  At  Pembroke,  he  was  a 
pupil  of  Fairfax,  the  translator  of  Tasso,  and  his  ample  means 
enabled  him  to  assist  Sir  Edward  Sherburne  (1618 — 1702),  the 
translator  of  Manilius  (1675),,  and  of  the  tragedies  of  Seneca 
(1701).  His  own  translations  included  versions  of  Greek,  as  well 
as  Latin,  poets4.  His  History  of  Philosophy,  published  in  four 
volumes  (1655-62),  is  biographical  rather  than  critical,  and  in- 
cludes no  name  later  than  Carneades.  It  is  mainly  derived  from 
Diogenes  Laertius,  but  there  is  also  an  account  of  the  Platonic 
philosophy,  derived  from  Alcinoiis,  the  Peripatetic  from  Aristotle, 
and  the  Stoic  from  various  ancient  authorities.  At  the  time  of  its 
publication,  the  field  which  it  covered  was  almost  untrodden 
ground5.  In  the  following  year  he  produced  his  celebrated  edition 
of  Aeschylus  (1663).  It  was  far  superior  to  all  its  predecessors, 
but  at  least  300  of  the  emendations  that  appear  in  the  text  were 
appropriated,  without  acknowledgement,  from  the  partly  unpub- 

1  p.  1 10  supra. 

2  p.  322  supra. 

3  Phalaris,  c.  13  prope  finem. 

4  1647-51;  edited  by  Brydges  in  1814-5;  his  version  of  Anacreon  reprinted 
in  1893. 

B  Hallam,  iii  303*. 


352  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVII. 

lished  proposals  of  Dorat,  Scaliger,  and  Casaubon1.  It  has  served 
in  its  turn  as  the  great  source  of  illustrations  for  all  subsequent 
editions  of  Aeschylus.  It  was  described  by  Bentley  as  a  'noble 
edition'2;  it  was  republished  in  1745,  and  afterwards  revised  by 
Person  and  reprinted  by  Samuel  Butler.  Stanley's  Adversaria 
are  still  preserved  in  the  University  Library  of  Cambridge. 

The  study  of  the  Classics  in  the  seventeenth  century  may  be 

illustrated  by  the  intellectual  interests  displayed  by  some  of  the 

principal  representatives  of  rational  theology  in  that  age.     The 

moderate   and    liberal    churchman,    Lucius    Gary, 

second  Viscount   Falkland   (c.    1610 — 1643),    wno 

was  admitted  a  member  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge3,  and 

also  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  is  described  by  his  friend 

Clarendon  as  having  subsequently  made  'prodigious  progress'  in 

learning.     'There  were  very  few  classic  authors  in  the  Greek  and 

Latin  tongue  that  he  had  not  read  with  great  exactness'4;  while, 

among  the  scholars  of  his  own  day,  he  had  a  singular  admiration 

for  Grotius5.     The  'ever-memorable'  John  Hales 

(1584 — 1656),   Fellow  of  Merton  and  lecturer  in 

Greek  at  Oxford,  and  Fellow  of  Eton  from  1613  to  1649,  had  an 

'exact  knowledge  of  the  Greek  tongue',  which  enabled  him  to  be 

of  special  service  to  Savile  in  his  famous  edition  of  Chrysostom8. 

Jeremy  Taylor  (1613 — 1667),   Fellow  of  Gonville 

and  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  and  of  All  Souls, 

Oxford,  Bishop  of  Down  and  Vice-Chancellor  of  Dublin,  was 

described  in  his  funeral  sermon  as  'a  rare  humanist',  who  was 

'hugely   vers'd   in   all   the   polite   parts   of    Learning,    and   had 

thoroughly  concocted  all  the  ancient  Moralists,  Greek  and  Roman, 

Poets  and  Orators'7,  while  his  own  discourses  are  remarkable  for 

'an  erudition  pouring  itself  forth  in  quotation,  till  his  sermons 

1  C.  J.  Blomfield  in  Edin.  Review,  xix  494,  and  in  Museum  Crilicum,  ii 
498;  Hallam,  iii  250*.     Stanley's  own  emendations  are  quoted  by  Davies  on 
Eum.  p.  29  f. 

2  Phalaris,  260  Wagner. 

3  Falkland's  Letter  in  Baker-Mayor,  532. 

4  Life,  48. 

5  Tulloch,  Rational  Theology  and  Christian  Philosophy  in  England  in  the 
xvii  cent.  (1872),  i  91.     Cp.,  in  general,  J.  A.  R.  Marriott's  Falkland  (1907). 

6  ib.  i  172.  7  Dr  George  Rust,  p.  13'  (1670). 


CHAP.  XX.]   FALKLAND.  HALES.  TAYLOR.  MORE.    353 

become  in  some  places  almost  a  garland  of  flowers  from  all  other 
writers,  and  especially  from  those  of  Classical  antiquity'1.  His 
'Liberty  of  Prophesying'  has  for  its  explanatory  title  the  formid- 
able Greek  designation : — av/u/Jo/W  i^iKo-TroAe/xiKoi/. 

One  of  the  foremost  of  the  'Cambridge  Platonists'  of  the  same 
century,  Henry  More  (1614 — 1687),  was  known  as 
the  'Angel   of  Christ's  College',  where  he  led  a       Cambridge 

° .  .  Platonists 

secluded  life,  declining  the  office  of  Master,  as  well  More 

as  a  bishopric.     'For  the  perfecting'  of  his  know- 
ledge 'of  the  Greek  and  Latin  tongue',  he  had  been  sent  as  a  boy 
to  Eton,  where  he  'was  wont  sometimes  with  a  sort  of  musical 
and  melancholic  murmur  to  repeat'  to  himself  those  verses  of 
Claudian : — 

'  Saepe  mihi  dubiam  traxit  sententia  mentem, 
curarent  super!  terras,  an  nullus  inesset 
rector,  et  incerto  fluerent  mortalia  casu'. 

As  a  youthful  Bachelor  of  Arts  at  Christ's,  he  studied  the  'Platonic 
writers,  Marsilius  Ficinus,  Plotinus  himself,  Mercurius  Trismegis- 
tus,  and  the  mystical  divines';  and  among  his  other  favourite 
authors  in  later  life  were  Philo  and  Clement  of  Alexandria.  His 
'Philosophical  Poems',  beginning  with  his  'Psychozoi'a'and  'Psych- 
athanasia',  in  which  he  endeavours  to  'give  some  fair  glimpse 
of  Plato's  hid  Philosophy',  are  purely  Neo-Platonic  conceptions 
clothed  in  the  fantastic  garb  of  a  poetry  that  is  so  far  from  lucid 
as  to  call  for  the  poet's  'notes'  and  'interpretation  general'  to 
illuminate  its  obscurities.  In  the  most  readable  of  his  prose 
works,  the  'Divine  Dialogue',  he  describes  a  dream  of  his  youth, 
in  which  he  sees  a  'very  grave  and  venerable  person',  who  presents 
him  with  a  silver  key,  inscribed  with  the  sentence,  Claude  fenestras, 
ut  luceat  domus,  and  a  key  of  gold,  bearing  the  motto,  Amor  Dei 
Lux  Animae.  The  dreamer  is  awakened  by  strange  noises  from 
the  outer  world,  but  the  full  meaning  of  the  golden  and  the  silver 
keys,  and  of  their  mottoes,  is  the  theme  of  long  debate  in  the 
'philosophical  bower'  of  the  'airy-minded  Platonist',  where  the 
scene  of  the  'Divine  Dialogue'  is  laid2. 

1  Hallam,  ii  359*. 

2  Tulloch,  ii  305,  307,  309,  312—323. 

S.    II.  23 


354  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVII. 

More's  contemporary,  Ralph  Cudworth  (1617 — 1688),  Fellow 
of  Emmanuel,  and  Master  of  Christ's  from  1654  to 

Cudworth 

his  death,  is  best  known  as  the  author  of  'The  true 
Intellectual  System  of  the  Universe',  and  the  'Treatise  concerning 
Eternal  and  Immutable  Morality'.  He  quotes  freely  from  the 
Neo-Platonists,  and  from  their  modern  followers,  Pico  of  Miran- 
dola  and  Ludovicus  Vives1. 

The  Cambridge  Platonists,  of  whom  More  and  Cudworth  are 
the  most  prominent  representatives,  show  a  lack  of  critical  judge- 
ment in  their  confusion  of  Platonism  and  Neo-Platonism.  The 
dialogues  of  Plato  that  chiefly  interest  them  are  the  Theaetetus, 
Sophistes,  Parmenides,  and,  above  all,  the  Timaeus.  Nearly  half 
the  second  book  of  the  'Immutable  Morality'  consists  of  quota- 
tions from  the  Theaetetus,  and  the  discussion  of  the  Platonic  Trinity 
in  the  'Intellectual  System'  mainly  rests  on  the  Timaeus  and  on 
the  Neo-Platonists.  Their  favourite  writers  are  Plotinus,  and,  in 
a  less  degree,  Proclus  and  Hierocles,  Themistius,  Damascius,  and 
Simplicius.  'They  are',  as  Coleridge  says,  'Plotinists  rather  than 
Platonists'2. 

Like  Philo,  and  Clement  of  Alexandria,  the  '  Cambridge  Plato- 
nists'  held   that   Plato  derived   his  wisdom  from 
^Theophiius       Moseg      similariy  Theophilus  Gale  (1628—1678) 
of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  who  left  his  library 
to   Harvard,    maintained   that   all    the   Gentile   philosophy   was 
borrowed  from  the  Jews.     This  opinion  is  set  forth  at  length  in 
his  'Court  of  the  Gentiles'  (1669-77),  which  is  recognised  as  a 
work  of  far  wider  learning  than  Stanley's  History  of  Philosophy*. 
His  namesake  Thomas  Gale  (c.  1635 — 1702),  Scholar  of  West- 
minster and  Fellow  of  Trinity,  was  Professor  of 
Greek  at  Cambridge  (1666-72),  High  Master  of  St 
Paul's  (1672-97),  and  Dean  of  York  (1697 — 1702).    His  published 
works  include  an  edition  of  Timaeus  Locrus,  De  Anima  Mundi 
(1670);  the  Opuscula  Mythologica,  Ethica,  et  Physica  (1671);  the 
Historiae   Poeticae   Scriptores  Antiqui  (1675)  and   the  Rhetor es 
Selecti  Graeci  et  Latini  (1676).    These  were  followed  by  the  editio 
princeps  of  lamblichus,  De  Mysteriis  (1678),  in  the  preface  of 
which  he  states  that   he  had  received  from  Isaac  Vossius  the 
1  Tulloch,  ii  201.  2  ib.  ii  478  f.  3  Hallam,  iii  303*. 


CHAP.  XX.]      CUDWORTH.      THE   GALES.      EVELYN.  355 

original  MS,  'quod  nunc  primum  edo'.  He  also  produced  editions 
of  Herodotus  and  Cicero,  and  of  the  Latin  historians  of  Britain 
(1687-91).  In  1695  we  find  Evelyn  dining  at  St  Paul's  with  Dr 
Gale,  'who  showed  me  many  curious  passages  out  of  some  ancient 
Platonists'  MSS  concerning  the  Trinity,  which  this  great  and  learned 
person  would  publish,  with  many  other  rare  things,  if  he  was  en- 
couraged, and  eased  of  the  burden  of  teaching'1.  Two  years  later 
he  became  Dean  of  York,  but  no  further  work  of  his  was  published, 
until  his  posthumous  edition  of  the  'Antonine  Itinerary'  was  pro- 
duced in  1709  by  his  son  Roger  Gale,  the  antiquarian,  who  left 
a  large  collection  of  his  father's  MSS  to  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge,— chief  among  which  is  the  celebrated  MS  of  the  Lexicon 
of  Photius2. 

The  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  is  marked  by  an 
interest  in  Lucretius.     In  1656  the  first  book  was 

Evelyn 

translated    into    English    verse    by    John    Evelyn 
(1620 — I7o6)3,   with   a  lengthy  but  rather  trivial  commentary4. 
Eighteen  years  later  we  find  him  writing  to  Meric  Casaubon  : — 
'you  may  be  sure  I  was  very  young,  and  therefore  very  rash,  or 
ambitious,  when  I  adventured  upon  that  knotty  piece'.     He  adds 
that,  'to  charm  his  anxious  thoughts  during  those  sad  and  calami- 
tous times',  he  had  gone  through  the  remaining  five  books,  but 
that  his  rendering  'still  lies  in  the  dust  of  his  study,  where  'tis  like 
to  be  for  ever  buried'5.    A  year  later,  a  verse  translation  of  the  six 
books  was  presented  to  the  earl  of  Anglesey  by  Mrs 
Lucy  Hutchinson,  far  better  known  as  the  writer  of     Hutchinaon 
the  Life  of  Col.  Hutchinson  (1615 — 1664)"  and  of 
the  'Principles  of  the  Christian  Religion'.     In  the  latter  'there  is 
hardly  any  writer,  sacred  or  profane,  Jewish,  Greek  or  Roman ; 
hardly  any  schoolman  or  modern  commentator,  whose  opinions 
are  not  considered  in  greater  or  less  detail'7.     In  her  translation 

1  Diary,  29  Oct.  1695  (ii  337). 

2  M.  R.  James,  Catalogue  of  Western  MSS ,  ii  Pref,  and  p.  190. 

3  Diary -etc.,  i  314,  iii  72-8. 

4  Munro  in  Journ.  Cl.  and  S.  Philol.  iv  124. 
8  Diary  etc. ,  iii  247. 

6  Portraits  of  both  in  Peterhouse  Library. 

7  Munro,  I.e.  iv  122. 

23—2 


356  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVII. 

of  Lucretius,  she  denounces  the  poet  as  'this  Dog',  and  'the 
foppish  casuall  dance  of  attorns'  as  an  impious  and  execrable 
doctrine1.  Her  work  remains  in  MS2.  Seven  years  later  a  ren- 
dering in  verse  was  published  by  Thomas  Creech 
(1659 — 1700),  Scholar  of  Wadham,  Fellow  of  All 
Souls,  and  head-master  of  Sherborne.  His  edition  of  Lucretius 
(1695)  was  published  by  the  Oxford  Press,  and,  'owing  to  the 
clearness  and  brevity  of  the  notes',  remained  long  in  use.  The 
compiler  of  this  work  has  been  described  as  'a  man  of  sound  and 
good  taste,  but... of  somewhat  arrogant  and  supercilious  temper'3. 
Besides  editing  and  translating  Lucretius4,  he  produced  renderings 
of  Horace5,  Theocritus  and  Manilius,  with  selections  from  Ovid, 
Juvenal,  and  Plutarch. 

Anacreon  and  Horace  were  edited  by  William  Baxter  (1650 — 

1723), — Richard  Baxter's  nephew,  who  was  educated 

at   Harrow,  and   became   master   of  the  Mercers' 

school.     Under  the  title  De  Analogia,  seu  arle  Latinae  Linguae 

Commentarius  (1679),  he  produced  the  first  Latin  Grammar  of  a 

more  than  elementary  type  that  had  appeared  in 

England.     John  Hudson  (1662 — 1719)  of  Queen's 

College,  Oxford,  Fellow  and  Tutor  of  University  and  Librarian  of 

the  Bodleian,  edited  Thucydides  (1696),  Josephus,  and  the  minor 

Greek  Geographers  (1698 — 1712). 

The  year  1697  was  the  date  of  Potter's  Antiquities  of  Greece, 

the   early  work   of  John  Potter  (c.    1674 — 1747), 

Fellow  of  Lincoln,  and  afterwards  editor  of  Clement, 

bishop  of  Oxford,  and  archbishop  of  Canterbury.    The  same  year 

was  the  date  of  Evelyn's  Discourse  on  Medals,  and 

Dryden 

of  Dryden's  Virgil.  The  latter  was  keenly  criticised 
by  Swift  and  Bentley.  It  contains  many  fine  lines6;  but,  as  a 
whole,  it  is  perhaps  less  successful  than  his  renderings  of  Horace, 
and  of  Persius  and  Juvenal,  authors  better  suited  to  his  strong 

1  Munro,  /.  c.  iv  128  f.  2  British  Museum,  Add.  19,333. 

3  Munro's  Lucretius,  i  i  Js. 

4  Cp.  Prior's  Satire  on  the  Modern  Translators  in  the  Cambridge  ed.  of 
Prior,  ii  (1907)  50. 

6  Cp.  Pope's  Imitation  of  Ep.  i  6. 
9  Hallam,  iii  488*. 


CHAP.  XX.]       CREECH.      DODWELL.      BARNES.  357 

and  vehement  style.     The  death  of  Dryden  (1631 — 1700)  coin- 
cides with  the  close  of  the  century. 

Our  present  period  ends  in  England  with  the  names  of  Henry 
Dodwell    and    Joshua    Barnes.       Dodwell    (1641 

J  .  H.  Dodwell 

—  1711),  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and 
Camden  Professor  of  History  in  Oxford  from  1688  to  1691  (when 
the  fact  that  he  was  a  non-juror  led  to  the  loss  of  his  professor- 
ship), is  best  known  for  his  chronological  works.  On  ceasing  to 
hold  office,  he  produced  his  treatise  De  Cydis  Veterum  (1692  and 
1701).  This  was  followed  by  his  'Annals'  of  Velleius,  Quintilian, 
and  Statius  (1698),  and  of  Thucydides  and  Xenophon  (1702). 

Joshua  Barnes  (1654—1712),  of  Emmanuel  College,  Cam- 
bridge, began  his  literary  career  by  producing  a 
fanciful  little  volume  written  in  English,  but  inter- 
spersed with  Greek  verses,  called  Gerania  or  'News  from  the 
Pygmies'  (1675)*.  Elected  Fellow  of  Emmanuel  three  years 
later,  he  became  Professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge  in  1695.  In  the 
previous  year  he  had  edited  the  whole  of  Euripides  in  a  single 
folio  volume,  an  edition  reprinted  at  Leipzig  and  Oxford.  This 
was  followed  by  his  Anacreon  (1705),  which  attained  a  second 
edition.  Finally  he  embarked  on  an  edition  of  Homer,  for  which 
he  failed  to  find  a  publisher.  Its  publication  in  1710-1  was  only 
made  possible  by  his  persuading  his  wife,  who  had  inherited  a 
small  fortune  from  her  first  husband,  that  the  real  author  of  the 
Homeric  poems  was  Solomon2.  With  all  its  imperfections,  it  has 
been  recognised  as  a  work  of  greater  utility  than  any  of  its  pre- 
decessors, and  ninety  years  elapsed  before  any  distinctly  superior 
edition  appeared3.  The  editor's  facility  in  writing  and  in  speaking 
Greek  was  remarkable.  When  the  Greek  archbishop  of  Philippo- 
polis  visited  Cambridge  in  1701,  Barnes,  at  the  request  of  the 
Vice-Chancellor,  presented  him  for  an  honorary  degree  in  a  Greek 
speech  that  is  'still  preserved'4.  In  the  preface  to  his  poem  on 

1  This  may  well  have  inspired  Swift  with  the  idea  of  Gulliver's  Travels  (as 
suggested  to  me  by  Mr  P.  Giles).  It  may  at  least  have  partly  prompted  him 
to  describe  Gulliver  as  a  student  at  Emmanuel,  especially  as  it  was  the  College 
of  Swift's  former  patron,  Sir  William  Temple. 

-  Monk's  Life  of  Bent  ley,  i  291  n.  3  ib.  i  296  f. 

4  ib.\  i52f.    The  archbishop's  reply  is  bound  up  with  a  volume  in  Ee.  12.  10 


358  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVII. 

Esther,  he  tells  us  that  he  found  it  easier  to  write  his  annotations 
in  Greek  than  in  Latin,  or  in  English.  There  was  nothing,  how- 
ever trivial,  that  he  could  not  turn  into  Greek.  Bentley,  who  fully 
acknowledged  his  'singular  industry'  and  'most  diffuse  reading'1, 
used  to  say  that  he  understood  about  as  much  Greek  'as  an  Athenian 
blacksmith',  presumably  implying  that  he  had  rather  the  'colloquial 
readiness  of  a  vulgar  mechanic'  than  the  erudition,  taste  and 
judgement  of  a  scholar2.  In  the  year  after  the  publication  of  his 
Homer  he  died,  and  was  buried  at  Hemingford  Abbot  in  Hunting- 
donshire. Greek  Anacreontics  were  written  for  his  monument, 
but  a  Cambridge  wit  suggested  a  terser  epitaph  describing  him  as 
felicis  memoriae,  expectans  juditium*.  Barnes,  in  his  edition  of 
Euripides,  had  accepted  the  'Epistles  of  Euripides'  as  the  genuine 
writings  of  the  poet ;  Dodwell,  in  his  treatise  De  Cydis  Veterum, 
had  followed  the  data  presented  by  the  '  Epistles  of  Phalaris '  in 
determining  certain  points  of  chronology.  The  errors  of  both 
were  happily  corrected  when  the  spuriousness  of  the  Epistles  of 
Phalaris  and  of  Euripides  was  conclusively  proved  by  Bentley,  who 
is  the  foremost  representative  of  the  next  period  of  Scholarship. 

in  St  John's  College  Library  (Wordsworth's  Univ.  Life  in  xviiith  cent.,  320  f); 
but  the  Greek  speech  of  presentation  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  University 
Library  or  at  the  Registry  or  at  Emmanuel,  or  among  the  Covel  papers  in 
the  British  Museum. 

1  Dissertations,  558  Wagner. 

2  Cumberland's  Memoirs,   28,  '  I  do    believe   that   Barnes  had  as  much 
Greek,  and  understood  it  about  as  well,  as  an  Athenian  blacksmith'.     Cp. 
Jebb's  Bentley,  36.     The  Biographia  Britannica  (followed  by  Allibone's  Diet. 
and  Wolf's  Kl.  Schr.  1052)  wrongly  has  'an  Athenian  cobler'. 

3  Wolf,    1053.     The  phrase  was   borrowed   from    Menage  (p.   299,  n.   i 
supra).     On  Barnes,  cp.  Monk's  Life  of  Bentley,  i  52-4,  291-7;  also  Biogr. 
Brit.,  and  Allibone. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

GERMANY  IN  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. 

GERMANY,  as  well  as  England  and  the  Netherlands,  may 
claim  a  part  in  the  career  of  Janus  Gruter  (1560 — • 
1627).  His  father  was  burgomaster  of  Antwerp, 
and  it  was  there  that  Janus  was  born.  His  mother  was  a  learned 
and  accomplished  Englishwoman,  and  it  was  from  his  mother 
that  he  learnt  Latin.  Owing  to  the  troubled  state  of  Antwerp 
during  the  struggle  of  the  Netherlands  against  the  power  of  Spain, 
his  parents  took  refuge  in  England.  From  the  age  of  seven  he 
lived  in  this  country ;  he  was  educated  at  Norwich  Grammar 
School,  and  in  1577  entered  Gonville  and  Caius  College,  Cam- 
bridge1. He  continued  his  academic  studies  at  Leyden,  and 
subsequently  held  professorships  at  Rostock  and  Wittenberg, 
where  he  published  nine  books  of  Suspiciones,  explaining  or 
emending  numerous  passages  of  Plautus,  Apuleius,  and  Seneca 
(1591).  In  1592  he  left  for  Heidelberg,  where  he  gathered 
around  him  a  goodly  band  of  eager  pupils.  At  or  near  the 
capital  of  the  Palatinate  he  spent  the  remaining  thirty-five  years 
of  his  life.  In  1602  he  was  appointed  Librarian.  In  the  same 
year  he  published  his  most  important  work,  a  Corpus  of  ancient 
Inscriptions,  begun  at  the  suggestion  of  Scaliger,  who  not  only 
supplied  a  large  part  of  the  materials,  but  also  devoted  the 
strenuous  toil  of  ten  months  to  the  construction  of  twenty-four 
admirably  methodical  Indices2.  He  produced  editions  of  at  least 
seventeen  Latin  authors,  including  Tacitus,  with  the  notes  of 
nine  previous  commentators  (1607),  Livy  (1608),  and  Cicero 
(1618),  with  the  hitherto  unpublished  collations  and  conjectures 

1  Cp.  Venn's  Annals,  410  f;  Biogr.  Hist,  i  92. 

2  Bernays,  Scaliger,  67  f ;  cp.  Hallam,  ii  290  f4. 


JANUS  GRUTER. 
From  a  photograph  of  the  portrait  in  the  University  Library,   Heidelberg. 


CHAP.  XXI.]  GRUTER.  361 

of  Guilielmus1,  and  with  unjustifiable  strictures  on  the  text  of 
Lambinus.  In  his  notes  to  the  Historiae  Augustae  Scriptores 
Minores  (1611),  he  was  the  first  to  recognise  the  existence  of  the 
'  Saxon  characters '  in  a  Palatine  MS,  written  in  what  is  now 
known  as  the  Beneventan  script2.  He  was  charged  by  Scaliger 
with  being  indifferent  to  the  merit  of  the  authors  edited,  his  only 
aim  being  the  production  of  a  book.  It  was  even  said  that  he 
never  failed  to  publish  one  in  every  year,  and  sometimes  even  in 
'every  month'.  All  other  scholars  appeared  'mere  drones  in  com- 
parison with  him'3.  The  six  volumes  of  his  Lampas  (1602-12) 
are  only  a  collection  of  dissertations  by  scholars  of  centuries 
xv — xvi.  His  collection  of  two  hundred  of  the  modern  Latin 
poets  of  Italy4  was  published  under  the  name  of  Ranutius 
G(h)erus,  an  anagram  of  Janus  Gruterus  (1608).  In  1622,  when 
Heidelberg  was  captured  by  the  troops  of  Tilly,  a  large  part  of 
his  private  library  was  destroyed,  while  the  famous  Palatine 
library,  which  was  under  his  charge,  was  assigned  as  the  spoils 
of  war  to  Maximilian  of  Bavaria.  By  Maximilian  it  was  presented 
to  Pope  Gregory  XV,  who  sent  Leo  Allatius  to  superintend  its 
transfer  to  the  Vatican  (1623).  Hence  it  is  that  so  large  a 
number  of  the  Vatican  MSS  are  still  known  as  the  codices  Palatini*. 
Some  of  them  were  afterwards  carried  off  from  Rome  to  Paris, 
and  then  sent  back  to  Heidelberg.  The  greater  part  of  the 
Palatine  Anthology  was  thus  restored  to  its  former  home.  Gruter 
never  recovered  from  the  blow  that  had  befallen  the  library ;  he 
spent  the  last  four  years  of  his  life  cultivating  his  garden  in  a 
rural  retreat  not  far  from  the  desolate  university  of  the  Palatinate6. 
'  His  eulogists  have  given  him  credit  for  acumen  and  judgement, 
and  even  for  elegance,  and  an  agreeable  variety  of  style ;  but  his 
reputation  mainly  rests  on  his  laborious  erudition'7.  The  merit 

1  p.  272  supra.  2  Traube,  in  S.  Ber.  of  Munich  Acacl.  1900,  472. 

3  Hallam,  ii  28o4. 

4  Also  of  France  (1609),  and  Belgium  (1614) ;  those  of  Germany  were  col- 
lected by  A.  F.  G.  G.  (1612);  those  of  Hungary  by  Pareiis  (1619);  while  those 
of  Scotland  were  printed  at  Amsterdam  (1637). 

5  Graeci,  cat.  by  H.  Stevenson  (1885);  Latini,  by  H.  Stevenson  jun.  and 
De  Rossi  (vol.  i,  1886). 

6  Bursian,  i  270-4.     Cp.  J.  v.  Hulst,  Jean  Grtiytere,  Liege,  1847. 

7  Hallam,  ii  28o4. 


362  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVII. 

of  dividing  the  books  of  Livy  into  the  chapters  now  in  use  belongs 
to  Gruter,  who,  in  the  preface  to  his  last  edition  of  that  historian 
(1627),  states  that  he  had  done  the  same  for  other  authors,  and 
that  future  editors  were  welcome  to  adopt  the  divisions  which  he 
had  suggested. 

As  custodian  of  the  Palatine  MSS,  he  had  always  been  ready  to 
oblige  scholars  who  publicly  acknowledged  his  aid.  The  excerpts 
from  the  MSS  of  Camerarius,  which  he  sent  to  Taubmann  (1565 — 
1613)  for  his  edition  of  Plautus  (1605-12),  were  duly  acknow- 
ledged ;  but  he  regarded  with  disfavour  and  endeavoured  to 
discredit  the  Plautine  labours  of  Philipp  Pareiis 

Pareiis 

(1576 — 1648),  who,  in  his  second  edition  of  1619, 
printed  the  first  accurate  collation  of  the  Palatine  MSS.  In  the 
third  edition  of  Taubmann's  text,  Gruter  attempted  to  reflect  on 
the  accuracy  of  Pareiis  by  stating  that  the  text  of  Taubmann  had 
been  bona  fide  collated  by  the  librarian  himself  with  that  of  the 
MSS1.  Pareiis  did  permanent  service  to  the  study  of  Plautus  by 
the  publication  of  his  Lexicon  (1614,  1634)  and  the  evidence  of 
the  Palatine  MSS  of  Terence  is  carefully  recorded  in  his  edition 
of  that  poet,  which  has  a  good  Index  (1619).  He  also  edited 
Sallust  and  Symmachus,  and  made  useful  contributions  to  Latin 
lexicography.  A  full  index  is  the  main  merit  of  his  son  Daniel's 
edition  of  Lucretius  (1631).  Much  of  the  father's  best  work  was 
done  at  Neustadt  on  the  Hardt,  where  he  was  Rector  of  the 
local  School  from  1610  until  the  capture  of  the  town  by  the 
troops  of  Spain  drove  him  to  Hanau,  where  he  held  a  similar 
position  for  nearly  all  the  twenty-five  remaining  years  of  his  life. 

Among  the  scholars  and  controversialists  connected  with  the  Palatinate  a 

place  must  be  found  for  Caspar  Schoppe  (1576 — 1649),  who 

was  born  in  the  upper  Palatinate,  near  Nuremberg,  and  studied 

at  Heidelberg,  Altdorf,   and  Ingoldstadt.      He  was  still  a  student  when  he 

produced,  in  1596,  a  volume  of  Verisimilia  on  classical  writers  of  Latin  prose, 

— a  work  evincing  critical  acumen  and  multifarious  reading,  as  well  as  vanity 

and  shameless  dishonesty.     Part  at  least  of  this  work  was  plagiarised  from  the 

books  to  which  he  had  access  in  the  library  of  his  master,  Giphanius2.    In  the 

following  year  his  criticisms  were  continued  in  the  form  of  a  series  of  Letters 

addressed  to  Scaliger  and  Casaubon  in  his  Suspectae  Lectiones,  consisting  mainly 

1  Bursian,  i  275  n.  2;  and  Ritschl's  Opnsc.  ii  125  f. 

2  C.  Nisard,  Glcuiiafeurs,  ii  12  f.     Cp.  p.  190  supra- 


CHAP.  XXI.]       PAREUS.      SCIOPPIUS.      EARTH.  363 

of  conjectures  on  Plautus  and  Apuleius.  In  the  same  year,  in  his  brief  treatise 
De  Arte  Critica,  he  illustrated  the  errors  of  the  copyists  by  means  of  examples 
taken  from  the  MSS  of  Plautus  and  Symmachus.  Having  become  a  catholic  at 
Prague  in  1598,  he  went  to  Rome,  and  served  the  papal  cause  in  Germany, 
Italy  and  Spain.  Meanwhile  he  found  time  for  criticising  Apuleius,  editing 
Varro,  De  Lingua  Lafina,  and  the  Letters  of  Symmachus,  and  producing  an 
improved  edition  of  the  Minerva  of  Sanctius.  In  1618-30  he  lived  in  retire- 
ment at  Milan,  where  he  wrote  a  '  philosophic  '  Latin  Grammar  (T628)1,  which 
passed  through  several  editions.  He  next  attacked  the  Jesuits,  and,  to  escape 
from  the  enemies  he  had  raised  against  him,  fled  for  refuge  to  Padua,  where  he 
spent  the  last  thirteen  years  of  his  life.  He  wrote  polemical  treatises  against 
the  great  protestant  scholars  Scaliger2  and  Casaubon3.  'The  Protestants, 
whom  he  had  abandoned,  and  the  Jesuits,  whom  he  would  not  join,  are  equally 
the  objects  of  his  anger'.  As  'one  of  those  restless  and  angry  spirits,  whose 
hand  is  against  all  the  world',  he  'lived  a  long  life  of  controversy'4.  His 
literary  feuds  earned  him  the  title  of  the  snarling  scholar — the  cants  gram- 
maticiis.  It  is  possibly  the  same  irritability  of  temper  that  is  symbolised  in  the 
'  quills  upon  the  fretful  porcupine '  which  is  represented  as  resting  on  the  table 
beside  which  he  stands  in  one  of  his  portraits.  Scaliger  having  inherited 
from  his  father  the  championship  of  the  cause  of  Cicero,  Scioppius  entered  the 
lists  against  the  greatest  orator  of  Rome.  He  also  attacked  the  style  of  the 
Jesuit  Latinist  Strada5,  whose  '  Italianisms'  he  exposed  to  view,  while  his  own 
style,  at  least  in  his  earlier  works,  is  disfigured  with  '  Germanisms ' 6.  The 
attack  on  Strada  has,  however,  the  merit  of  being  accompanied  by  a  valuable 
treatise  on  historic  style.  In  the  course  of  the  latter  he  attacks  the  Latinity  of 
Thuanus,  Lipsius,  Casaubon,  and  other  recent  writers. 

Schoppe  had  a  keen  controversy  with  the  Latin  versifier,  Caspar  von  Earth 
(1587 — 1658),  who,  after  travelling  abroad  for  ten  years,  lived 
mainly  at  Leipzig  and  Halle.  His  facility  in  Latin  verse  was 
early  proved  in  his  Juvenilia  (1607).  In  the  same  year  he  elaborately  edited 
the  Pseudo-Virgilian  Ciris.  In  1612  he  attacked  Schoppe  in  his  Cave  Canem, 
and  edited  Claudian.  This  was  followed  by  his  edition  of  the  '  venatic  and 
bucolic'  Latin  poets,  dedicated  to  Casaubon  (1613).  His  Statius  was  not 
published  until  1664.  Of  the  120  volumes  of  his  Adversaria,  only  60  have 
been  printed,  but  these  are  enough;  they  extend  to  1500  folio  pages,  and  to 
more  than  that  number  of  chapters7.  Mediaeval  literature  was  one  of  his  many 
interests.  He  professes  to  have  read  as  many  as  16,000  authors  of  all  kinds, 

1  Hallam,  ii  2854. 

2  Scaliger  hypobolimaeus,  1607;  cp.  Bernays,  Scaliger,  85  f,  212  f. 

3  Responsio  ad  Ep.  Cazoboni,  1615. 

4  Hallam,  ii  285*. 

5  p.  281  supra. 

6  Infainia  Famiani;  cp.  Nisard,  ii  182  f. 

7  Cp.  Hallam,  ii  28 14. 


364  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVII. 

and  he  has  been  described  by  a  contemporary  scholar  as  a  vir  nniltae  lectionis 
sed  exigui  judicii1 .  He  is  characterised  by  an  extraordinary  degree  of  vanity, 
combined  with  a  disregard  for  veracity.  For  a  time  he  counted  among  his 

friends  the  learned  physician,  Thomas   Reinesius  of  Gotha 
Remesius 

('587 — 1667),  who  was  in  correspondence  with  many  scholars. 

Reinesius  had  studied  medicine  at  Padua,  and  his  residence  in  Italy  had  led 
to  his  taking  an  interest  in  the  collection  of  Latin  Inscriptions,  but  it  was  not 
until  after  his  deatji  that  the  results  were  published  in  a  fine  folio  volume 
dated  1682.  His  wide  learning  is  attested  by  the  700  pages  of  his  Variae 
Lectiones  (1640).  At  Padua  in  1664  he  produced  a  valuable  edition  of  a  con- 
siderable fragment  of  Petronius,  which  had  been  found  at  Trau  in  Dalmatia 
in  1640. 

Thuringia  was  also  the  home  of  a   meritorious  scholar,  Wolfgang  Seber 

(1573 — 1634),  who  published   a  complete  vocabulary  to  the 

Homeric  poems,  and  editions  of  Theognis  and  Pollux.    West 

of  Thuringia  lay  the  birthplace  of  the  theologian  and  orientalist  Jacob  Weller 

(1602 — 1664),  who  in   1635  produced  a  Grammatica  Graeca 

nova,  which  deserved  praise  for  its  brevity  and  clearness,  and 

was  widely  used  in  Holland,  as  well  as  in  Germany,  down  to  the  end  of  the 

eighteenth  century,  especially  in  the  edition  prepared  by  J.  F.  Fischer,  and 

supplemented  by  the  Syntax  of  Lambert  Bos2. 

The  influence  of  Scaliger  is  exemplified  by  Heinrich  Linden- 
brog   of   Hamburg  (1570 — 1642),    who    produced 
a   learned   edition   of   Censorinus,  which   was   re- 
printed at  Leyden  and  Cambridge;  while  his  brother,  Friedrich 
(1573 — 1648),  edited  many  other  Latin  authors,  such  as  Ammi- 
anus  Marcellinus,  Terence  and  Statius  (with  the  scholia  on  both), 
besides  collecting  the  earliest  Latin  historians  of  Germany.    Both 
were  pupils  of  Scaliger  at  Leyden  (1594-6),  and  Heinrich  was 
specially  interested  in  Latin  Inscriptions3. 

Another  native  of  Hamburg,  Lucas  Holstein,  or  Holstenius 
(1596 — 1661),    after   studying   at    Leyden,    visited 

Holstenius 

England  and  Prance,  joined  the  Roman  com- 
munion and  went  to  Rome,  where  he  lived  from  1627  to  his 
death,  as  librarian  of  the  Barberini  palace  and  of '  the  Vatican. 
His  published  works  include  an  edition  of  certain  treatises  of 
Porphyry,  and  the  editio  princeps  of  Arrian's  Cynegeticus  (1644). 

1  Burman's  Sylloge,  ii  763. 

2  Bursian,  i  301 ;  cp.  Hallam,  ii  275*. 

3  Zieharth,  in  Btitrage  zttr  Gelehrten-Geschichle  des  xz'ii  Jahrh.  (Hamburg, 
?).  73—i6i. 


CHAP.  XXI.]    LINDENBROG.      HOLSTENIUS.      MORHOF.     365 

He  formed  the  design  of  editing  all  the  minor  Greek  Geographers, 
and  his  familiarity  with  ancient  Geography  is  proved  by  his 
posthumously  published  notes  on  Stephanus  of  Byzantium.  The 
geography  of  Italy  and  of  the  ancient  world  in  general  was  studied 
by  the  Jesuit  Athanasius  Kircher  (1601 — 1680), 

Kircher 

who  was  driven  by  the  victorious  Swedes  from 
Wiirzburg,  and  found  a  refuge  in  Rome,  as  a  professor  in  the 
Collegio  Romano.  One  of  his  best  works  is  his  illustrated 
historical  and  topographical  account  of  Latium  (1671).  He  is 
famous  as  the  founder  of  the  Roman  Museum  of  Antiquities 
known  as  the  Museo  Kircheriano,  which  still  includes  his  own 
collection  of  antique  Roman  and  Italian  coins1. 

The  study  of  Latin  style  is  exemplified  in  the  works  de  Latini- 
tate  falso  and  merito  suspecta  (1665-9),  published 
by  the  Berlin  schoolmaster  and  librarian,  Johannes 
Vorst  (1623 — 1696).    The  history  of  literature  is  meanwhile  repre- 
sented by  Jonsen  (1624 — 1659),  a  master  of  the 

Tonscn 

school  at   Frankfurt,   who  in  the  last  year  of  his 

life    produced  a  work   De   Scriptoribus   Historiae  Philosophicae, 

worthy  to  stand  beside  that  of  Vossius  on  the  Greek  Historians. 

Only  the  early  portion  of  a  literary  history  of  the   world  was 

completed  in  the  same  year  by  Peter  Lambeck,  of 

Hamburg  (1628 — 1680),  a  nephew  of  Holstenius. 

In   the   course  of  his   critical  notes  on   the  Nodes  Atticae,  he 

conclusively  proved  that  the  author's  name  was  A(ulus)  Gellius, 

and    not  Agellius,  as   had  been  supposed   by  mediaeval  writers 

and   even  in  later  times  by  Lipsius.      He   joined  the    Roman 

Church,  and,  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  became  librarian  at 

Vienna,  leaving  behind  him  eight  folio  volumes  on  the  history 

of  the  MSS  which  had  been  under  his  charge  from   1663  to  his 

death. 

In  contrast  to  the  Prodromus  Historiae  Literariae  (which 
Lambeck  failed  to  bring  down  any  further  than  the  times  of  Moses 
and  Cadmus),  in  contrast  also  to  the  fragmentary  Tractatio  de 
Poly  mat hia  of  Wowerius2,  we  have  the  completed  fabric  of  the 
Polyhistor  of  Daniel  George  Morhof  of  Wismar 
(1639 — -1690),  who  left  a  professorship  at  Rostock 

1  Bursian,  i  310;  Urlichs,  •;$-.  '2  p.  306  supra. 


366  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVII. 

(1661-5)  to  be  one  of  the  first  professors  at  the  newly-founded 
university  of  Kiel  (1665-90).  His  Polyhistor,  liferarius,  philo- 
sophicus,  et  practicus,  is  a  great  encyclopaedic  work  divided  into 
three  parts.  The  early  part  alone  was  printed  two  years  before 
the  author's  death.  The  whole  was  edited  by  Moller  in  1704, 
and  by  the  encyclopaedic  author,  J.  A.  Fabricius  of  Hamburg, 
in  1731  and  1747.  We  are  here  concerned  with  the  Polyhistor 
literarins  alone.  This  is  a  vast  survey  of  classical  learning,  divided 
into  seven  books,  (i)  bibliothecarius,  on  the  history  of  literature, 
on  bibliography,  and  on  libraries ;  (2)  methodicus,  on  the  best 
method  of  studying  Greek  and  Latin ;  (3)  Trapao-Kcvao-riKo?,  on 
making  notes  and  abstracts  of  the  authors  studied,  together  with 
the  first  draft  of  a  dictionary  of  metaphors,  and  lists  of  topics 
for  laudatory  poems  etc. ;  (4)  grammaticus,  on  language  and 
literature;  (5)  criticus,  on  writers  on  criticism  and  antiquities;  (6) 
oratorius,  on  rhetoricians  and  orators  ancient  and  modern ;  and 
(7)  poeticus,  on  ancient  and  modern  writers  on  the  art  of  poetry, 
and  ancient  Greek  and  modern  Latin  poets,  the  ancient  Latin 
poets  having  already  been  reviewed  in  (4).  In  this  great  work 
Morhof  has  embodied  his  teaching  as  a  professor  at  Kiel ;  he 
reviews  the  books  in  every  department  of  learning  in  an  approxi- 
mately chronological  order ;  supplies  a  brief  but  judicious  notice 
of  each ;  and,  by  his  copious  erudition,  makes  amends  for  certain 
defects  in  the  distribution  of  his  subject1.  In  his  minor  works 
he  defended  Livy  from  the  charge  of  Patavinitas  (1685),  and 
also  wrote  on  purity  of  Latin  style  (ed.  1725)*. 

His  contemporary,  Marquard  Gude  of  Rendsburg  in  Schleswig- 
Holstein  (1635 — ^Sg),  is  less  distinguished  as  a 

Gudc 

scholar  than  as  a  patron  of  learning  and  a  collector 
of  MSS.  During  his  travels  in  Italy  he  copied  numerous  inscrip- 
tions that  were  finally  published  by  Franz  Hessel  (1731).  His 
valuable  collection  of  Greek  and  Latin  MSS  (including  the  Greek 
lexicon  known  as  the  lexicon  Gudianuni)  now  forms  part  of  the 
library  at  Wolfenbiittel3. 

For  a  large  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  there  was  a  flourish- 


1  Cp.  Hallam,  i  p.  v;  iii  55 14. 

2  Bursian,  i  304-6.  3  Bursian,  i  323  f. 


CHAP.  XXI.]     BERNEGGER.     FREINSHEIM.     BOEKLER.      367 

ing  school  of  Roman  History  at  Strassburg,  where  a  university  was 
founded  in  1621.  The  editions  of  the  Roman  historians  published 
by  this  school  were  distinguished  for  the  excellence  of  their 
indices  of  subject-matter  as  well  as  language.  The  founder  of  the 
school  was  Matthias  Berneeger  of  Hallstadt  (is  8  2 

Bernegger 

—  1640),  who  edited  Justin,  select  Lives  from 
Suetonius,  and  the  whole  of  Tacitus,  with  explanatory  notes, 
original  and  selected  (1638).  The  model  of  this  school  was  the 
great  editor  of  Tacitus,  Justus  Lipsius1.  Bernegger's  Tacitus 
included  many  excellent  notes  and  emendations  due  to  his  pupil 
and  son-in-law,  Johannes  Caspar  Freinsheim  (1608 

.  .  Freinsheim 

— looo),  the  foremost  representative  of  the  school. 
Freinsheim  lived  at  Upsala  in  1642-51,  and  passed  the  last  four 
years  of  his  life  as  an  honorary  professor  at  Heidelberg.  He 
produced  excellent  editions  of  Florus2,  and  of  the  first  four  books 
of  the  Annals  of  Tacitus.  In  his  edition  of  Curtius,  he  endeavours 
to  repair  the  loss  of  the  first  two  books  by  a  composition  of  his 
own,  which  is  the  best  of  the  three  attempts  to  supply  the 
deficiency.  A  far  more  extensive  work  is  his  restoration  of  no 
less  than  sixty  of  the  lost  books  of  Livy  (1654),  a  work  which, 
although  it  lacks  the  charm  of  the  historian's  style,  is  stored  with 
an  ample  supply  of  facts,  and  rich  in  the  fruits  of  careful  research. 
Even  his  posthumous  edition  of  Phaedrus  (1664)  is  inspired  by 
an  interest  in  history,  for  each  of  the  fables  is  illustrated  by  a 
historical  incident3.  Another  pupil  of  Bernegger, 
Johann  Heinrich  Boekler  (1610 — 1672),  was  an 
influential  teacher  at  Strassburg  in  1631-48,  and  1652-72,  and 
at  Upsala  in  the  interval  between  these  two  periods.  He  edited 
Velleius  Paterculus,  and  the  Histories  of  Tacitus,  produced  a 
commentary  on  Nepos,  collated  MSS  of  Polybius,  and  published 
an  edition  of  Herodian.  His  pupil  and  son-in-law, 
Ulrich  Obrecht  (1646 — 1673),  edited  the  Scriptores 

1  Cp.  Biinger  (Strassburg,  1893). 

2  1632,  1636,  1655,  1669. 

3  For  correspondence  between  Bernegger  and  Freinsheim  (1629-36),  see 
E.  Keller,  in  Beitriige   zur  Gelehrten-Geschichte  des  xvii  Jahrh.  (Hamburg, 
1905),  i — 72;  Reifferscheid,  Quellen  zur  Gesch.d,  geistigen  I.ebens... \ijahrh,, 
p.  960. 


368  GERMANY.  [CENT.  XVII. 

Historiae  Augustae,  and  the  whole  of  Quintilian.  Another  pupil 
of  Boekler,  Johann  Scheffer  (1621 — 1672),  who, 
like  Boekler,  became  a  professor  at  Upsala,  where 
he  spent  the  last  31  years  of  his  life,  produced  many  editions  of 
Greek  and  Latin  authors,  including  Hyginus,  Petronius,  Justin, 
and  Phaedrus,  but  he  perversely  opposed  the  ordinary  opinion  as 
to  the  authorship  of  the  first  two  of  these  works.  His  illustrated 
treatises  on  the  ships,  the  carriages,  and  even  the  necklaces  of  the 
ancients,  are  in  good  repute ;  he  was  also  an  artist,  and  wrote  on 
the  history  and  the  technique  of  ancient  painting1. 

The  historical  studies  characteristic  of  Strassburg  have  their 
counterpart  at  Helmstadt,  near  Magdeburg,  in  the 
learned  labours  of  Hermann  Conring  (1606 — 1681), 
who  was  for  half  a  century  the  ornament  of  the  university  of 
Helmstadt,  being  successively  professor  of  Physics,  Medicine,  and 
Politics.  Apart  from  encyclopaedic  works  on  the  first  two  of  these 
subjects,  he  produced,  in  connexion  with  the  third  of  his  varied 
interests,  an  edition  of  the  Germania  of  Tacitus,  with  excerpts 
from  other  writers  on  German  history.  He  also  edited  the 
Politics  of  Aristotle,  with  many  valuable  suggestions  on  the  Text, 
and  with  a  collection  of  the  fragments  of  the  lost  TroXtTeiat2. 

The  work  of  Spanheim  (1629 — 1710),  who  belongs  to 
Germany  by  his  descent  and  also  by  his  diplomatic  services,  has 
already  been  noticed  in  connexion  with  his  place  of  education  in 
the  Netherlands3.  While  Spanheim  had  a  wide  knowledge  of 
classical  literature  as  well  as  of  numismatics,  his  comparatively 
short-lived  successor,  Lorenz  Beger  of  Heidelberg 

Beger 

(1653 — 1705),  confined  his  researches  to  the 
antiquarian  field  alone.  He  was  the  custodian  of  the  cabinet  of 
antiques  at  Heidelberg,  and  of  the  collection  of  works  of  ancient 
art  at  Berlin,  and  his  Thesaurus  Brandenburgicus  (1696)  contains 
a  large  selection  of  ancient  coins  and  gems,  with  an  ample 
commentary4. 

The  scholar  and  archaeologist  Spanheim,  and   the   eminent 
jurist  Thomasius,  played  an  important  part  in  promoting  in  1694 

1  Bursian,  i  325—335 ;  Urlichs,  752. 

2  Bursian,  i  336-8.  s  p.  327  supra. 
*  Bursian,  i  342-7- 


CHAP.  XXL]       SCHEFFER.      CONRING.      CELLARIUS.  369 

the  foundation  of  the  university  of  Halle  by  Friedrich,  Elector  of 
Brandenburg,  who  afterwards  became  the  first  King  of  Prussia. 
The  professorship  of  Eloquence  and  History,  and  the  office  of 
University  Librarian,  were  assigned  to  the  many-sided  scholar, 
Christoph  Cellarius  (1638 — 1707),  the  author  of 

Cellanus 

numerous  works  on  Grammar  and  Style,  and  on 
Ancient  History  and  Geography.  Among  his  most  popular 
works  were  his  Antibarbarus,  his  Orthographia  Latina,  his  new 
edition  of  Faber's  Thesaurus,  and  his  Historia  and  Geographia 
Antiqua.  His  most  important  work  is  his  Notitia  Orbis  Antiqui, 
in  two  quarto  volumes  (1701-6),  with  numerous  maps.  Several 
of  his  fifteen  editions  of  Latin  historians  and  other  authors  were 
accompanied  by  maps,  which  were  then  a  novelty  in  classical 
works.  He  also  broke  new  ground  in  starting  a  Collegium 
politioris  doctrinae  or  elegantioris  litteraturae,  the  precursor  of  the 
Seminarium  which  has  become  an  established  institution  in  the 
universities  of  Germany1. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  century  surveyed  in  the  five  preceding 
chapters,  the  first  enthusiasm  aroused  by  the  Revival  of  Learning 
had  already  begun  to  languish  in  Italy  and  in  other  parts  of 
Europe.  It  was  an  exceptional  indication  of  an  interest  in  accu- 
rate scholarship  when  a  treatise  on  the  Latin  particles  prepared 
by  the  Italian  Jesuit,  Horatius  Tursellinus  (b.  1545),  was  printed 
at  Mainz  in  1602  as  the  first  of  all  the  precursors  of  the  elaborate 
edition  published  by  Hand  three  centuries  after  the  birth  of  the 
original  author.  During  the  seventeenth  century  the  learning  of 
Italy  was  almost  exclusively  concentrated  on  local  and  general 
archaeology2.  It  was  partly  in  consequence  of  the  predominating 
influence  of  the  Roman  Church  that  Italy  had  been  diverted 
from  the  study  of  the  pagan  Classics,  and  that  France  had  been 
deserted  by  Scaliger  in  1593,  by  Casaubon  in  1610,  and  by  Salma- 
sius  in  1631.  In  the  land  which  they  had  left,  those  three  great 
protestant  scholars  were  succeeded  by  Jesuits  such  as  Sirmond, 
Petavius  and  Vigerus3,  and  by  jurists,  such  as  Peiresc,  Heraldus 

1  Bursian,  i  348 — 351;  cp.  Creuzer,  Zur  Gesch.  der  Phil.  120  f. 

2  Chap.  xvii. 

3  To  these  may  be  added  Rigault  (1577 — 1654),  editor  of  Onosander  and 
S.     II.  24 


370  RETROSPECT.  [CENT.  XVII. 

and  Valesius1,  most  of  whom  were  surpassed  in  erudition,  on  the 
catholic  side,  by  the  great  lexicographer,  Du  Cange,  and  the 
learned  palaeographer,  Mabillon2.  The  age  of  Louis  XIV,  the 
founder  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  (1663),  was  glorified  in 
1687-92  by  Perrault,  who,  after  a  superficial  survey  of  ancient 
and  modern  learning,  assigned  the  palm  to  the  latter,  and  thus 
gave  the  signal  for  a  controversy  which  broke  out  once  more  in 
the  days  of  Bentley3.  Meanwhile,  in  the  Netherlands,  classical 
learning  was  ably  represented  by  men  like  G.  J.  Vossius  and 
Grotius,  by  Daniel  Heinsius  and  his  distinguished  son,  by  J.  F. 
Gronovius,  Graevius  and  Perizonius4.  In  England  the  century 
was  adorned  by  the  names  of  Savile  and  Bacon,  Gataker  and 
Selden,  More  and  Cudworth,  Milton  and  Dryden,  while,  towards 
its  close,  the  errors  in  historical  or  literary  criticism  which  had 
marred  the  meritorious  labours  of  Dodwell  and  of  Barnes  were 
destined  to  be  triumphantly  refuted  in  the  Dissertations  on  the 
Epistles  of  Phalaris  and  of  Euripides*.  Lastly,  in  Germany,  the 
age  of  the  Thirty  Years  War  (like  that  of  the  Civil  War  in 
England)  was  unfavourable  to  the  peaceful  pursuits  of  learning. 
But,  happily,  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  century  were 
marked  by  the  notable  names  of  the  cosmopolitan  scholars, 
Gruter  and  Spanheim,  both  of  whom  had  points  of  contact  with 
England,  while,  in  its  latter  half,  the  name  that  perhaps  lingers 
longest  in  the  memory  is  that  of  Morhof,  the  profoundly  learned 
author  of  the  Polyhistor6.  On  the  whole,  it  was  a  century  of 
multifarious  erudition  rather  than  minute  and  accurate  scholar- 
ship, a  century  largely  concerned  with  the  exploration  of  Latin 
rather  than  Greek  literature;  but  a  new  age  of  historical  and 
literary  criticism,  founded  on  a  more  intelligent  study  of  Greek, 
was  close  at  hand  with  Bentley  for  its  hero.  We  cannot,  however, 
forget  that  it  was  in  this  century  that  the  principles  independently 
applied  by  Niebuhr  to  the  critical  study  of  early  Roman  History 
were  in  part  anticipated  by  the  acumen  of  Perizonius7. 

Artemidorus;  the  Scriptores  Oneirocritici...Agrarii  etc.   (1614);  Juvenal  and 
Sulpicia  (1616);  Tertullian  (1635),  Minucius  Felix  and  Cyprian  (1643). 

1  Samuel  Petit  (1594 — 1643),  author  of  the  Leges  Atticae  (1635),  belongs 
to  the  same  group. 

2  Chap,  xviii.  3  p.  403  infra.  4  Chap.  xix. 

5  Chap.  xx.  6  Chap.  xxi.  7  p.  331  supra. 


BOOK    IV. 
THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 


(a)  Nobis  et  ratio  et  res  ipsa  centum  codicibus  potiores  sunt. 
(b)  Noli  Libraries  solos  venerari ;  sed  per  te  sapere  aude,  ut 
singula  ad  orationis  ductuin  sermonisque  genium  exigens  ita  demum 
pronunties  sententiamque  feras. 

BENTLEY,  on  Horace,  Carm.  iii  27,  15,  and  Praef.,  1711. 

Conjecturas  iugeniosas  laudabat  magis  quam  probabat;  el  nihil 
magis  quam  dulces  illas  ingenii  illecebras  in  judicando  cavendum 

monebat. 

ERNESTI,  De  Gesnero  ad  Ruhnkenium,   1762. 


Movebat  ipsa  Graecae  linguae  dignitas,  ut  pro  viribus  ad  earn 
illustrandam  aliquid  conferrem ;  disciplinarum  nempe  et  artium 
omnium  matrem,  qua  stante  stcterunt  omnia  vitae  rivilis  ornamenta; 
qua  deficiente  ilia  quoquc  dilapsa  sunt. 

MONTFAUCON,  Palaeographia  Graeca,  Ep.\).  5,   1708. 

Recte  vir  magnus  statuebat,  Latinam  linguam  Graecae  sic 
aplam  et  nexam  esse,  ut,  qui  alterant  ab  altera  distrahat  ac  divcllat, 
animi  e.t  corporis  discidium  inducere  videatur. 

RUHNKEN,  Elogium  Hemsterhusii,  p.  43,   I7892. 

24 — 2 


History  of  Scholarship  in  the  Eighteenth  Century. 


Italy 

France 

Netherlands 

England 

Germany 

Montfaucon 

Le  Clerc 

Bentley 

Leibnitz 

1655-1741 

1657-1736 

1662—1742 

1646  —  1716 

Ficoroni 

Burette 

P.  Burtnan  I 

Maittaire 

J.  A.  Fabricius 

1664—1747 

1665-1747 

1668—1741 

1668-1747 

1668—1736 

Muratori 

Uanduri 

Kiister 

Wasse 

1672—1750 

1671-1743 

1670  —  1716 

1672—1738 

Maffei 

C.  Capperonnier 

Bos 

Ruddiman 

1675-1755 

1671-1744 

1670—1717 

1674-1757 

Bouhier 

Duker 

S.  Clarke 

1673-1746 

1670—1752 

1675—1729 

Sanadon 

Davies 

Hederich 

1676—1733 

1679—1732 

1675—1748 

Facciolati 

Middleton 

C.  G.  Schwarz 

1682—1769 
Forcellini 

Olivetus 

Havercamp 

1683—1750 
Pearce 

I675—I75I 
Bergler 

1688—1768 

1682—1768 

1684—1742 

1690—1774 

1680—1746 

Gori 

Pellerin 

Drakenborch         Markland 

Heinecke 

1691—1757 

1684—1782 

1684—1748 

1693—1776 

1681—1741 

Lami 

Freret 

Hemsterhuvs 

Spence 

Heumann 

1697-1770 
Lagomarsini 

1688  —  1749 
F&urmont 

1685-1766 
Wesseling 

1699—1768 
J.  Taylor 

1681—1794 
Heusinger 

1698-1773 

1690—1745 

1692—1764 

1704—1766 

1690—1751 

Corsini 

De  Caylus 

J.  F.  Re'tz 

Heath 

J.  M.  Gesner 

1702—1765 

1692—1765 

1695-1778 

1704—1766 

1691  —  1761 

Piranesi 

Mariette 

D'Orville 

Dawes 

Walch 

1707—1778 

1694—1775 

1696—1751 

170*—  1766 

1693—1775 

Rezzonico 

D'Anville 

Oudendorp 

Toup 

Funck 

1709—1785 

1697—1782 

1696  —  1761 

1713—1785 

1693—1777 

Paciaudi 

J.  Capperonnier 

J.  Alberti 

Stuart 

Brucker 

1710—1785 

1716-1775 

1698—1762 

1713-1788 

1696  —  1770 

Foggini 

Bartheletny 

Abresch 

R.  Wood 

Kortte 

1713-1783 

1716-1795 

1699—1782 

1717—1771 

1698-1731 

Mingarelli 

Brotier 

P.  Burman  II 

Revett 

Damm 

1722—1793 
Bandini 

1723-1789 
Larchtr 

1714-1778 
Valckenaer 

1720  —  1804 
Tyrwhitt 

1699^1778 
J.  F.  Christ 

1726—1803 
Ignarra 

1726—1812 
Brunck* 

1715-1785 
Schrader 

1730—1786 
W.  Hamilton 

1700—1756 
J.  A.  Ernesti 

1728—1808 

1729—1803 

1722—1783 

1730—1803 

1707—1781 

Lanzi 

D'Agincourt 

Ruhnken 

M  usgrave 

Rei>ke 

1732—1810 

1730—1814 

Oberlin* 

1723-1798 
Pierson 

1732—1780 
Twining 

1716—1774 
Winckelmann 

1735-1806 

I73I—17SB 

1735—1804 

1717—1768 

Levesque 

Koen 

Home  Tooke 

Lessing 

1736—1812 

1736—1767 

1736  —  1812 

1729  —  1781 

Morcelli 

Gibbon 

Heyne 

I737—I82I 

J737—  '794 
Townley 

1729  —  1812 
F.  W.  Reiz 

1737-1805 

I733—I790 

R.  Chandler 

Raschc 

1738—1810 

1733-1805 

Amaduzzi 

Schweighauser* 

Adam 

Wieland 

1742—1792 

1742—1830 

1741—1809 

I733—I8I3 

Marini 

J.  A.  Capperonnier 

Mitford 

Scheller 

1742—1815 
Garatoni 

1745—1820 
Sainte-Croix 

San  ten 

1744—1827 
W.  Jones 

I735-I803 
Eckhel 

1743—1817 

1746—1806 

1746—1798 

1746—1794 

J737—  17& 

Morelli 

Luzac 

Parr 

Herder 

'745—1819 

1746—1807 

1747—1825 

1744-1803 

E.  Q.  Visconti 

Choiseul-Gouffier 

Sluiter 

Payne  Knight 

W.  Heinse 

1751—1818 

1752—1817 

1782—1815 

1750—1824 

1746—1803 

Fea 

Viiloison 

Wyttenbach 

H.  Homer 

Schiitz 

1753—1836 

1753—1805 

1746  —  1820 

I753—I79I 

1747-1832 

Gail 

Wakefield 

J.  G.  Schneider 

1755—1829 

1756  —  1801 

1750  —  1822 

Millin 

T.  Burgess 

1759—1818 

1756-1837 

Bast* 

Porson 

F.  A.  Wolf 

1771—1811 

1759—1808 

1759-1824 

*  Alsace. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

ITALY  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

IN  the  eighteenth  century  some  of  the  greatest  achievements 
of  Italian  scholarship  were  connected  with  Latin  lexicography 
and  the  study  of  Cicero.  Before  the  publication  of  Forcellini's 
great  lexicon  in  1771,  all  the  Latin  dictionaries  in  general  use  in 
Italy  and  elsewhere  were  founded  more  or  less  on  'Calepinus'. 
The  author,  Ambrogio  da  Calepio,  or  Ambrosius  Calepinus 
(c.  1440 — 1511),  was  born  at  Calepio  between  Bergamo  and 
Brescia,  entered  the  Augustinian  Order  at  Bergamo,  and  published 
his  dictionary  at  Reggio  in  1502,  dedicating  his  work  to  the 
Senate  and  People  of  Bergamo.  He  prepared  a  new  edition  in 
1509,  which  he  inscribed  with  the  name  of  the  Superior  of  his 
Order,  Egidio  of  Viterbo.  In  1511  he  died,  and  his  corrections 
were  incorporated  in  an  edition  published  in  1521.  In  his 
preface  he  tells  the  Senate  and  People  of  Bergamo  that  '  for 
many  years  he  had  extracted  from  authors,  both  catholic  and 
profane,  interpretations  of  words  rather  for  his  own  use  than  for 
publication,  preferring  the  learning  of  Ambrose,  Jerome,  Augustine, 
to  the  cavils  of  Valla.  He  professes  to  excel  all  former  writers 
in  copiousness,  in  exactness  of  citation,  in  the  explanation  of 
prepositions ;  but  is  notwithstanding  conscious  of  innumerable 
defects'1.  His  dictionary  marked  a  great  advance  on  the  mediaeval 
glossaries,  and  on  the  various  vocabularies  of  the  last  quarter 
of  the  fifteenth  century2.  It  was  widely  used  in  Europe,  and  it 

1  Ed.  1502,  quoted  by  Prof.  J.  E.  B.  Mayor,  Journal  of  Cl.  and  S.  Philology, 
ii  278. 

2  Tortellius  (1471),  Junianus    Maius  (1475),   Reuchlin  (1475),    Dionysius 
Novariensis  (1488). 


374  ITALY.  [CENT.  xvm. 

even  added  to  the  French  language  a  new  word  Calepin,  '  a  note- 
book, or  common -place- book '.  Edited  again  and  again,  and 
overlaid  with  many  additions,  it  was  denounced  as  follows  by  the 
learned  Dane,  Olaus  Borrichius  (1626 — 1690)  : — Bonus  ille 
Calepinus  Mies  cactus  et  recoctus  parum  sapit1.  In  France, 
Robert  Estienne  had  been  urged  to  reprint  it  in  its  original  form, 
but  the  proposal  ended  in  his  producing  a  Thesaurus  of  his  own, 
with  the  aid  of  Budaeus  and  others  (i543)2.  This  was  followed 
by  Faber's  Thesaurus  (1571),  in  which  all  the  derivatives  were 
arranged  under  the  words  from  which  they  were  derived3.  A 
series  of  revisions  of  Calepinus,  Estienne,  and  Faber,  appeared  in 
Germany,  culminating  in  J.  M.  Gesner's  Novus  Thesaurus  (1749). 

Meanwhile,  the  students  of  Latin  in  Italy  were  in  general 
content  to  rely  on  the  successive  editions  of  the  work  of  their 
countryman,  Calepinus.  In  1680  a  library  and  a  well-equipped 
printing  press  were  established  at  Padua  by  Cardinal  Gregorius 
Barbadicus,  who  in  1663  had  been  promoted  from  the  bishopric 
of  Bergamo,  the  former  home  of  Calepinus,  to  that  of  Padua,  the 
future  home  of  Forcellini,  whose  fame  was  long  unjustly  obscured 
by  that  of  Facciolati. 

Jacopo  Facciolati  (1682 — 1769)  was  born  at  Torregia  in  the 
Euganean  hills,  and  Aegidio  Forcellini  (1688 — 

Facciolati 

1768)  at  Campo  Sampiero,  near  Treviso.  Both 
were  of  humble  birth  and  of  excellent  abilities.  From  their 
village-homes  in  the  S.W.  and  the  N.E.  of  Padua,  they  came  to  the 
seminary  of  that  place,  Facciolati  at  the  age  of  twelve,  in  1694, 
and  Forcellini  at  that  of  sixteen,  in  1704,  the  year  in  which 
Facciolati  took  his  first  degree  in  theology.  Facciolati  was  in 
due  time  invited  to  superintend  the  studies  of  the  seminary,  and 
the  preparation  of  Greek,  Latin  and  Italian  lexicons  for  the  use  of 
the  students.  In  the  preparation  of  the  Greek  lexicon,  which  was 
a  new  edition  of  that  of  Schrevelius  (1670),  he  had  the  aid  of 
Forcellini  and  others,  but  the  name  of  Facciolati  alone  appears  on 
the  title-page  (1715).  Again,  the  Italian  lexicon  was  similarly 

prepared  by  Forcellini  (1718),  but  it  was  not  until 

Forcellini  „.    .,      ,         , 

after  a  protest  on  the  part  of  Forcellini  s  brother, 

1  Dissert,  de  Lexicis  Latinis. 

-  p.  1 73  supra.  3  p.  269  supra. 


CHAP.  XXII.]        FACCIOLATI.      FORCELLINI.  375 

that  Forcellini's  name  was  mentioned  in  the  preface  to  the 
eighth  edition  (1741).  Thirdly,  at  the  revision  of  the  Latin 
lexicon  of  Calepinus,  Forcellini  worked,  under  Facciolati,  for 
three  years,  and  the  result  appeared  in  1718.  Facciolati,  who 
seems  to  have  really  done  a  large  part  of  the  work,  wrote  the 
preface  but  made  no  mention  of  Forcellini's  name,  merely 
referring  to  him  as  strenuissimus  adolescent. 

Forcellini's  experience  in  helping  to  edit  '  Calepinus '  had  con- 
vinced him  that  an  entirely  new  work  was  necessary.  Late  in 
1718,  by  the  command  of  the  bishop  and  under  the  leadership  of 
Facciolati,  the  Studiorum  Praefeetus,  Forcellini  began  the  Totius 
Latinitatis  Lexicon.  In  1724,  when  he  had  reached  the  word 
comitor,  the  bishop  died,  and,  under  his  successor,  Forcellini  was 
compelled  to  leave  the  seminary  of  Padua.  For  seven  years  he 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  seminary  of  Ceneda  in  the  Venetian 
Alps,  but,  on  the  arrival  of  a  new  bishop  (Ottoboni),  he  was 
recalled  in  1731,  and  had  proceeded  as  far  as  the  word  pone  in 
1742,  when  the  bishop  inconsiderately  assigned  him  the  laborious 
duty  of  being  Confessor  to  all  the  local  clergy.  The  progress  of 
the  lexicon  was  thus  retarded  until  he  was  fortunately  released 
from  that  responsibility  by  a  new  bishop  (Rezzonico)  in  1751, 
when  he  was  enabled  to  continue  his  lexicographical  work  without 
further  interruption,  starting  afresh  with  the  appropriate  word 
thesaurus,  and  reaching  the  last  word  in  the  lexicon  in  1753. 
After  spending  two  more  years  in  revising  his  manuscript,  he 
handed  it  over  to  Ludovico  Violato  for  transcription. 

Meanwhile  he  wrote  his  preface,  in  which  he  modestly  states  that  his 
master,  Facciolati,  'a  name  illustrious  in  the  commonwealth  of  letters',  had 
selected  him  to  make  the  Latin  Lexicon,  not  because  of  any  special  ability  on 
his  part,  but  because  he  was  regarded  as  a  person  of  sound  health  and  capable 
of  enduring  even  the  most  protracted  labour.  Thus,  with  his  own  hand,  and 
under  the  advice  and  aid  of  his  master,  the  almost  interminable  toil  of  nearly 
forty  years  had  been  brought  to  a  close.  He  had  added  many  gleanings  from 
unfamiliar  authors,  and  from  inscriptions  and  coins ;  he  had  paid  special  attention 
to  orthography,  to  the  proper  arrangement  of  the  several  meanings  of  each 
word,  and  to  copious  citation  of  examples,  making  a  point  of  never  quoting 
any  passage  that  he  had  not  himself  seen  in  its  original  context.  He  had  spent 
all  his  pains,  strength  and  time  on  his  task  ;  he  was  a  young  man  when  he  set 
hands  to  it,  and  had  grown  old  in  the  course  of  its  completion. 


376  ITALY.  [CENT.  xvni. 

When  the  vast  undertaking  was  finished,  Forcellini  lived  on  for 
some  years  in  the  seminary ;  but,  meanwhile,  no  one  took  any 
steps  for  the  printing  and  publication  of  his  work.  He  was  now 
far  advanced  in  life  and  broken  down  by  his  long  labours,  when 
he  bethought  him  of  the  village  where  he  was  born,  and  asked 
permission  to  make  the  place  of  his  birth  the  quiet  haven  of  his 
declining  years.  The  permission  was  granted,  and  the  great 
lexicographer  humbly  handed  over  to  the  library  of  the  seminary 
the  twelve  last  volumes  of  his  own  original  draft  of  the  lexicon 
with  the  sixteen  volumes  of  the  fair  copy,  and  on  May-day  in  the 
year  1765  left  Padua  for  his  old  home  at  Campo  Sampiero. 
There,  among  his  own  people,  he  spent  his  time  in  peaceful  rest 
and  in  quiet  contemplation  of  things  eternal,  till,  three  years  later, 
after  a  short  illness,  he  passed  away  early  in  April,  1768,  in  the 
Both  year  of  his  age.  His  body  was  laid  without  pomp  or  circum- 
stance in  the  part  of  the  village-church  where  priests  were  wont  to 
be  buried,  and  it  was  not  until  many  years  had  elapsed  that  any 
epitaph  whatsoever  was  placed  on  his  tomb.  The  original  manu- 
script and  the  transcript  of  his  great  lexicon  were  still  in  the  library 
at  Padua,  when  Cardinal  Prioli  became  bishop.  By  his  prompt 
command  it  was  sent  to  press  early  in  1769.  The  title,  as  it  left 
the  hands  of  the  transcriber,  ran  as  follows : — 

Latinitatis  totius  Lexicon  in  Patavino  Seminario  euro,  et  opera  Aegidii 
Forcellini  elucubratum,  iussu  et  auspiciis  Antonii  Marini  Card,  Prioli 
episcopi  edit um. 

But  Facciolati,  who  was  still  alive  (being  now  in  the  88th  year  of 
his  age),  felt  annoyed  at  finding  no  mention  of  his  own  name. 
Accordingly,  he  caused  the  title  to  be  recast  as  follows : — 

Tothis  Latinitatis  Lexicon  const/to  el  cura  Jacobi  Facciolati,  opera  et  studio 
Aegidii  Forcellini,  alumni  Seminarii  Patavini,  lucubratum. 

This  title,  which  has  unfortunately  led  many  to  believe  that 
the  lexicon  was,  in  a  large  measure,  the  work  of  Facciolati,  was 
retained  until  the  publication  of  De-Vit's  edition  (1858  f). 
Facciolati  himself  had,  in  1756,  written  to  the  librarian  of 
St  Mark's  in  Venice : — princeps  huius  operis  conditor  atque  adeo 
unus  Forcellinus  est;  but,  in  publishing  this  letter  in  1759  and 
1765,  he  omitted  this  sentence1.  Facciolati  died  in  August,  1769. 

1  De-Vit's  Praef.  p.  xxxii. 


CHAP.  XXII.] 


FORCELLINI. 


377 


The  printing  of  Forcellini's  lexicon  was  completed  in  four  folio 
volumes  in  1771,  having  been  seen  through  the  press  by  Caietano 
Cognolati,  who  wrote  a  full  preface  to  the  work.  But  the  printer 
had  in  hand  a  new  edition  of  the  old  '  Calepinus ',  which  was 
intended  for  publication  in  1772.  He  accordingly  kept  back  the 
great  lexicon  for  fear  it  should  damage  the  sale  of  the  other  work. 
A  few  copies,  however,  got  abroad,  and  so  large  was  the  demand 
that  nearly  the  whole  stock  was  soon  exhausted.  A  new  edition 
appeared  in  1805,  followed  by  those  of  James  Bailey  (1825), 
Furnaletto  (1823-31),  Schneeberg  (1829-35),  De-Vit  (Prato, 
1858-79),  and  Corradini  (Padua,  I864-90)1. 

1  See    De-Vit's  Praefatio  (1879),    ri^  PP-  '•>    an&  CP- J-  E.  B.  Mayor,  in 
Journal  of  Cl.  and  S.  Philology,  \\  (1855)  271 — 290. 


FORCELLINI. 
Part  of  the  Frontispiece  to  the  London  edition  of  1825. 


378  ITALY.  [CENT.  xvm. 

While  Forcellini  deserves  perpetual  remembrance  as  'the  man 
of  one  book',  and  that  a  true  monument  of  gigantic  industry,  we 
must,  in  fairness  to  his  former  master,  add  that  Facciolati  was  the 
author  of  the  Fasti  Gymnasii  Patavini  (1757)  and  many  minor 
works;  that  he  edited  Cicero,  De  Officiis  etc.  (1720),  and  was  the 
first  to  give  a  satisfactory  form  to  the  Lexicon  Cieeronianum  of 
Nizolius  (1738). 

The  study  of  Cicero  is  represented  in  the  same  century  (i)  by 

Marcus  Antonius    Ferratius   of  Padua  (d.    1748), 

whose  Epistolae  (Venice  1699  and  1738)  did  much 

for  the  right  understanding  of  Cicero's  Speeches1;  and  (2)  by  the 

learned  Jesuit,  Girolamo  Lagomarsini  (1698 — 1773), 

Lagomarsini  *  I'** 

who  collated  all  the  MSS  of  Cicero  accessible  to  him 
in  Florence  and  elsewhere,  and  was  professor  of  Greek  in  Rome 
for  the  last  twenty-two  years  of  his  life. 

These  collations  first  became  known  to  the  world  through 
Niebuhr.  They  have  since  been  used  for  the  Verrine  Orations  by 
K.  G.  Zumpt,  the  pro  Murena  by  A.  W.  Zumpt,  the  pro  Cluentio 
by  Classen,  the  pro  Milone  by  Peyron,  the  Brutus  and  De  Oratore 
by  Ellendt,  and  similarly  by  Baiter  and  Halm  in  the  second  edition 
of  Orelli.  But  not  a  single  work  of  Cicero  was  edited  by  the 
industrious  collator  himself2. 

In  the  next  generation  about  half  of  Cicero  was  edited  by 
Garatoni  of  Ravenna  (1743 — 1817).  During  the 

Garatoni 

eleven  years  that  he  spent  at  Rome  and  Bologna 
(1777-88)  he  published  seventeen  volumes  of  an  edition,  which 
was  to  have  extended  to  thirty-three,  but  the  printing  came  to  an 
end  owing  to  the  bankruptcy  of  the  publisher,  and,  for  the  rest  of 
the  editor's  life,  nothing  else  appeared  in  connexion  with  Cicero, 
except  editions  of  the/r<?  Plancio  and  pro  Milonez.  At  an  earlier 

date  a  remarkable  monument  of  the  study  of  the 

Rezzonico  .»«*..  *  •>    •         i  r  i-  i 

elder  Pliny  was  produced  in  the  two  folio  volumes 

1  Orelli-Baiter,  Onomaslicon,  \  437,  '  liber  quo  Ciceronis  interpres  carere 
prorsus  nequeat'. 

2  Cp.  J.   M.    Parthenius,   De   Vita   et   Studiis   Lagoinarsini,  Ven.    iSor, 
§§  82 — 98;  Fabroni,  Vilae  Ifa/orum,  xviii  146. 

3  Dionysii  Strochii  de  -vita  et  set:  G.  1818  (Friedemann  u.  Seebode,  Misc. 
Crit.  i  136 — 141  and  ii  i  etc.). 


CHAP.  XXII.]  CORSINI.      BANDINI.  379 

of   the    exceedingly   diffuse   Disquisitiones   Plinianae    (1763)    of 
Count  Rezzonico  (1709 — 1785). 

In  the  same  century  we  have  two  important  catalogues  of  the  classical  MSS 
of  Florence.  That  of  the  library  in  the  Kiccardi  palace  by  Giovanni  Lami1  of 
Santa  Croce  was  published  at  Leghorn  in  I7562,  while  that  of  the  Laurentian 
library,  including  a  vast  amount  of  information  extracted  from  the  MSS  them- 
selves and  from  other  sources,  was  produced  in  eight  folio  volumes  (1764-78) 
by  Angelo  Maria  Bandini  of  Florence  (1726 — i8o3)3.  In  the  field  of  Classics 
a  librarian  of  the  Vatican,  Pier  Francesco  Foggini  of  Florence  (1713 — 1/83), 
contented  himself  with  producing  a  printed  '  facsimile '  of  the  Medicean  Virgil 
(1741),  and  a  satisfactory  edition  of  the  Fasti  Praenestini  of  Verrius  Flaccus 
(1779).  Catullus,  Tibullus  and  Propertius  were  specially  studied  by  Giannan- 
tonio  Volpi  of  Padua  (1686 — 1766),  an  editor  of  Plautus,  Lucretius  and  Lucan. 

During  this  age  Greek  occupies  a  subordinate  position.  In 
the  first  half  of  the  century  Greek  studies  are  well 
represented  by  Odoardo  Corsini  of  Fanano  (1702— 
1765),  whose  Fasti  Attici,  published  in  four  quarto  volumes  in 
Florence  (1744 — 56),  laid  the  foundation  for  the  chronology  of 
the  Attic  Archons,  while  his  Dissertations  of  1747  dealt  with  the 
chronological  and  other  problems  connected  with  the  panhellenic 
games.  He  also  published  two  folio  volumes  on  the  Greek  abbre- 
viations for  words  and  numerals  (1749).  He  was  afterwards 
general  superior  of  the  educational  Order  of  Piarists,  first  in  Rome 
and  afterwards  in  Pisa4.  His  great  work  on  Greek  chronology 
was  not  followed  up  by  any  exactly  similar  work  in  Italy. 

The  first  two  of  the  fourteen  years,  that  Bandini  devoted  to 
the  printing  of  the  great  catalogue  of  the  Lauren- 

0  .       .  Bandini 

tian  library5,  were  partly  spent  in  publishing  the 
remains  of  five  Alexandrian  poets : — Callimachus,  Nicander, 
Coluthus,  Tryphiodorus  and  Aratus  (1764-5).  Callimachus  had 
already  been  translated  into  Latin,  and  Nicander  (as  well  as 
Oppian)  into  Italian  verse  by  Antonio  Maria  Salvini  (1653 — 1729). 
In  1766  Bandini  published  Theognis,  Phocylides,  and  the  golden 
verses  of  Pythagoras,  with  translations  into  Latin  and  Italian, 

1  1697—1770. 

2  He  also  produced  18  vols.  of  Deliciac  Eruditornm  (1736-69),  and  3  vols. 
of  Memorabilia  Italonini  eruditione  pracsta ntinin,  1742-8. 

3  Cp.  Mazzuchelli,  Scrittori  </'  Italia,  II  i  2  i  7  f . 

4  Fabroni,  Vilae  Ilalorum,  iii  88 — 148.  5  1.  5  supra. 


380  ITALY.  [CENT.  xvm. 

followed  in  1770  by  Theophrastus,  De  Historia  Plantarum.  He 
was  also  interested  in  the  literary  history  of  Florence,  as  is  partly 
proved  by  his  Lives  of  Ficino  (1771)  and  Victorius 


We  need  only  mention  two  more  Greek   scholars,  both  of  whom  were 

ecclesiastics:  —  Giovanni  Luigi  Mingarelli  of  Bologna  (1722  — 

1793),  who   produced  a  notable   treatise   on   the   metres  of 

Pindar  (1773);  and  Jacopo  Morelli  of  Venice  (1745  —  1819), 

who   published  the  declamation  of  'Aristides  '  against   Leptines,  and  other 

Greek  texts,  from  the  library  of  St  Mark's,  which  was  under  his  care2. 

Archaeological    research   was   meanwhile   promoted    by   the 
foundation  of  learned  societies  such  as  the  Etrus- 

Archaeology  . 

can    Academy    of    Cortona   with    quaintly    styled 

'Lucumons'  at  its  head  (1726),  the  'Accademia  di  Ercolano'  at 

Naples  (1755),  and  the  'Accademia  di  antichita  profane'  founded 

on  the  Capitoline  hill  by  Benedict  XIV  (i74o-58)3.    The  antiqui- 

ties discovered  by  these  Academies  were  added  to  the  treasures 

of  ancient  art  stored  in  the  Museum  at  Naples,  and  on  the  Capitol 

and  in  the  Vatican  at  Rome.     Turning  from  societies  to  indi- 

viduals, we  find  antiquarian  and  topographical  research  successfully 

carried  on  by  Ficoroni  (1664  —  1747),  whose  name 

is  associated  for  ever  with  the  exquisitely  engraved 

cista,  which  he  discovered  near  Praeneste  and  presented  to  the 

Museum  in  the  Collegio  Romano.     His  latest  work,  that  on  the 

Vestiges  of  Ancient  Rome  (1744),  supplies  an  instructive  con- 

spectus of  the  topography  and  the  monuments.     About  the  same 

time  the  ruins  of  Rome  were  reproduced  in  bold  and  vigorous 

engravings   by   Vasi   and   his  distinguished   pupil 

Gianbattista   Piranesi   (I7O7-78)4.      The   youthful 

Goethe  was  first  inspired  with  a  longing  to  see  Italy  by  the  very 

copies  of  these  engravings,  which  may  still  be  seen  at  the  Goethe- 

Haus  in  Frankfurt.    After  the  time  of  Ficoroni  and  before  that  of 

Piranesi,  we  find  Antonio  Francesco  Gori,  a  priest 

and  professor  in  Florence  (1691  —  1757),  publishing 

the  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  inscriptions  of  Etruria  (1727  —  44), 

and  editing  Doni's  ancient  inscriptions  (1732),  together  with  the 

1  Mazzuchelli,  II  i  217  f. 

2  Life  by  Moschini  (1819)  and  Zendrini  (1821). 

3  Stark,  i88f.  4  Stark,  241. 


CHAP.  XXII.]      FICORONI.      MURATORI.      MAFFEI.  381 

six  volumes  on  coins,  in  the  Museum  Florentinum  (1740—2),  and 
the  three  volumes  on  ancient  ivory  Diptychs  (I759)1.  Inscriptions 
continued  to  be  collected  and  studied  in  many  parts  of  Italy,  but 
their  study  was  attended  with  difficulty  owing  to  the  fact  that 
many  of  them  were  forgeries2.  The  latter  are  not  excluded  with 
sufficient  strictness  even  from  the  Thesaurus  compiled  by  the 
great  historian  Lodovico  Antonio  Muratori  (1672  — 

.  .  Muratori 

1750),  librarian  at  Milan  from  1695  to  1700  and 
afterwards  for  half  a  century  at  Modena,  the  most  industrious  and 
the  most  widely  learned  Italian  scholar  of  his  time.  He  produced 
six  folio  volumes  of  Antiquitates  Italicae  Medii  Aevi\  in  addition 
to  the  twenty-seven  folio  volumes  of  his  Scriptores,  the  eighteen 
quarto  volumes  of  his  Anna/i,  and  the  eight  of  his  Anecdota 
Latino,  and  Graeca.  Even  these  are  not  all,  as  his  total  output 
amounted  to  forty-six  volumes  folio  and  thirty-four  volumes  quarto. 
By  his  calm  and  sober  judgement,  by  his  vast  capacity  for  literary 
research,  and  by  his  unfailing  championship  of  good  sense  in 
matters  of  scholarship,  he  exercised  a  most  healthy  influence  on 
historical  and  antiquarian  studies  in  Italy.  He  stoutly  resisted 
the  scholasticism  of  his  day,  successfully  defended  himself  against 
the  Jesuits,  who  had  the  audacity  to  denounce  him  as  a  heretic, 
and,  as  a  parish  priest  and  ultimately  provost  of  Modena,  was  a 
perfect  pattern  of  devotion  to  the  sacred  duties  of  his  office3. 

To  the  school  of  Muratori  belongs  his  contemporary  and  friend 
Scipione  Maffei  of  Verona  (1675  — 1755),  a  scholar 
of  varied  accomplishments,  who  combined  an  in- 
terest in  the  drama,  and  in  art  and  poetry  in  general,  with  the 
local  patriotism  which  prompted  him  to  record  the  history  of  his 
native  place  in  his  Verona  Illustrata  (1732),  and  to  describe  its 
antiquities  in  his  Museum  Veronense  (1749).  In  the  latter  the 
extant  inscriptions  are  carefully  and  correctly  copied.  His  treatise 
De  arte  critica  lapidaria,  published  after  his  decease  in  the  sup- 
plement to  Muratori's  Novus  Thesaurus,  gives  proof  of  his  keen 
and  unsparing  criticism  of  the  inadequate  work  of  other  archaeo- 

1  Stark,  116.  2    Stark,  119. 

3  Vita,  Ven.  1756;  Fabroni,  Vitae  Ital.  x  89 — 391;  Schedoni,  Elogio 
(Modena,  1818);  Braun,  Ehrenrettung  (Trier,  1838);  Stark,  118;  portrait  in 
Scritti  Inediti  (1872),  reproduced  in  Wiese  u.  Percopo,  466. 


382  ITALY.  [CENT.  xvm. 

legists1.  He  travelled  in  Germany  and  England,  spent  four  years 
in  Paris,  and  was  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  Roman  remains  in 
the  South  of  France2. 

Archaeology  is  represented  in  the  next  generation  by  Paolo 
Maria  Paciaudi  of  Turin  (1710 — 1785),  a  pupil  (and 
also  a  strong  opponent)  of  the  Jesuits.  Widely 
known  as  an  able  preacher  of  the  Theatine  Order,  he  showed  a 
keen  interest  in  sacred  archaeology  in  his  learned  sermons  on  the 
Saints.  He  spent  part  of  his  life  in  Naples  and  Rome,  held  high 
office  in  his  Order,  was  an  eager  collector  of  antiquities,  and  a 
recognised  authority  on  ecclesiastical  archaeology  and  on  numis- 
matics. In  his  most  important  work,  the  Monumenta  Peloponnesiaca 
(Rome,  1761),  he  published,  for  the  first  time,  the  inscriptions, 
reliefs  and  statues  from  the  Peloponnesus  and  the  Greek  islands, 
preserved  in  the  Nani  Museum  at  Venice,  and  applied  to  their 
interpretation  a  sound  and  critical  method3. 

Some  twenty  years  later,  an  admirable  introduction  to  the 

study   of  inscriptions   was   supplied   by  Stephano 

Antonio  Morcelli  of  Chiari  (1737 — 1821),  librarian 

to  Cardinal  Albani,  in  his  work  cOn  the  style  of  Latin  inscriptions' 

(1780)  and  in  his  'Select  Inscriptions,  with  Comments'  (1783). 

The  wide  extent  of  his  influence  may  be  estimated  by  the  fact  that 

he  was  the  authority  that  inspired  the  Latin  inscriptions  of  Dr  Parr, 

while  the  present  writer  has  seen  a  copy  of  the  second  of  the 

above  works  in  the  little  local  library  of  the  upland  village  of 

Colle  near  Bordighera. 

His  contemporary,  the  eminent  archaeologist,  Gaetano  Marini 

(1742 — 1815),    published   the   inscriptions   of  the 

Albani  Villa  and   Palace  in    1785,  and  the  great 

expectations  thereby  aroused  were  completely  fulfilled  in  the  two 

quarto  volumes  of  the  Inscriptions  of  the  Fratres  Arvales  (1795), 

in  which  those  inscriptions  (which  were  previously  known)  were 

explained  and  emended,  and  no  less  than  a  thousand  others 

published  for  the  first  time4. 

1  Hagenbach,  Epp.  Epigr.  1747,  ap.  Urlichs,  too2. 

2  Stark,  118.  3  Stark,  119. 

4  Our  knowledge  of  the  Fratres  Arvales  has  since   been  completed  by 
Henzen,  Acta  Fratrum  Arvalium,  1874. 


CHAP.  XXII.]      MORCELLI.      MARINI.      E.  Q.  VISCONTI.      383 

The  archaeological  family  of  the  Visconti,  like  that  of  the 
former  rulers  of  Milan,  originally  came  from  Sarzano  near  Genoa. 
When  Winckelmann  left  Rome  in  1768,  he  was  succeeded  as 
surveyor  of  antiquities  by  Giovanni  Battista  Visconti,  who  held 
that  office  till  his  death  in  1784.  The  most  famous  member  of 
the  family  was  his  son,  Ennio  Quirino  Visconti 

.  .  .  E.  Q.  Visconti 

(1751 — 1818),  a  precocious  genius  who  published 
at  the  age  of  13  an  Italian  rendering  of  the  Hecuba.  Early  in  his 
career  he  produced  works  on  the  Monuments  of  the  Scipios 
(1775),  the  inscriptions  of  the  Jenkins  collection  (1783),  the 
excavations  at  Gabii,  and  the  antiques  in  the  Palace  and  Villa 
Borghese  (1796-7).  Meanwhile  he  had  succeeded  his  father  in 
the  production  of  the  celebrated  work  on  the  Museum  Pio- 
Clementinum,  with  illustrations  and  descriptions  of  that  important 
part  of  the  Vatican  Museum.  Volumes  n  to  vn  (1784 — 1807) 
are  entirely  his  work.  It  was  humorously  said  of  him  by  the 
Danish  archaeologist,  Zoega,  who  was  then  in  Rome : — '  Visconti 
is  working  at  archaeology  \vith  as  much  distinction  as  ever, — 
always  equally  ready  with  an  explanation,  whether  the  subject 
admits  of  an  explanation  or  not'.  When  the  Roman  Republic 
was  set  up  in  1798,  Visconti,  to  the  regret  of  his  friends,  allowed 
himself  to  be  made  a  Consul;  and,  in  the  following  years,  when 
some  of  the  finest  works  of  art  were  carried  off  by  Napoleon,  he 
accompanied  them  to  Paris,  where  he  held  high  office  as  Conser- 
vateur  des  Antiques,  and  produced  an  admirable  account  of  the 
works  of  ancient  sculpture  entrusted  to  his  charge1,  besides 
completing  three  important  volumes  on  Greek  Iconography2. 
In  1814  he  was  one  of  the  first  to  recognise  the  transcendent 
importance  of  the  Elgin  marbles3.  He  is  the  embodiment  of  the 
intelligent  appreciation  of  the  works  of  ancient  sculpture  awakened 
in  Italy  by  the  influence  of  Winckelmann. 

His  brother,  Filippo  Aurelio  (d.  1831),  was  distinguished  as  an  editor  of 
the  Museo  Ckiaramonti* ;   his  nephew,  Pietro,  was  secretary  of  the   Roman 

1  1800,  1817. 

2  The  finely-bound  large-paper  copy  of  this  work,  that  once  belonged  to 
Napoleon  himself,  has  been  seen  by  the  present  writer  in  the  collection  of 
M.  Gennadius  in  London. 

3  Cp.  Michaelis,  Der  Parthenon,  82  f.  4  vol.  i  (1808). 


384  ITALY.  [CENT.  xvm. 

Academy  of  Archaeology;  his  son,  Ludovico  Tullio  (d.  1853),  was  an  able  archi- 
tect in  Paris,  and  a  Visconti  has  since  been  at  the  head  of  the  Archaeological 
Commission  in  Rome1. 

Among  the  Roman  contemporaries  of  Ennio  Quirino  Visconti 
was  Carlo  Fea  of  Pigna  near  Nice  (1753 — 1836), 
a  member  of  the  bar,  who  became  librarian  to  the 
Chigi,  and,  besides  translating  and  annotating  Winckelmann's 
'  History  of  Ancient  Art '  in  1783-4,  produced  an  important  work 
on  the  Ruins  of  Rome  (1820).  He  not  only  gave  proof  of  his 
interest  in  Virgil  (1797)  and  Horace  (1811),  but  he  superintended 
the  Roman  excavations,  which  were  begun  in  1782  and  became 
peculiarly  productive  from  1813  to  1820.  He  preserved  important 
records  of  these  discoveries  in  his  Miscellanea  (1790,  1836),  and 
published  the  new  fragments  of  the  Fasti  Consulares  in  1820. 
He  is  the  principal  founder  of  the  modern  study  of  Roman 
topography2. 

The    briefest    mention    may   suffice    for   Alessio    Simmacho 

Mazzocchi        Mazzocchi  (1684 — 1 770,   a  commentator  on  the 

ignarra          Tabulae  Heradcenses  (1754),  and  Niccolo  Ignarra 

(1728 — 1808),  who  was  highly  esteemed   by  Ruhnken3  for  his 

corrections  of  the  Homeric  Hymn  to  Demeter  (1784).     Both  of 

these  were  Neapolitan  ecclesiastics.    Meanwhile,  in 

Lanzi 

Florence,  Luigi  Lanzi  (1732 — 1810)  was  writing  on 

ancient  vases  and  on  modern  painting,  and  was  editing  Hesiod ; 

and   in    Rome,    a   professor   of    Greek,    Giovanni 

Amaduzzi  .  .  . 

Cnstoforo  Amaduzzi  (1742 — 1792),  was  producing 
his  Vetera  Monumenta  and  his  Anecdota,  which  were  followed  by 
a  far  slighter  work,  his  edition  of  two  of  the  Characters  of  Theo- 
phrastus,  published  at  Parma  in  1786. 

1  Stark,  243-4. 

2  Jordan,  Topogr.  I  i  96  (Stark,  242). 

3  Opusc.  ii  548  f. 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 

FRANCE    IN    THE    EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY. 

OUR  first  important  name  is  that  of  Bernard  de  Montfaucon 
(161515 — 1741),   who   was  born   at   the   chateau   of 

V  .          '  .  Montfaucon 

Soulage  in  Languedoc.  After  leaving  school,  he 
read  all  the  historical  works  in  his  father's  library,  beginning  with 
the  French  translation  of  Plutarch.  Apart  from  the  library,  there 
was  a  chest  of  books  left  in  his  father's  care.  The  chest  was 
invaded  by  rats,  but  the  young  Montfaucon  came  to  the  rescue 
by  finding  a  key  that  would  unlock  the  chest,  thus  saving  its 
contents  from  destruction,  and  finding  fresh  fields  of  literature 
to  explore.  The  reading  of  history  led  to  his  first  becoming  a 
soldier;  but  after  serving  for  two  years  in  the  army,  he  entered 
the  Benedictine  Order  at  Toulouse  in  1675.  He  subsequently 
studied  the  language  and  literature  of  Greece  for  two  years  at 
Soreze  and  for  eight  at  Grasse.  In  1686  he  was  diligently  reading 
Herodotus  at  Bordeaux.  After  removing  to  Paris  in  the  following 
year,  he  spent  three  years  in  Italy  (1698 — 1701),  exploring  the 
great  collections  of  MSS,  and  devoting  special  attention  to  the 
Laurentian  Library.  An  account  of  his  travels  was  published 
under  the  title  of  the  Diarium  Italicum  (1702),  which  was 
translated  into  English.  This  includes  a  full  description  of  the 
topography  of  Rome,  with  some  notice  of  earlier  writers  on  the 
subject,  and  a  scheme  for  a  more  complete  survey1.  Some  of  the 
results  of  this  tour  were  embodied  in  the  two  volumes  of  fragments 
of  the  Greek  Fathers  (1707).  While  Latin  alone  had  been  the 
theme  of  Mabillon's  treatise  De  Re  Diplomatica,  the  foundations 

1  Gibbon,  c.  Ixxi  ad  fuiun  (vii  324  Bury). 
S.     II.  25 


MONTFAUCON. 

From  a  portrait  by  '  Paulus  Abbas  Genbacensis '  (1739),  engraved  by  Tardieu 
fils,  and  reproduced  by  Odieuvre  in  Dreux  du  Radier's  UEtirope  Illustre 
(1777)  vol.  v. 


CHAP.  XXIII.]  MONTFAUCON.  387 

of  Greek  palaeography  were  laid  in  the  Palaeographica  Graeca 
produced  by  Montfaucon  in  1708,  which,  besides  establishing 
the  principles  of  a  new  science,  comprised  a  list  of  no  less  than 
11,630  MSS.  In  1715  he  completed  the  Catalogue  of  the  Biblio- 
theca  Coisliniana,  a  library  belonging  to  the  Due  de  Coislin,  the 
prince-bishop  of  Metz,  and  including  that  of  his  grandfather, 
Se'guier,  the  whole  of  which  was  afterwards  bequeathed  to  the 
abbey  of  Saint-Germain-des-Pres,  and  was  ultimately  incorporated 
in  the  Paris  Library.  His  next  great  work,  the  Antiquite  Expliquee, 
a  vast  treasury  of  classical  antiquities,  was  published  by  subscrip- 
tion in  ten  folio  volumes  in  1719.  Within  two  months  the  first 
edition  of  1,800  copies  (or  18,000  volumes)  was  sold  off,  and  a 
new  edition  of  2,200  printed  in  the  same  year,  followed  by  a 
supplement  in  five  volumes.  All  the  fifteen  volumes  were  trans- 
lated into  English.  The  Russian  nobleman,  Prince  Kourakin, 
had  a  complete  set,  sumptuously  bound,  and  packed  in  a  special 
case  to  accompany  him  on  his  travels  in  Italy.  The  work  had 
been  produced  in  haste,  and  the  execution  of  the  plates  was  far 
from  perfect,  but  it  supplied  a  comprehensive  conspectus  of  all 
the  antiquarian  learning  of  the  age,  and  it  was  long  before  it  was 
in  any  way  superseded.  A  grand  scheme  for  the  exposition  of  the 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  archaeology  of  France  was  only  partially 
completed  in  the  five  volumes  on  the  Monuments  de  la  monarchic 
francaise  (1725-33).  Montfaucon  had  published  St  Athanasius  in 
1698,  and  Origen's  Hexapla  in  1713;  his  great  edition  of  Saint 
Chrysostom  in  thirteen  folio  volumes,  begun  in  1715,  was  finished 
in  1738.  In  the  following  year  he  produced  in  two  folio  volumes 
his  Bibliotheca  Bibliothecarum,  including  all  the  catalogues  of 
Europe,  which  the  author  had  collected  in  the  space  of  forty 
years.  In  1741  he  had  gathered  materials  for  the  continuation 
of  his  vast  work  on  French  archaeology,  the  second  part  of  which 
was  to  deal  with  the  churches  of  France.  When  he  read  a  paper 
on  this  subject  at  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  the  December 
of  that  year,  a  foreign  member,  who  then  saw  him  for  the  first 
time,  asked  him  his  age,  and  received  the  reply:  'In  thirteen 
years  I  shall  be  a  hundred'.  Two  days  later  an  unforeseen 
attack  of  apoplexy  carried  off  in  a  few  hours  the  last  of  the  great 
scholars  of  the  Congregation  of  Saint-Maur.  His  final  resting- 

25—2 


388  FRANCE.  [CENT.  xvm. 

place  is  in  the  same  chapel  of  the  abbey-church  that  contains  the 
remains  of  his  great  predecessor,  Mabillon. 

In  his  early  surroundings  at  the  chateau  in  Languedoc  there 
had  been  little  to  suggest  that  he  would  become  a  great  scholar. 
One  of  his  brothers,  who  was  an  officer,  writes  him  a  letter 
beginning :  '  vous  etes  insupportable,  mon  cher  frere,  avec  vos 
racines  grecques '  *.  He  not  only  became  one  of  the  best  Greek 
scholars  since  the  Revival  of  Learning,  but  he  also  learnt  Hebrew, 
Syriac,  Chaldee  and  Coptic,  and  only  failed  to  learn  Arabic. 
The  secret  of  his  wide  learning,  and  of  the  large  number  of 
volumes  that  he  produced,  is  revealed  in  a  memorandum  drawn 
up  at  the  age  of  eighty-five,  in  which  he  states  that,  for  the  last 
forty-six  years,  he  had  always  spent  thirteen  or  fourteen  hours  a 
day  in  reading  or  writing2.  In  learning,  and  in  powers  of  work, 
he  rivalled  Mabillon,  whom  he  excelled  in  his  wider  interest  in 
classical  antiquities,  as  well  as  in  greater  animation  of  manner. 
He  had  a  happy  wit,  and  a  keen  appreciation  of  the  work  of 
younger  men.  The  scholars  of  his  immediate  circle  were  in- 
formally known  as  the  'Academy  of  the  Bernardins',  and  the  best 
of  his  pupils  were  proud  to  call  themselves  his  sons3.  In  1719, 
when  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  he 
had  already  produced  forty-four  folio  volumes.  He  had  scholarly 
friends  in  all  Europe ;  he  was  known  to  Englishmen  as  hominum 
et  amicorum  oplimus*.  One  of  the  most  frequent  visitors  at  the 
abbey  was  the  poet  and  diplomatist,  Matthew  Prior,  plenipotentiary 
in  Paris  in  17 125.  Another  of  the  numerous  foreign  frequenters 
of  his  rooms  was  the  future  author  of  a  great  work  on  Sicily, 
Philippe  d'Orville  of  Amsterdam  (1726)".  Among  the  most 
learned  and  accomplished  of  his  Italian  correspondents  were 

1  E.  de  Broglie,  i  205. 

2  ib.  ii  316. 

3  Cp.  his  own  account  of  his  life  and  works,  printed  in  E.  de  Broglie, 
Bernard  de  Montfaucon  et  les  Bernardins  (1891),  ii  311 — 323. 

4  ib.  i  22. 

5  ib.  i  137  f.    In  1700  Prior  had  vainly  applied  on  behalf  of  the  Cambridge 
Press  for  the  use  of  the  'Greek  matrices,  cut  by  order  of  Francis  I'  (p.  175 
supra].     Cp.  MSS  de  la  BibliothZque  du  fioi,  1787,  I  xciii  f;    Nichols,  Lit. 
Anted,  iv  663  f ;  Wordsworth,  Schol.  Acad.  383. 

6  ib.  i  277 — 283. 


CHAP.  XXIII.]  CAPPERONNIER.  389 

Muratori  and  Albani1.  One  of  his  younger  friends  at  the  abbey 
was  Dom  Vincent  Thuillier  (1685 — 1736),  who,  besides  editing 
the  posthumous  works,  and  writing  a  summary  of  the  controversy 
with  the  Abbe  de  Ranee,  produced  a  French  translation  of  the 
whole  of  Polybius  at  the  request  of  an  eager  strategist,  the 
Chevalier  de  Folard,  who  had  been  inspired  with  an  interest 
in  the  art  of  war  by  reading  the  Commentaries  of  Caesar.  The 
Chevalier's  commentary  on  Polybius,  which  accompanied  the 
Benedictine  monk's  translation,  included  so  many  personal 
reflexions  on  his  military  contemporaries,  that  the  first  volume 
alone  was  allowed  to  be  published  in  France  (1727),  while  the 
remainder  saw  the  light  in  Holland2.  Among  the  greater  literary 
enterprises  of  the  Benedictines  of  the  Congregation  of  Saint- 
Maur,  those  connected  in  different  degrees  with  classical  scholar- 
ship are  the  earlier  volumes  of  the  twelve  on  the  Histoire  Literaire 
de  la  France  (1733-63),  a  great  work  resumed  by  the  Institut  de 
France  in  1814;  the  Art  de  verifier  les  dates  in  three  folio  volumes 
(1783-87);  and  Toustain  and  Tassin's  Nouveau  Traite  de  diplo- 
matique in  six  quartos  (1750-65).  Their  other  works  are  mainly 
connected  with  the  History  of  France  and  its  Provinces3. 

Among  the  French   Latinists  of  the  eighteenth  century   we 
find  three  members  of  a  single  family.     The  first  of 

Capperonnier 

these,  Claude  Capperonnier  (1671 — 1744),  editor 
of  Quintilian  (1725)  and  the  Rhetores  Latini  (1756),  took  part 
in  the  revision  of  the  Latin  Thesaurus  of  Robert  Estienne4. 
Claude's  nephew,  Jean  (1716 — 1775),  edited  Caesar  and  Plautus, 
and  Sophocles,  with  the  scholia  (1781).  It  was  his  transcript  of 
the  Paris  MS  that  was  used  by  Ruhnken  in  his  edition  of  the 
Platonic  Lexicon  of  Timaeus  (i754)5.  Lastly,  Jean  Augustin 
(1745 — 1820)  edited  Virgil,  Justin,  Eutropius  etc.,  and  the 
Academica  of  Cicero  (1796).  The  second  and  third  of  the 
Capperonniers  were  librarians  in  Paris,  and  all  the  three  had 
friendly  relations  with  scholars  in  the  Netherlands. 

1  H>-  i  324  f»  and  338  f. 
-  i/>.  \  43,  ii  41  —  1 10. 

3  il>.  ii  306. 

4  Lefebure  de  S.  Marc,  Eloge,  1744. 

5  Dupuy,  jSlgtge  in  Hist.  Acad.  Inscr.  xi  243. 


390  FRANCE.  [CENT.  xvm. 

Jean  Bouhier  (1673 — 1746),  president  at  Dijon,  edited  Cicero 
and  the  poem  of  Petronius  On  the  Civil  War.  with 

Bouhier 

a  French  translation  (1737)  ;  he  also  wrote  treatises 
on  Herodotus,  and  contributed  to  Montfaucon's  Palaeographia 
Graeca  an  account  of  the  ancient  forms  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
Alphabets.  Horace  was  edited  in  1715  by  the  Jesuit,  Noel 

Etienne  Sanadon  of  Rouen  (1676 — 1733),  a  Latin 

Sanadon 

versifier,  who  taught  at  Caen  and  Tours,  and  held 
the  office   of  librarian  at  the  College  de  Louis  XIV  in  Paris2. 
Another  Jesuit,  Pierre  Joseph  de  Thoulie,  better 
known  as   Olivetus    (1682 — 1768),    besides   trans- 
lating parts  of  Demosthenes  and  Cicero,  produced  an  edition  of 
the  whole  of  Cicero  with  selected  notes  in  nine  quarto  volumes 
(1742),  which  was  reprinted  in  Geneva  and  London. 

We  may  here  mention  a  group  of  archaeologists  including  Bancluri  (1671 — 

1 743),  the  author  of  a  vast  work  on  the  Eastern  Empire  and  on 

Fourmont          the  Antiquities  of  Constantinople ;  Michel  Fourmont  (1690 — 

Burette  1745)1  who  collected  a  large  number  of  inscriptions  in  the 

Peloponnesus,   but    published    his    forgeries   onlyr>;    Burette 

(d.  1747),  who  for  half  a  century  contributed  to  the  Journal  dcs  Savants  a 

number  of  important  papers  on  Greek  Art  and  Greek  Music;  and  Nicolas 

Freret  (1688 — 1749),  *ne  author  of  notable  works  on  ancient  geography  and 

history,  who  was  sent  to  the  Bastile  for  his  unpatriotic  memoir  on  the  origin 

of  the  Franks4.     During  his  imprisonment  he  perused  anew  the  Greek  and 

Latin  Classics,  and  wrote  a  paper  on  the  Cyrofaedeia. 

Classical  archaeology  was  ably  promoted  by  the  Comte  de 

Caylus  (1692 — 1765),  who,  after  a  military  career, 

accompanied  the  French  envoys  to  the  East,  spent 

two  months  in  Smyrna,  made  a  perilous  journey  to  Ephesus  and 

Colophon,  visited  the  plain  of  Troy,  and  studied  the  monuments 

of  Constantinople  and  of  Rome  (1717).     On  his  return  to  France 

we  find  him  intimate   with    men  like   Mariette  and   the   Abbe 

Barthelemy.     Spending  four-fifths   of  his   large  income  on   the 

1  A.  Collignon,  Petrone  en  France,  94. 

2  Harless,  Vitae  Philol.  iv  58—73. 

3  Cp.  C.  1.  G.  i  p.  61,  R.  C.  Christie's  Selected  Essays,  58—91,  and  infra 
c.  xxix  (on  Boeckh),  vol.  iii  99  n.  i. 

4  Bougainville  in  Mem.  Acad.  Inscr.  xxiii  314 — 337;  Walckenaer,  Examen 
Critique. 


CHAP.  XXIII.]      BOUHIER.      OLIVETUS.      CAYLUS.  391 

patronage  of  archaeology,  he  filled  his  house  with  works  of 
ancient  art  three  times  over,  and  on  each  occasion  presented  the 
contents  to  the  royal  collections.  He  was  interested  in  Etruscan 
and  Egyptian,  as  well  as  Greek  and  Roman  Art,  and  was  attracted 
to  works  that  were  interesting  because  they  were  instructive,  and 
not  solely  because  they  were  beautiful.  He  published  a  large 
number  of  monuments  of  ancient  sculpture  in  the  seven  volumes 
of  his  Recueil  d'A ntiquites  (1752-67).  He  here  includes  nothing 
that  he  has  not  seen  with  his  own  eyes ;  he  tests  the  genuineness 
of  every  item,  and  gives  proof  of  an  artistic  discrimination  superior 
to  that  of  Montfaucon.  The  numerous  memoirs  which  he  pre- 
sented to  the  Academy,  in  and  after  1744,  deal  with  works  of 
ancient  art  in  a  scientific  spirit,  carefully  interpreting  and  recon- 
structing them  in  the  light  of  the  ancient  authorities.  He  caused 
the  mural  paintings  found  in  the  sepulchre  of  the  Nasones  to  be 
carefully  reproduced  by  P.  S.  Bartoli  in  a  rare  and  sumptuous 
work,  the  Peintures  Antiques  (1757).  He  noted  with  interest 
the  new  enthusiasm  for  Homer,  and  observed  that  impressions 
derived  from  Homer  were  always  enduring,  because  his  ideas  were 
'just  and  grand'1.  He  advised  artists  to  choose  their  subjects, 
not  from  Ovid,  but  from  Homer  and  Virgil,  and,  in  the  execution 
of  their  works,  to  keep  closely  to  the  poet's  description,  thus 
ignoring  (as  Lessing  has  shown)  the  essential  difference  between 
painting  and  poetry2.  Lastly,  he  took  the  keenest  interest  in  the 
exploration  of  Herculaneum  and  Veleia,  and  in  the  Roman  camps 
and  Roman  roads  of  France1'1. 

Greek  and   Roman  coins  had  been  collected  with  eager  enthusiasm   by 
Charles  Patin  (1633-94),  J.  F.  F.  Vaillant  (1655 — 1708),  and 
Joseph    Pellcrin    (1684 — 1782);    and    ancient    gems    skilfully        Vaillant 
reproduced  in  the  Pierres  Gravees  (17-12)  of  P.  J.  Mariette        Pellerin 
(1694 — 1775)4-     Meanwhile,  Ancient  Geography  was  admir-         n'^v'6  *fl 
ably  represented   by  the  '  First   Geographer  of  the   King  of 
France',  J.  B.  B.  D'Anville  (1697 — 1782),  who  published  no  less  than  seventy- 
eight  geographical  treatises  and  two  hundred  and  eleven  maps,  all  of  them 
distinguished  for  their  clearness  and  accuracy.     Some  of  his  best  works  were 
on  Ancient  Gaul,  Italy,  and   Kgypt. 

1    Corresp.  ii  67. 

~   Tableaux,  1757;  criticised  in  Laokoon,  c.  xi. 

3  Stark,  Handbiich,  147—151.  4  Stark,  146  f. 


392  FRANCE.  [CENT.  xvm. 

A  popular  type  of  Archaeology  was  represented  by  the  anti- 
quary, Jean  Jacques  Barthe'lemy  (1716 — 1795),  who 

Barthelemy 

was  educated  by  the  Jesuits,  enjoyed  the  patronage 
of  the  Due  and  the  Duchesse  de  Choiseul,  and  travelled  with 
them  in  Italy,  where  he  was  keenly  interested  in  the  recent 
discovery  of  the  Herculanean  papyri.  He  became  keeper  of  the 
royal  cabinet  of  medals  in  Paris,  was  familiar  with  several  oriental 
languages,  and  was  the  founder  of  the  scientific  knowledge  of 
Phoenician,  and  of  numismatic  palaeography2.  He  is  still  more 
widely  known  as  the  author  of  the  Voyage  du  Jeune  Anacharsis 
en  Grece  (1789),  a  work  that,  for  thirty  years,  occupied  all  the 
authors  leisure  hours,  and  has  long  been  held  in  high  esteem  as 
a  popular  account  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  ancient  Greece. 
It  has  even  been  translated  into  modern  Greek. 

In  this  work  the  youthful  traveller  is  the  counterpart  of  the  author,  while 
two  of  his  other  characters  correspond  to  his  patrons  the. Due  and  Duchesse 
de  Choiseul.  The  brief  analysis  of  Aristotle's  treatise  on  Poetry,  included 
in  this  work3,  is  apparently  inspired  by  Marmontel;  the  account  of  Greek 
Astronomy4  is  a  reminiscence  of  Fontenelle;  the  criticisms  on  the  constitu- 
tion of  Sparta  recall  the  paradoxes  of  the  Abbe  de  Mably  and  of  Rousseau ; 
while  the  views  on  the  Drama  are  suggestive  of  those  of  Voltaire.  Even  apart 
from  these  anticipations  of  modern  opinions,  anachronisms  are  not  wanting. 
Thus  we  have  an  Athenian  of  the  age  of  Philip  giving  us  a  definition  of  the 
Eclogue  which  really  belongs  to  the  times  of  Theocritus.  In  the  discussion 
on  Poetry5  the  poetic  imagination  is  described  in  terms  far  more  precise  than 
those  of  Plato's  Ion  or  Phaedrus,  while  the  definition  of  the  imagination  as 
the  faculty  of  calling  up  images,  whether  in  waking  hours  or  in  the  hours 
of  sleep,  is  not  the  view  of  Aristotle,  but  that  of  Philostratus,  five  centuries 
later6;  and  the  author's  views  on  'the  purgation  of  the  passions'  resemble 
those  of  modern  interpreters  rather  than  the  dimly  suggested  opinions  of 
Aristotle  himself.  Again,  much  is  omitted  that  might  well  have  found  a  place 
in  its  pages.  In  the  description  of  the  popular  songs  of  Greece,  the  swallow- 
song  of  the  boys  and  girls  of  Rhodes  is  absent7;  and  interesting  traits  might 
have  been  borrowed  from  the  Oeconomicus  of  Xenophon,  and  from  the  private 
speeches  of  the  Attic  orators.  But  the  author's  glowing  description  of  the 
pan-hellenic  festivals  gives  a  new  life  to  the  poetry  of  Pindar ;  he  is  prompted 
by  a  happy  inspiration  when  he  describes  Plato  as  unfolding  to  his  disciples 

1  Egger,  Hellenisme,  ii  404.  2  Stark,  175. 

3  c.  71.  4  c.  30.  5  c.  80. 

6  Egger,  Hisloire  de  la  Critique,  c.  75.  Cp.  vol.  i  722,  3342  stiprd. 

7  Athenaeus,  360. 


CHAP.  XXIII.]   BARTHELEMY.     SEROUX  D'AGINCOURT.     393 

the  cosmology  of  the  Titnaeus  on  the  crest  of  Sunium,  where  a  violent  storm 
has  just  been  succeeded  by  a  perfect  calm ;  his  story  of  the  death  of  Socrates 
is  not  unworthy  of  the  Greek  original  in  Plato,  and  his  description  of  the 
voyage  of  the  sacred  vessel  bound  for  Delos  might  well  have  been  written  by 
one  who  had  long  been  familiar  with  the  Cyclades.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
author  had  never  been  beyond  the  bounds  of  France  and  Italy,  but  in  Italy 
he  had  viewed  the  early  excavations  of  Pompeii  and  had  thus  been  enabled 
to  give  a  more  vivid  description  of  the  visit  of  Anacharsis  to  the  theatre  of 
Athens1.  The  work  is  accompanied  by  illustrative  notes,  and  maps. 

In  the  year  that  followed  the  publication  of  the  Anacharsis^ 
the  author  produced  a  paper  on  the  finances  of  Athens,  suggested 
by  an  Attic  inscription  that  had  recently  reached  the  Louvre2. 
The  Anacharsis,  which  was  published  in  1789,  on  the  very  eve  of 
the  French  Revolution,  supplies  us  with  a  pleasing  picture  of  the 
literary  labours  that  were  rudely  interrupted  by  that  appalling 
event.  Deprived  of  his  official  position  and  his  Academic 
functions,  the  keeper  of  the  King's  Cabinet  of  Coins,  and  the 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  was  sent  to  prison.  He 
there  wrote  three  memoirs  including  a  delightful  retrospect  of  his 
career,  which  was  not  unclouded  by  fears  for  the  future  of  the 
studies  to  which  he  had  devoted  more  than  fifty  years  of  his  life. 
He  was  released  from  prison  owing  to  the  influence  of  Danton ; 
but,  before  the  meetings  of  the  Academy  could  be  resumed,  the 
Abbe  Barthelemy  had  already  passed  away3. 

The  archaeologist  Seroux  d'Agincourt  of   Beauvais  (1730 — 
1814)   escaped   the   perils   of   the    Revolution    by 
making  Italy  his  home  for  thirty  years,  from  1778     d.Aerj°court 
to    1809.     A  pupil  of  the  Comte  de  Caylus,   he 
bequeathed  to  his  own  pupils  a  set  of  engravings  of  thirty-seven 
antique  terracottas,  but  it  was  not  until  1823  that  his  great  work 
in   six   volumes  was   published, — a  work  that   fills   the  interval 
between  the  end  of  ancient  and  the  beginning  of  modern  art,  and, 
in   its  earliest  portions,  is   of  special   value   in   connexion  with 
classical  archaeology4. 

While  the  travels  of  Seroux  d'Agincourt  and  Barthelemy  were  confined  to 

1  c.  ii. 

2  Mem.  deTAcad.  des  belles  lettres  (1792);  C.  I.  G.  no.  147. 

3  Kgger,  Hellenisme,  ii  296—310. 

4  Stark,  256. 


394  FRANCE.  [CENT.  xvnr. 

Italy,  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  modern  Greeks  were  carefully  studied 
at  Constantinople,  and  elsewhere,  by  Pierre  Augustin  Guys 
(1720 — 1799),  a  merchant  and  Secretary  of  State,  who  was 

a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Marseilles,  and  who  died  at  Zante1. 

A  more  distinguished  representative  of  France,  the  Comte  de 
Choiseul-Gouffier    (1752 — 1817),    the    nephew   of 
GouffierCU  Barthelemy's  great  patron,  travelled  in  Greece  and 

Asia  Minor  from  1776  to  1782.  In  1784  he 
published  a  memoir  on  the  Hippodrome  of  Olympia,  and  was 
appointed  ambassador  of  France  at  Constantinople.  Three  years 
later  he  sent  the  artist  Fauvel  (who  had  already  travelled  in 
Greece)  to  sketch  the  ruins  of  Athens,  and  obtained  for  the 
Louvre  a  single  metope  of  the  Parthenon  and  a  single  slab  of  the 
frieze.  Of  the  two  folio  volumes  of  his  Voyage  Pittoresque  en 
Grece,  the  first  alone  (1782)  appeared  before  the  outbreak  of  the 
Revolution.  The  author  fled  to  St  Petersburg,  where  he  became 
Director  of  the  Academy  and  of  the  Public  Libraries.  He 
returned  to  France  in  1802,  was  made  a  Peer  of  the  Realm  in 
1814,  and  died  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1817.  It  was  not  until  1822 
that  the  second  volume  of  his  Voyage  was  published,  a  work  that 
aroused  and  maintained  in  France  an  increasing  interest  in  the 
glorious  scenery  and  the  memorable  associations  of  Greece2. 

The  Jesuit  Academician,  Gabriel  Brotier  (1723 — 1789),  is  best 
known  in  connexion  with  his  edition  of  Tacitus 
(1771),  which  has  often  been  reprinted;   he  also 
edited  Pliny  (1779)  and  Phaedrus  (1783).     Pierre 
Henri  Larcher  of  Dijon  (1726 — 1812)  was  an  Academician  and  a 
Professor  in  Paris.     His  most  important  work  was  his  translation 
of  Herodotus,  accompanied  with  historical  notes,  in  seven  volumes 
(1786),  which  has  been  repeatedly  republished.      He   had  pre- 
viously translated  the  Electra  of  Euripides,  the  Cyropaedeia   of 
Xenophon,  and  the  Greek  romance  of  Chariton3. 

We  may  here  make  separate  mention  of  a  group  of  four 
Alsatian  scholars : — Brunck,  Oberlin,  Schweighauser,  and  Bast. 
Their  surnames  suggest  German  descent,  but  the  first  three  were 

1  Voyage  Lilt,  de  la  Grcce,  ed.  2,  1776. 

2  Stark,  256.  3  Boissonade,  Notice,  1813. 


CHAP.  XXIII.]      CHOISEUL-GOUFFIER.      BRUNCK.  395 

subjects  of  France,  for  Strassburg  had  been  captured  by  the 
French  in  1681  and  the  rest  of  Alsace  had  already  been  annexed 
in  the  course  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  Richard 
Francois  Philippe  Brunck  (1729 — 1803),  born  at 
Strassburg,  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits  in  Paris,  and  served  in  the 
commissariat  department  during  part  of  the  Seven  Years'  War.  On 
his  return  from  Germany  in  1760,  he  devoted  himself  to  classical 
studies  in  Strassburg  ;  during  the  Revolution  he  was  imprisoned 
at  Besangon ;  and,  on  his  liberation,  sold  his  library  in  1790, 
thirteen  years  before  his  death1.  His  enthusiasm  for  the  Greek 
poets  led  to  his  devoting  his  leisure  to  the  critical  revision  of  their 
texts.  He  had  collations  of  MSS  at  his  disposal,  and  ample  means 
for  the  editing  of  their  works.  Under  the  title  of  Analecta  from 
the  Greek  Poets,  he  published  in  three  volumes  a  large  number  of 
Epigrams  from  the  Greek  Anthology2  (classified  under  the  names 
of  their  authors),  together  with  the  Bucolic  Poets  and  Callimachus 
(1772-6).  He  also  edited  Anacreon  and  Apollonius  Rhodius. 
He  was  specially  successful  as  a  critic  of  the  Greek  drama.  Thus 
he  edited  three  plays  of  Aeschylus8,  seven  of  Euripides4,  and  the 
whole  of  Aristophanes  (1783)  and  Sophocles  (1786-9).  In  his 
recension  of  Sophocles  he  opened  a  new  era  by  removing  from 
the  text  the  interpolations  of  Triclinius,  and  by  reverting  to  the 
Aldine  edition  and  especially  to  the  Paris  MS  A  (cent,  xiii),  with 
which  that  edition  generally  agrees5.  The  Laurentian  MS  was 
then  practically  unknown  to  scholars  ;  it  was  not  collated  by 
Elmsley  until  1820.  Brunck  was  often  led  astray  by  the  tempta- 
tion to  introduce  conjectures  of  his  own,  and  by  an  undue  anxiety 

1  Memoire  (1803);  Fr.  Jacobs  in  Allg.  Encycl.  I  vol.  xiii  220-2,  Halm  in 
A.   D.   />.;•' Lett  res    Inedites'   in   Annuaire,..des   Eludes  grefqiics,    1874; 
Bursian,  i  500. 

2  Cp.   Fr.   Jacobs,   Proleg.    Breviora,  p.   xxi  b   Diibner,   '  Inter  ipsos   belli 
Borussici   tumultus,  graecis   literis  admotus,  vix  e  limpidissimis  illis  fontibus 
gustaverat,  quum  incredibili  ardore  dies  noctesque  hoc  unum  ageret,  ut  sitim 
gustando  excitatam  largis  haustibus  restingueret.     Forte  in  ejus  manus  apo- 
grapha  quaedam  Antliologiae  ineditae  incidental'  etc. 

3  Prom.,  Persae,  Sept  em  (1779). 

4  Am/row.,  Or.,  Mcd.,  Hec.,  Plwen.,  Hipp.,  Bacchac  (17791"). 

5  Jebb,  Introduction   to  Facsimile  of  Latir.   J\/S,  p.    20;   and  to  Text  of 
Sophocles  (1897),  xiii. 


396  FRANCE.  [CENT.  xvm. 

to  accept  the  canon  propounded  by  Dawes  ;  nevertheless,  he  fully 
earned  the  credit  of  having  laid  the  foundation  for  a  better  treat- 
ment of  the  text  and  metre.  He  is  far  less  well  known  for  his 
editions  of  Latin  Classics,  such  as  Plautus  (1779  f),  Virgil  (1785), 
and  Terence  (1797). 

Jeremias  Jacob  Oberlin  (1735 — 1806),  who  was  born  and  bred 
at  Strassburg,  passed  his  whole  life  as  a  member  of 

Oberlin 

the  staff  of  the  gymnasium  and  the  university,  being 
head  of  the  former  from  1787  to  his  death.  He  edited  Vibius 
Sequester,  as  well  as  Ovid's  Tristia  and  Ibis,  Horace,  Tacitus, 
and  Caesar ;  and  was  interested  in  archaeology,  and  palaeography, 
and  in  the  history  of  literature1. 

Strassburg  was  also  the  place  of  the  birth  and  education  of 
Tohann    Schweighauser    (1742 — 1830).    who    was 

Schweighauser      J 

professor  of  Greek  and  Oriental  Languages  from 
1778  to  1824.  He  took  part  in  editing  two  of  Brunck's  earlier 
editions  of  Greek  plays,  but  his  own  studies  were  mainly  confined 
to  the  classical  writers  of  Greek  prose.  Thus  he  edited  Appian 
(i 785)2,  Polybius  (1795),  Epictetus  and  Cebes  (1798),  Athenaeus 
(1798),  and  Herodotus  (1810).  He  also  produced  excellent 
lexicons  to  Herodotus  and  Polybius ;  his  Athenaeus  (which 
included  the  whole  of  Casaubon's  commentary)  extended  to 
fourteen  volumes.  His  own  notes  invariably  give  proof  of 
extensive  reading,  and  are  characterised  by  the  minutest  accuracy. 
In  Latin  prose  he  is  only  represented  by  an  edition  of  Seneca's 
prose  works  in  five  volumes  (i8o8)3. 

Schweighauser  and  Brunck  were  associated  with  the  series  known  as  the 

editiones  Bipontinae  (1779 — 1809)  begun  at  Zweibriicken,  and 

BiEontina<f       continued  in  1 798  at  Strassburg.     The  Greek  Classics  included 

were    Herodotus,    Thucydides,    Plato,    Aristotle,    Diodorus, 

Lucian,  and   the   Serif  tores   Erotici.     The   Latin  Classics   extended   to  one 

hundred   and   fifteen   volumes,    and   included    Brunck's   edition   of    Plautus, 

which  marks  a  very  different  stage  in  the  history  of  the  text  to  that  which 

has  since  been  attained.     The  series  comprised   independent  recensions,  to- 

1  Fata  literarum  oinnis  aevi  tabulis  explicata  (1789). 

2  For  this  ed.  he  used  many  excellent  MSS  (Opusc.  Acad.  ii  97  f),  together 
with  unpublished  notes  by  Musgrave. 

3  L.  Spach,  Les  deux  Schweighaeuser,  in  Oeiivres  Choisies,  1871,  I7sf; 
Ch.  Rabany,  Les  Schiveighaeiiser,  1884,  128  pp.;  Bursian,  i  503. 


CHAP.  XXIII.]     SCHWEIGHAUSER.     BAST.     VILLOISON.      397 

gather  with  reprints  from  earlier  commentaries.  The  enterprise  was  mainly 
organised  by  G.  C.  Croll  (1728 — 1790),  editor  of  Terence,  Sallust,  Tacitus, 
Velleius,  and  Cicero's  Brutus,  De  Officiis,  and  Tusculan  Disputations  etc., 
and  by  his  colleagues  J.  V.  Embser  (d.  1781),  and  F.  C.  Exter  (1746 — 1817), 
editor  of  Plato,  Cicero  (thirteen  volumes),  Seneca,  and  Tacitus1.  Croll  and 
Exter  were  successively  Rectors  of  the  gymnasium  at  Zweibrticken2. 

Our   group  of  scholarly  Alsatians  closes  with  the  name  of 
Friedrich  Jacob  Bast  (1771 — 1811)  of  Buchsweiler, 
which    then    belonged   to    the    distant    Duchy   of 
Hesse-Darmstadt.     Bast,  who  was  legal  adviser  to  the  Hessian 
legation  in  Vienna  and  Paris,  is  best  known  in  connexion  with 
the  useful  Commentatio  Palaeographica,  which  he  contributed  to 
Schaefer's  edition  of  Gregorius  Corinthius  towards  the  close  of 
his  brief  life  of  forty  years.     At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was 
preparing  an  edition  of  Apollonius  Dyscolus3. 

Ancient    History  is  represented   in    France   by  Pierre  Charles  Levesque 
(1736 — 1812),  who  wrote  a  Critical    History  of  the   Roman 
Republic,    and   discussed   the    Constitutions   of  Athens   and       <^^°^  • 

o  d  i  n  L  c  - 1*  ro  l  X 

Sparta  (1796  f);  and  by  the  Baron  de  Sainte-Croix  (1746 — • 
1806),  a  French  officer  living  at  Avignon  and  in  Paris,  whose  works  on  the 
Historians  of  Alexander  the  Great,  on  Ancient  Federal  Governments,  on  the 
Cretan  Constitution  and  on  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries  are  still  held  in  esteem4. 
Both  of  these  lived  on  into  the  age  of  Wolf,  whose  Prolegomena  were  published 
in  1795  and  were  attacked  by  Sainte-Croix  in  a  work  described  as  a  '  Refutation 
of  a  paradox  on  Homer'5. 

Homer  was  the  theme  of  the  most  fruitful  labours  of  Jean 
Baptiste  Gaspard  d'Ansse   de   Villoison6  (1753 — • 

Villoison 

1805).     As  early  as  1696,  Kiister  had  mentioned 

1  1792;  ed.  2,  1798. 

2  Butters,   Editiones   Bipontinae,  Zweibriicken   (1877),    53  pp.;   Bursian, 
i  504  f. 

3  Mem.  in  Wyttenbach,  Opp.     Cp.,  on  Elsass,  Urlichs,  n6'2. 

4  Cp.  Wyttenbach's  Opuscula ;  and  Notices  by  De  Sacy  and  Dacier. 

5  Millin's  Mag.  Encyd.  vol.  v  (1798). 

6  His  aristocratic   name   was  regarded  with  disfavour  in  the  age  of  the 
Revolution.     Finding  it  necessary,  as  a  Member  of  the  Academy,  to  obtain 
permission  to  write  a  paper  on  some  point  of  philosophy,  he  presented  himself 
before    one    of  the   revolutionary    authorities,  when    the    following    dialogue 
ensued  : — Comment  t'appelle-tu,  citoycn? — De  Villoison. — //  ny  a  plus  de  De. 
— He  bien:  soit  Villoison. — //  n'y  a  plus  de  Ville. —  Comment  faut-il  done  que 
je   niappclle? — Commune-Oison.      Villoison   himself  greatly   relished   telling 


398  FRANCE.  [CENT.  xvm. 

the  scholia  of  a  MS  of  Homer  in  the  Library  of  St  Mark's  in 
Venice1;  in  1781  Villoison  drew  attention  to  the  importance  of 
this  MS2.  He  was  accordingly  sent  to  Venice  at  the  public 
expense  to  collate  MSS  and  to  transcribe  the  scholia,  which  he 
published  with  ample  prolegomena  in  lySS3.  Meanwhile,  he  had 
visited  the  Court  of  Weimar,  and  had  spent  two  years  in  Greece 
(1785-7).  During  the  Revolution  he  fled  to  Orleans;  he  was 
afterwards  Professor  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Greek  at  the  College 
de  France.  His  earliest  work  had  been  the  Homeric  Lexicon  of 
Apollonius  (i773-4)4,  followed  by  an  edition  of  the  Pastoralia 
of  Longus  (1778).  His  publication  of  the  Venetian  scholia  on 
Homer  supplied  Wolf  with  arguments  for  his  view  that  the 
current  text  of  Homer  differed  from  that  of  the  Alexandrian 
critics.  It  is  said  that  Villoison,  who  had  hardly  been  conscious 
of  the  supreme  significance  of  these  scholia,  was  alarmed  at  the 
use  to  which  they  were  put  by  Wolf  in  his  attack  on  the 
traditional  opinions  on  Homer5.  The  last  scholar  of  the  old 
school  had  unconsciously  forged  the  weapons  for  the  first  scholar 
of  the  new6. 

this  story  to  his  Greek  friend,  Panagiotes  Kodrikes  (cp.  Thereianos,  Ada- 
mantios  Koraes,  i  179,  where  the  new  name  is  further  transformed  into  Ko/x- 
/j.ovi>ova£u/v). 

1  Historia   Critica  Homeri,  p.   in,   '  Venetiis   in    Bibliotheca    D.   Marci 
servalur  Ilias  cum  scholiis  ab  editis  multum  differentibus'. 

2  Anecdota  Graeca  (Venice,  1781),  ii  184,  '(Iliadis  editio)  quae  cum  hisce 
signis  criticis  et  aureis  illis  utriusque  Codicis  prodibit  Scholiis'. 

3  For  details   cp.    Beccard,    De   Scholiis   in   Homeri  Iliadein   Venetis,   i, 
Berlin,   1850. 

4  Since  edited  by  Bekker,  and  Pluygers. 

5  Dacier,  Notice  (1806),  15  f. 

6  Egger,  HelUtmme,  ii  400-2;  Nouvelle  Biogr.  Gen.  xiii  i  — 13;  Wytten- 
bach,  Opuscitla,  ii  74 — 79;  Boissonade  in  Mag.  Encycl.  iii  380;  Urlichs,  IO92. 


RICHARD  BENTLEY. 

From  Dean's  engraving  of  the  portrait  by  Thornhill  (1710)  in  the  Master's 
Lodge,  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  (frontispiece  of  Monk's  Life  of 
Bentley,  ed.  2,  1833). 


CHAPTER    XXIV. 

ENGLAND  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

IN  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  greatest  name 
among  the  classical  scholars  of  Europe  is  that  of 
Richard  Bentley  (1662  — 1742).  Born  at  Oulton, 
near  Wakefield,  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  he  was  educated 
at  Wakefield  Grammar  School,  and  at  St  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge. He  was  admitted  a  member  of  that  College  at  the  age 
of  fourteen  years  and  four  months,  and  took  his  degree  as  a  high 
Wrangler  at  the  age  of  eighteen.  It  was  at  the  same  age  that  one 
of  his  future  opponents,  Richard  Johnson,  had  entered  the  College 
in  the  previous  year.  As  there  was  no  vacancy  in  the  only  two 
fellowships  then  open  to  natives  of  Yorkshire,  Bentley  was  never 
a  Fellow  of  his  College.  The  College,  however,  made  him  head- 
master of  Spalding ;  a  former  Fellow,  Stillingfleet,  Dean  of 
St  Paul's,  appointed  him  tutor  to  his  son  ;  and,  in  the  library  of 
Stillingfleet,  one  of  the  largest  private  libraries  of  the  time, 
Bentley  laid  the  foundation  of  his  profound  and  multifarious 
learning.  When  Stillingfleet  had  become  bishop  of  Worcester, 
and  Bentley  was  his  chaplain,  a  nobleman,  who  had  met  Bentley 
at  the  bishop's  table,  said  to  his  host  immediately  after  : — •'  My 
Lord,  that  chaplain  of  yours  is  a  very  extraordinary  man ';  'Yes', 
replied  Stillingfleet,  '  had  he  but  the  gift  of  humility,  he  would  be 
the  most  extraordinary  man  in  Europe".  Meanwhile,  he  had 
accompanied  his  pupil  to  Oxford,  thus  obtaining  constant  access 
to  the  treasures  of  the  Bodleian.  At  Oxford  he  published,  as  an 
appendix  to  an  edition  of  the  Chronicle  of  John  Malalas  of 

1  J.  Nichols,  in  Gentleman 's  Magazine,  Nov.  1779  (Monk's  Life  of  Bentley, 
\  48,  eel.  1833). 

S.     II.  26 


402  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

Antioch,  his  celebrated  Letter  to  Mill  (1691).  In  that  Letter  he 
gave  the  learned  world  the  first-fruits  of  his  profound  study  of  the 
Attic  Drama.  The  early  dramatists  of  Athens  are  described  by 
the  Chronicler  as  '  Themis,  Minos,  and  Auleas ' ;  under  this  dis- 
guise, Bentley  detected  the  names  of  Thespis,  Ion  of  Chios,  and 
Aeschylus.  He  also  announced  his  discovery  of  the  metrical 
continuity  (or  Synapheia)  of  the  anapaestic  system l.  In  less  than 
a  hundred  pages,  he  corrected  and  explained  more  than  sixty 
Greek  or  Latin  authors.  In  recognition  of  this  masterly  per- 
formance, he  was  hailed  by  two  of  his  most  erudite  contemporaries 
on  the  continent,  as  'the  new  star  of  English  letters'2.  Seventy- 
five  years  later,  Ruhnken  declared  that,  '  to  ascertain  the  truth  as 
to  the  lexicon  of  Hesychius,  the  world  had  needed  the  learned 
audacity  of  Bentley's  Letter  to  Mill, — that  wonderful  monument 
of  genius  and  erudition,  such  as  could  only  have  come  from  the 
first  critic  of  his  age'3. 

In  1697,  his  learned  correspondent,  Graevius,  published  an 
edition  of  the  text  of  Callimachus,  which  had  been  prepared  by 
his  short-lived  son.  The  work  was  made  memorable  by  the  fact 
that  it  was  accompanied  by  an  erudite  commentary  from  the  pen 
of  Spanheim,  and  by  a  remarkable  series  of  some  420  fragments 
collected  by  the  industry  and  elucidated  by  the  genius  of  Bentley. 
This  collection  is  a  striking  example  of  critical  method,  and  is 
characterised  by  sound  judgement  as  well  as  undoubted  brilliancy4. 
It  was  described  by  Valckenaer  as  the  most  perfect  work  of  its 
kind6. 

1  Dawes,  Misc.  Crit.,  p.  30,  ed.  Oxon.,  says  : — "Hanc  ffwafaiav  (sic)  in 
anapaesticis  locum  habere  primus  docuit,  non  iam,  uti  ipse  ad  Hor.   Carm. 
iii  12,  i  asseverat,  Cl.  Bentleius,  sed  Terentianus  : — 'Anapaestica  fiunt  ibidem 
per  (rwa<f>eiav '."     But  the  knowledge  of  this  fact  had  been  lost,  when  it  was 
rediscovered  by  Bentley. 

2  Graevius,  Praef.  ad  Callimachum,   'novum   sed   splendidissimum   Bri- 
tanniae    lumen';    Spanheim,    in   Julianum,   p.    19,    'novum    idemque    iam 
lucidum  litteratae  Britanniae  sidus '  (Monk,  i  31). 

3  Ofuscula,  i  192  (1766),  ed.  1823. 

4  Jebb's  Bentley,  34. 

5  Diatribe  in  Ear.,  p.  4  a,  '  nihil  in  hoc  genere  praestantius  prodiit  aut 
magis  elaboratum ' ;  and  on  Schol.  Leyd.  in  II,  xxii  398,  '  opus  perfectissimum ' 

"(Manly,  n3f). 


CHAP.  XXIV.]  BENTLEY.  403 

Meanwhile,  a  controversy  on  the  literary  merits  of  the  ancients 
and  the  moderns,  that  had  arisen  in  France,  had  found  its  way 
to  England.  Perrault1  and  Fontenelle2  had  claimed  the  palm  for 
the  moderns3.  Sir  William  Temple,  in  his  Essay  upon  Ancient  and 
Modern  Learning,  entered  the  lists  as  the  champion  of  the  ancients. 
His  challenge  to  a  further  conflict  is  given  in  the  following  terms  : 

'  It  may  perhaps  be  further  affirmed,  in  favour  of  the  Ancients,  that  the 
oldest  books  we  have  are  still  in  their  kind  the  best.  The  two  most  ancient 
that  I  know  of  in  prose,  among  those  we  call  profane  authors,  are  .^sop's 
Fables  and  Phalaris's  Epistles,  both  living  near  the  same  time,  which  was 
that  of  Cyrus  and  Pythagoras.  As  the  first  has  been  agreed  by  all  ages  since 
for  the  greatest  master  in  his  kind,  and  all  others  of  that  sort  have  been  but 
imitators  of  his  original ;  so  I  think  the  Epistles  of  Phalaris  to  have  more  race, 
more  spirit,  more  force  of  wit  and  genius,  than  any  others  I  have  ever  seen, 
either  ancient  or  modern.  I  know,  several  learned  men  (or  that  usually  pass 
for  such,  under  the  name  of  critics)  have  not  esteemed  them  genuine ;  and 
Politian,  with  some  others,  have  attributed  them  to  Lucian :  but  I  think  he 
must  have  little  skill  in  painting  that  cannot  find  out  this  to  be  an  original. 
Such  diversity  of  passions,  upon  such  variety  of  actions  and  passages  of  life 
and  government ;  such  freedom  of  thought,  such  boldness  of  expression  ;  such 
bounty  to  his  friends,  such  scorn  of  his  enemies ;  such  honour  of  learned  men, 
such  esteem  of  good;  such  knowledge  of  life,  such  contempt  of  death,  with 
such  fierceness  of  nature  and  cruelty  of  revenge,  could  never  be  represented 
but  by  him  that  possessed  them.  And  I  esteem  Lucian  to  have  been  no 
more  capable  of  writing  than  of  acting  what  Phalaris  did.  In  all  one  writ, 
you  find  the  scholar  or  the  sophist ;  and  in  all  the  other,  the  tyrant  and  the 
commander ' 4. 

The  challenge  was  partly  taken  up  by  Bentley's  friend,  William 
Wotton,  of  St  Catharine's,  who  had  migrated  to  St  John's  in  1682. 
In  1694,  Wotton  published,  in  his  Reflections  upon  Ancient  and 
Modern  Learning,  a  calm  and  judicious  examination  of  Temple's 
essay.  On  its  appearance,  Bentley  assured  his  friend  that  the  two 
books,  which  Temple  had  termed  the  '  oldest '  and  '  best '  in  the 
world,  were  in  truth  neither  old  nor  good ;  that  the  '  Aesopian ' 
Fables  were  not  the  work  of  Aesop,  and  that  the  Letters  of 

1  Le  siecle  de  Louis  le  Grand  (1687)  ;  Parallele  des  anciens  et  des  tnoderncs 
(1688-92). 

2  Appendix  to  his  Dissertation  on  Pastoral  Poetry  (1689). 

3  Cp.  Monk  i  58  f;  Macaulay's  Essay  on  Sir  William  Temple,  pp.  452-7 
of  £ssays,  ed.  1861.      Cp.  H.  Rigault,  Histoire  de  fa  Querelle  des  anciens  et  des 
modernes  (Paris,  1856),  490  pp. 

4  In  Miscellanea,  part  ii  (1690) ;   Works,  i  166,  ed.  1750. 

26 2 


404  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

Phalaris  were  a  forgery  of  a  later  age.  Meanwhile,  a  sudden  and 
unwonted  demand  for  the  Letters  had  been  aroused  by  Temple's 
splendid  advertisement,  and  accordingly  an  edition  was  promptly 
prepared  in  1695  by  a  youthful  scholar  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
a  'young  gentleman  of  great  hopes",  the  honourable  Charles 
Boyle.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  genuineness  of  the 
Letters  was  never  maintained  by  Boyle,  who  leaves  it  an  open 
question.  It  was  Temple,  who  was  committed  to  the  opinion 
that  the  author  was  Phalaris2.  A  new  edition  of  Wotton's 
Reflections  was  soon  called  for,  and  in  1697  Bentley  contributed 
his  promised  Dissertation  on  Aesop  and  Phalaris. 

Bentley  begins  by  attacking  the  chronology.  Taking  550  B.C.  as  the  latest 
possible  date  for  the  age  of  Phalaris,  he  shows  that,  of  the  Sicilian  cities 
mentioned  in  the  Letters,  Phintia  was  not  founded  till  nearly  three  centuries, 
or  Alaesa  till  more  than  1 40  years,  afterwards ;  and  that  the  potter  of 
Corinth,  who  gave  his  name  to  the  '  Thericlean  cups '  presented  by  Phalaris 
to  his  physician,  lived  more  than  120  years  later.  Again,  the  Letters  ring  the 
changes  on  the  names  of  Zancle  and  Messana,  whereas  Zancle  was  not  known 
as  Messana  until  more  than  60  years  after  the  death  of  Fhalaris.  Similarly, 
they  mention  Tauromenium,  though  it  was  many  generations  before  that  name 
was  given  to  the  Sicilian  city  of  Naxos.  The  phrase,  '  to  extirpate  like  a 
pine-tree ',  which  is  used  by  the  author,  originated  with  Croesus,  who  began 
his  reign  after  the  death  of  Phalaris  ;  another  of  his  phrases,  '  words  are  the 
shadow  of  deeds ',  was  due  to  Democritus,  more  than  a  century  later.  The 
author  was  familiar  with  later  poets,  Pindar,  Euripides,  and  Callimachus ; 
he  even  mentions  '  tragedies ',  a  form  of  literature  that  came  into  being  some 
years  after  the  tyrant's  death. 

Bentley  next  attacks  the  language,  which  is  Attic  Greek,  whereas  the  King 
of  the  Dorian  colony  of  Agrigentura  would  naturally  have  written  in  the  Doric 
dialect.  Even  the  coinage  is  of  the  Attic  and  not  the  Sicilian  standard.  '  Take 
them  in  the  whole  bulk.... I  should  say  they  are  a  fardle  of  common-places, 
without  life  or  spirit  from  action  and  circumstance — You  feel,  by  the  emptiness 
and  deadness  of  them,  that  you  converse  with  some  dreaming  pedant  with  his 
elbow  on  his  desk  ;  not  with  an  active,  ambitious  tyrant,  with  his  hand  on 
his  sword,  commanding  a  million  of  subjects ' 3. 

Bentley  also  examines  the  Letters  of  Themistocles,  Socrates,  and  Euripides, 
and  proves  that  they  were  forged  many  centuries  after  the  death  of  their 
reputed  authors.  Here,  as  before,  his  arguments  turn  on  points  of  history 
and  chronology,  and  language.  As  to  the  '  Letters  of  Euripides ',  a  private 

1  Bentley's  First  Dissertation,  p.  68,  ed.  1697. 

2  Jebb's  Bentley,  56,  58. 

3  First  Dissertation,  p.  62,  ed.  1697. 


CHAP.  XXIV.]  BENTLEY.  405 

communication  from  Bentley1  had  not  deterred  Barnes  from  declaring  in  his 
edition  of  1694,  that  any  doubt  as  to  their  having  been  written  by  Euripides 
was  a  proof  of  either  '  effrontery  or  incapacity  '.  The  arguments  urged  in  that 
communication  are  here  repeated  with  several  additions. 

The  '  Aesopian  Fables '  are  ascribed  by  Bentley  to  a  prose  paraphrase  of 
the  choliambics  of  Babrius  executed  by  Maximus  Planudes,  the  Byzantine 
monk  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

The  attack  on  '  Phalaris  '  was  answered  by  a  confederacy  of 
the  friends  of  Boyle2.  A  second  edition  of  the  reply  appeared  in 
a  few  months  ;  a  third,  in  the  following  year.  At  first,  and,  indeed,, 
for  long  afterwards,  popular  opinion  was  against  Bentley.  Early 
in  1695,  Pepys,  after  reading  the  first  attack  on  Bentley  in  the 
preface  to  Boyle's  edition  of  the  Letters,  writes  to  a  friend  : — 
'  I  suspect  Mr  Boyle  is  in  the  right ;  for  our  friend's  learning 
(which  I  have  a  great  value  for)  wants  a  little  filing ;  and  I  doubt 
not  but  a  few  such  strokes  as  this  will  do  it  and  him  good'3.  In 
1697  Swift,  who  was  then  living  under  Temple's  roof  at  Moor 
Park,  attacked  Bentley  in  his  'Tale  of  a  Tub'4,  and  in  his 
'Battle  of  the  Books'5.  In  April,  1698,  Evelyn  'alone  would 
stand  up '  for  him,  waiting  till  he  had  heard  both  sides". . 

Early  in  1699,  Bentley  answered  Boyle  and  his  friends  by 
producing  an  enlarged  edition  of  his  Dissertation.  It  is  a  work 
that  marks  an  epoch  in  the  History  of  Scholarship.  It  is  not  only 
a  '  masterpiece  of  controversy  '  and  a  '  store-house  of  erudition  ' ; 
it  is  an  example  of  critical  method,  heralding  a  new  era7.  Yet  it 
was  long  before  its  mastery  was  recognised  :  many  years  elapsed 
before  Tyrwhitt  could  describe  the  opponents  of  Bentley  as  '  laid 
low,  as  by  a  thunderbolt'8,  or  Porson  pronounce  it  an  'immortal 
dissertation'9. 

Bentley   was   Master  of   Trinity  from    1700   to  his    death   in 

1  22  Feb.  1693  (N.  S.),  Correspondence,  i  64-9. 

2  Bentley's  Dissertations  examined  by  Boyle  (1698). 

3  Bodleian  MS  (Monk,  i  71  f). 

4  pp.  51,  65,  ed.  1869.      Preface  dated  Aug.  1697;  anonymously  published, 
1704. 

6  pp.  101,  103,  105-9.     Anonymously  published,  1704. 

6  Bentley's  Correspondence,  p.  167.  '  Jebb's  Bentlev,  83. 

8  De  Babrio  (1776),  quoted  by  Mahly,  117. 

IJ  Watson's  Life  of  For  son,  281 


406  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

1742.  We  are  not  here  concerned  with  the  internal  feuds  and 
controversies  that  marked  his  tenure  of  that  office.  His  in- 
troduction of  written  examinations  for  fellowships  and  of  annual 
elections  to  scholarships  was  a  permanent  advantage  to  the 
College.  During  those  forty-two  years  his  many  contributions  to 
classical  learning  included  an  appendix  to  the  edition  of  Cicero's 
Tusculan  Disputations  by  John  Davies,  Fellow  of  Queens'  (1709), 
in  which  Bentley  gives  proof  of  his  familiarity  with  the  philosophical 
works  of  Cicero  and  with  the  metres  of  the  Latin  Dramatists.  In 
the  following  year  he  produced  under  an  assumed  name  his  emen- 
dations of  323  fragments  of  Philemon  and  Menander1.  The  next 
year  saw  the  publication  of  his  memorable  edition  of  Horace 
(1711),  in  which  the  traditional  text  is  altered  in  more  than  700 
passages2,  a  masterly  work,  which,  however,  does  more  credit  to 
the  logical  force  of  his  intellect  than  to  his  poetic  taste.  It  is 
here  that  we  find  his  celebrated  dictum: — 'nobis  et  ratio  et  res 
ipsa  centum  codicibus  potiores  sunt'3.  A  large  part  of  the  notes 
was  thrown  off  in  the  course  of  five  months  (July  to  November, 
1711),  'in  the  first  impetus  and  glow'  of  his  thought.  This 
rapidity  of  production  naturally  landed  him  in  occasional  mistakes, 
and  his  Latinitywas  attacked  by  two  of  the  schoolmasters  of  the 
day,  one  of  whom,  John  Ker4,  drew  attention  to  the  fact  that 
Bentley  in  his  preface  had  promised  that,  even  in  this  hasty  work, 
his  readers  would  not  fail  to  find  sermonis  puritatem,  whereas  the 
word  puritas  was  in  itself  an  example  of  impure  Latinity.  He 
was  similarly  attacked  by  his  contemporary  at  St  John's,  Richard 
Johnson5,  who  begins  with  an  interesting  collection  of  Bentley's 
sayings  about  himself  and  others.  A  rival  edition  of  very  uneven 
merit  was  produced  in  1721  by  a  Scottish  friend  of  Burman  and 
Le  Clerc,  Alexander  Cunningham  (c.  1655 — 1730),  whose  editions 
of  Virgil  and  Phaedrus  were  posthumously  published. 

Bentley's  skill  in  the  restoration  of  Greek  inscriptions  was 
exemplified  in  the  case  of  inscriptions  from  Delos  (i72i)6  and 
Chalcedon  (1728).  In  the  latter,  his  corrections  of  the  faulty 

1  Utrecht,  1710;  Cambridge,  1713;  p.  442  infra. 

2  Select  list  in  Mahly,  131  f.  3  On  Carm.  Hi  27,  15. 

4  Qiiaterttae  Epistolae  ( 1 7 1 3).  6  Aristarchus  Anti-Bentleianus  (1717). 

6  Correspondence,  p.  589;  Monk,  ii  i6of. 


CHAP.  XXIV.]  BENTLEY.  407 

copies  were  completely  confirmed  by  the  original1.  In  1722  he 
supplied  Dr  Mead  with  a  number  of  emendations  of  the  Theriaca 
of  Nicander2.  Early  in  1726  he  published  an  edition  of  Terence, 
in  which  the  text  is  corrected  in  about  a  thousand  passages,  mainly 
on  grounds  of  metre.  The  same  volume  includes  an  edition  of 
Phaedrus  and  of  the  '  Sentences '  of  '  Publius  Syrus '.  The 
preface  is  followed  by  a  Schediasma  on  the  metres  of  Terence, 
and  by  a  Latin  speech  delivered  by  Bentley  in  July,  1725,  when  he 
had  just  been  restored  to  the  University  degrees,  of  which  he  had 
been  deprived  in  1715*.  He  here  explains  the  significance  of  the 
several  symbols  of  the  doctoral  degree,  the  chair,  the  cap,  the 
book,  and  the  gold  ring,  which  is  the  emblem  of  liberty4. 

Bentley  has  left  his  mark  on  the  textual  criticism  of  Plautus5, 
Lucretius6,  and  Lucan7.  In  1732-4  he  was  busy  with  an  edition 
of  Homer,  in  which  the  text  was  to  be  restored  with  the  aid  of 
MSS  and  scholia,  and  the  quotations  in  ancient  authors,  and  by  the 
introduction  of  the  lost  letter,  the  digamma.  The  discovery  of 
the  connexion  of  this  lost  letter  with  certain  metrical  peculiarities 
in  Homer  had  been  made  by  Bentley  as  early  as  1713,  and  it  is 
mentioned  in  a  note  on  Iliad  xvi  172,  in  the  posthumous  second 
volume  of  Samuel  Clarke's  Iliad  (i732)8.  In  the  same  year  he 
introduced  the  digamma  in  two  quotations  from  Homer  in  the 
notes  to  his  edition  of  Paradise  Lost9.  It  was  the  strange 
appearance  of  words  such  as  FCOIKWS,  in  these  notes,  that  prompted 
Pope  in  March,  1742,  to  write  the  well-known  lines  in  the  fourth 

1  Correspondence,  698  f;  J.  Taylor,  De  Inope  Debitore  (1741);    Monk,  ii 
41 1  f;  Jebb,  137  f. 

2  Museum  Criticum,  \  370  f,  445  f  (1814) ;  Monk,  ii  170  f. 

3  Jebb,  i4r. 

4  Cp.  'aureus  annulus  est  Doctori'  in  Duport's  Praevaficatio,  1631   (Chr. 
Wordsworth's  Scholae  Academicac,  275  ;   ib.  22  n.  i).     The  present  writer,  as 
a  boy  in  the  galleries  of  the  Senate- House,  saw  this  'gold  ring'  still  in  use 
in  1858.     The  rings  have  since  been  handed  down  from  one  Vice-Chancellor 
to  another  unused  ;  their  purpose  has  been  forgotten,  but  they  are  faithfully 
preserved  by  the  University. 

6  Sonnenschein's  Captivi  (1880),  and  Anccd.  Oxon.,  1883. 

6  Ed.  Wakefield  (Glasgow,  1813);  ed.  Oxon.  1818. 

7  Ed.  1760  and  1816;  cp.  Mahly,  150,  and,  in  general,  Jebb,  v — vi. 

8  Cp.  Mahly,  79,  144^  161  — 179. 

9  iv  887,  vi  832. 


408  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

book  of  the  Dunciad  where  the  goddess  of  Dulness  is  addressed 
as  follows  : — 

1  Mistress  !   dismiss  that  rabble  from  your  throne  : 
A  vaunt— Is  Aristarchus  yet  unknown  ? 
Thy  mighty  scholiast  whose  unwearied  pains 
Made  Horace  dull  and  humbled  Milton's  strains. 
Turn  what  they  will  to  verse,  their  toil  is  vain : 
Critics  like  me  shall  make  it  prose  again. 
Roman  and  Greek  grammarians  !  know  your  better, 
Author  of  something  yet  more  great  than  letter ; 
While  tow'ring  o'er  your  alphabet,  like  Saul, 
Stands  our  digamma,  and  o'ertops  them  all '. 

In  his  '  Remarks '  on  the  '  Discourse  of  Free-Thinking '  by 
Anthony  Collins,  he  protests  against  the  opinion  that  the  Iliad 
was  an  'epitome  of  all  arts  and  sciences',  which  Homer  had 
'  designed  for  eternity,  to  please  and  instruct  mankind '.  He  adds 
his  own  view  : — 

'Take  my  word  for  it,  poor  Homer... had  never  such  aspiring  thoughts. 
He  wrote  a  sequel  of  songs  and  rhapsodies,  to  be  sung  by  himself  for  small 
earnings  and  good  cheer,  at  festivals  and  other  days  of  merriment ;  the  Ilias 
he  made  for  men,  and  the  Odysseis  for  the  other  sex.  These  loose  songs  were 
not  collected  together  in  the  form  of  an  epic  poem  till  Pisistratus's  time,  above 
500  years  after ' 1. 

Bentley's  latest  work  was  his  recension  of  the  astronomical 
poet,  Manilius  (1739),  a  quarto  volume  with  an  engraving  by 
Vertue  of  Thornhill's  portrait  in  the  Master's  Lodge  of  Trinity 
College  (1710). 

His  relations  to  his  scholarly  contemporaries  in  the  Netherlands 
are  exemplified  by  his  correspondence  with  the  aged  Graevius,  who 
was  one  of  the  first  to  hail  the  dawn  of  Bentley's  fame  (i697)2. 
In  1696  he  obtained  for  the  University  Press  a  new  fount  of  type 
from  Holland3,  which  was  used  in  printing  Kiister's  Sui'das  in 
1705.  The  criticisms  on  Aristophanes,  which  he  sent  to  Kiister 
in  1708,  clearly  prove  how  much  might  have  been  achieved  by 
Bentley  in  a  complete  edition  of  that  author4.  In  the  same  year 
he  prompted  the  youthful  Hemsterhuys  to  strengthen  the  weak 

1  c.  vii ;    Works,  iii  304  (Dyce).     Cp.  Jebb,  146^  2  p.  402  supra. 

3  Wordsworth's  Scholae  Academicae,  383  f. 

4  His  marginalia  were  first  published  in  the  Classical  Journal,  nos.  xi — xiv. 


CHAP.  XXIV.]  BENTLEY.  409 

points  in  his  knowledge  of  Greek  metre1.  With  Pieter  Burman 
his  relations  were  at  first  friendly.  Burman's  first  letter  informed 
him  of  the  death  of  their  common  friend,  Graevius2 ;  and  it  was 
through  Burman  that  he  published  his  anonymous  Elucidations  of 
Philemon  and  Menander3.  In  1709  Burman  sends  Bentley  a 
presentation-copy  of  his  Petronius4;  next  year,  he  consults  him  as 
to  a  proposed  edition  of  Valerius  Flaccus5.  In  1718  he  laments 
the  interruption  in  their  correspondence6,  and  in  1721  writes 
about  his  edition  of  Ovid7.  The  publication  of  Bentley's  Phaedrus 
(in  the  Terence  of  1726)  led  to  a  rupture  with  Burman,  who  had 
already  produced  three  editions,  and  soon  added  a  fourth  (1727), 
in  which  he  carefully  balanced  Bentley's  readings  with  those  of 
Bentley's  opponent,  Hare  ;  and,  in  the  same  year,  when  Bentley,  in 
preparing  his  own  edition  of  Lucan,  applied  to  Burman  for  the 
use  of  the  collations  and  notes  of  N.  Heinsius,  Burman  declined 
to  lend  them,  and  announced  an  edition  of  his  own,  which  did 
not  appear  until  i74o8. 

The  two  centuries  that  elapsed  between  the  call  of  Scaliger  to 
the  university  of  Leyden  (1593)  and  the  publication  of  Wolf's 
'Prolegomena  to  Homer'  (1795)  were  an  a8e  °f  m'gn  distinction 
in  Dutch  Scholarship,  and  during  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century  that  Scholarship  owed  an  incalculable  debt  to  the  healthy 
and  invigorating  influence  of  Bentley.  As  a  scholar,  Bentley  was 
distinguished  by  wide  and  independent  reading.  He  absorbed  all 
the  classical  literature  that  was  accessible  to  him,  either  in  print  or 
in  manuscript ;  but,  unlike  the  humanists  of  Italy,  he  was  not  a 
minute  and  scrupulous  imitator  of  the  style  of  the  Latin  Classics. 
In  textual  as  well  as  historic  criticism,  he  had  a  close  affinity  with 
the  great  Scaliger.  His  intellectual  character  was  marked  by  a 
singular  sagacity.  Swift  and  keen  to  detect  imposture,  he  was 
resolute  and  unflinching  in  exposing  it.  His  manner  was,  in 
general,  apt  to  be  haughty  and  overbearing,  and  his  temper 
sarcastic  and  insolent.  One  of  his  characteristic  mottoes  was  :  — 

1  P-  449  >>'f>'a- 

-  1/03;  Correspondence,  206  f;  Bentley's  reply  in  Haupt's  Opusc.  iii  89  f. 

3  p.  442  infra.  4  Carres  f.  p.  3/9f. 

5  1710,  il>.  391.  6  Monk,  ii  118. 

1  Corresf.  p.  578  f.  8  Monk,  ii  236-8. 


410  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

aXXovs  t£fvdpi£,  diro  8'  "E/cropos  i(r\eo  xetpas1.  He  had  a  Strong 
and  masterful  personality,  but  his  predominant  passion  was  an 
unswerving  devotion  to  truth2. 

Bentley's  friends   included   Evelyn   and   Wren,  Newton  and 
Locke.     Evelyn's  Discourse   on   Medals  had  appeared  in   1697. 
The  influence  of  the  Classics  is  illustrated  by  several  other  con- 
temporaries of  Bentley,  who  were  not  professional 

Addison  / 

scholars.  Addison  (1672 — 1719),  who  was  ten  years 
younger  than  Bentley,  and  died  at  the  early  age  of  47,  gives  proof 
of  a  refined  and  tasteful  interest  in  the  Classics,  not  only  in  his 
Dialogues  on  Medals*,  and  his  Remarks  on  Italy*,  but  also  in  his 
Latin  Poems5  and  his  literary  criticisms  on  Homer6  and  Virgil7. 
Even  his  own  writings  have  been  described  as  '  sweet  Virgilian 
prose'8.  Classical  poetry  also  finds  its  echo  in  Pope 
(1688 — 1744),  the  imitator  of  Horace's  Satires  and 
the  translator  of  the  Iliad  (1720)  and  the  Odyssey  ( 1 7  2 5  f ).  Shortly 
after  the  publication  of  Pope's  Iliad,  Bentley  met  the  translator 
at  bishop  Atterbury's  table,  and  told  Pope  '  that  it  was  a  very 

1  Monk,  ii  50. 

2  A  Narrative  of  the  Life  and  Distresses  of  Simon  Mason,  Apothecary 
(Birmingham,  s.  a.),   76,  says  of  Bentley:    'The  Charities  he  did  with  his 
right  Hand,  were  not   known  to  his  left ;    his  Alms  were  done  in   Secret 
that  he  might  be  rewarded   openly'.      On  Bentley  in  general,  cp.  Life  by 
J.  H.  Monk,  1830;  ed.  2,  1833;    Correspondence,  ed.  C.  Wordsworth,  1842  ; 
six  of  Bentley's  letters  to  Burman  in  1703-24  in  Haupt's  Opuscula,  iii  89 — 107 
(reprinted   in  A.   A.  Ellis,   Bentleii  Critica  Sacra,    1862);    F.   A.   Wolf  in 
Lilt.   Analekten    (1816),  reprinted  in  Kleine  Schriften,   ii    1030 — 1094;    De 
Quincey's   Works,   ed.    1863,   vi   35 — 180;    Hartley   Coleridge,    Worthies  of 
Yorkshire  and  Lancashire,  65 — 174  ;  H.  J.  Nicoll's  Great  Scholars,  37 — 90; 
G.  Hermann,  Opusc.  ii  263-8;   Bernays,  in  Rhein.  MHS.  viii   i — 24;  Jacob 
Maehly,  Leipzig,   1868;    R.  C.  Jebb  in  English  A/en  of  Letters,   1882  (with 
literature   in    Prefatory   Note),    and  in   D.  N.  B. ',    J.    E.   Sandys   in   Social 
England,  v  59 — 70.     Bibliography  by  A.  T.  Bartholomew  and  J.  W.  Clark, 
preliminary  proof  printed  for  private  circulation,  Cambridge,  1906. 

8  Works,  ed.  1862,  i  253—355-  4  i  35<5— 538. 

5  i  231—252. 

6  e.g.  in  Taller,  no.  152,  and  Spectator,  nos.  273,  417. 

7  Essay  on  the  Georgics,  1693  ( Works,  i  154  f) ;  Taller,  no.  154 ;  Guardian, 
no.  138;  Discourse  on  Ancient  and  Modern  Learning,  v  214;  Dissertatio  de 
Insignioribtis  Rotnanis  Poe'lis,  vi  587  f. 

8  Works,  i  231  (a  phrase  of  Dr  Edward  Young's). 


CHAP.  XXIV.]      SPENCE.      MAITTAIRE.      RUDDIMAN.          41 1 

pretty  poem,  but  that  he  must  not  call  it  Homer  \  and  Bentley, 
later  in  life,  when  asked  the  cause  of  Pope's  dislike  (as  shown  in 
the  Dunciad},  replied  : — '  I  talked  against  his  Homer,  and  the 
portentous  cub  never  forgives'1.  It  has  aptly  been  observed  by 
Matthew  Arnold  that  '  between  Pope  and  Homer  there  is  in- 
terposed the  mist  of  Pope's  literary  artificial  manner ' ;  '  Pope 
certainly  had  a  quick  and  darting  spirit,  as  he  had,  also,  real 
nobleness ;  yet  Pope  does  not  render  the  movement  of  Homer'2. 
The  best-known  line  in  the  translation  of  the  Odyssey  is  preceded 
by  one  that  owes  its  existence  to  the  necessities  of  rhyme  alone  : — 

'  True  friendship's  laws  are  by  this  rule  exprest, 
Welcome  the  coming,  speed  the  parting  guest'3. 

Joseph  Spence  (1699 — 1768),  a  friend  of  Pope,  was  a  Fellow 
of  New  College,  Oxford,  and  travelled  extensively 
in  Europe.     He  exchanged   the   Professorship    of 
Poetry  for  a  sinecure  Professorship  of  History,  and  devoted  his 
leisure  to  the  preparation  of  his  Fotytnefis*,  a  treatise  on  Classical 
Art  and   Mythology,  which   Lessing  frequently  criticises  in  the 
Laokoon,    while  he  fully   admits    the  author's    learning   and   his 
familiarity  with  extant  works  of  ancient  art5. 

Among  the    minor   contemporaries    of  Bentley  was  Michael 
Maittaire(i668 — 1747),  a  native  of  France,  educated 
at  Westminster  and  Oxford.     As  a  master  at  West- 
minster, he  wrote  on  the  Greek  dialects  (1706),  and  on  the  History 
of  Printing6,  besides  editing  for  scholastic  purposes  no  less  than 
thirty-three  volumes  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Classics  (iyn-33)7. 
His    northern    contemporary,    Thomas    Ruddiman 

.  .  Ruddiman 

(1674 — 1757)   of   Aberdeen,   a    printer,   bookseller 
and  librarian  in  Edinburgh,  deserves  honourable  mention  for  his 
Rudiments   of  the   Latin    Tongue   (1714),  and   his    Grawmaticac 
Latinae  Institiitiones  (1725-31).    The  former  work  passed  through 

1  Monk,  ii  372. 

2  On  Translating  Homer,  n,  68  ;  also  19,  21  f,  66,  ed.  1896. 

3  Od.  xv  74.  "  1747;  ed.  -2,  1755. 

5  pp.  90,  97,  103,  114,  124  IT,  ed.  Bliimner. 

6  Stephanorum  Historia,  1709;  Hist,  lypographorum  Paris.,  1717;  Annales 
Typographic^  1719-25. 

7  Charles,  Dissertation,  1839. 


412  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

fifteen  editions  during  the  author's  life-time,  and  long  remained  in 
use  in  the  schools  of  Scotland.  The  second  part  of  his  Institutiones 
was  the  best  work  of  the  time  on  the  subject  of  Syntax.  He  also 
wrote  on  the  true  method  of  teaching  Latin  (1733).  His  master- 
piece in  printing  was  his  edition  of  Livy  (1751).  His  edition  of 
the  Latin  works  of  Buchanan  (1715)  brought  him  into  con- 
troversy with  those  who  agreed  with  that  historian's  political 
opinions,  which  differed  from  his  own  ;  but  even  controversy 
failed  to  affect  the  serenity  of  his  temper.  '  In  person  he  was 
of  middle  height,  thin  and  straight,  and  had  eyes  remarkably 
piercing".  In  the  opinion  of  the  writer  just  quoted,  he  was  'one 
of  the  best  men  who  ever  lived'2. 

Among  Bentley's  immediate  friends  was  Joseph  Wasse  (1672 — 
1738),  Fellow  of  Queens',  the  editor  of  Sallust3  and 

Wasse 

Thucydides4,  of  whom  Bentley  said  : — '  When  I  am 
dead,  Wasse  will  be  the  most  learned  man  in  England'5.  Bentley 
survived  him  by  four  years ;  and  lived  ten  years  longer  than  his 

younger  friend  John  Davies  (1679  — 1732),  Fellow 

Davies 

and  afterwards  President  of  Queens',  who,  besides 
editing  Caesar,  Minucius  Felix,  and  Maximus  Tyrius,  made  his 
mark  as  a  commentator  on  many  of  the  philosophical  works  of 
Cicero6.  To  his  edition  of  the  Tusculan  Disputations  an  important 
Appendix  was  contributed  by  Bentley7,  to  whom  he  dedicated  his 
edition  of  the  De  Natura  Deorum*.  The  De  Oratore,  De  Officiis, 
and  'Longinus'  were  ably  edited  by  Zachary  Pearce  (1690 — 
1774),  Fellow  of  Trinity,  and  ultimately  bishop  of  Rochester. 
Among  Bentley's  contemporaries  at  Cambridge  were  William 

Whiston  (1667 — 1752),  Fellow  of  Clare,  a  mathe- 
wfiddieton        matician   and   divine   of    '  very   uncommon    parts 

and  more  uncommon  learning,  but  of  a  singular 
and  extraordinary  character'9,  now  best  known  as  the  translator 

1  H.  J.  Nicoll,  Great  Scholars,  199.          2  Cp.  Life  by  G.  Chalmers,  1794. 

3  1 710,  founded  on  the  collation  of  80  MSS. 

4  Incorporated  in  Duker's  ed.  (1731),  p.  447  infra. 

5  Nichols,  Literary  Anecaotes,  i  263.     '  Kuster,  Burmnn,  Wasse'  in  Pope's 
Duitciad,  iv  237. 

6  Tusf.  Disp.,  De  Nat.  Dear.,  De  Divin.,  Acad.,  De  Legibus,  De  Finibus. 

7  p.  406  supra.  8  Monk,  i  223,  ii  115. 
9  Nichols,  i  494 — 506,  with  portrait. 


CHAP.  XXIV.]         S.   CLARKE.      MARKLAND.  413 

of  Josephus,  and  Dr  Conyers  Middleton  (1683 — 1750),  one  of 
Bentley's  opponents,  the  author  of  the  Life  of  Cicero.  Bentley 
had  friendly  relations  with  Dr  Samuel  Clarke 

S.  Clarke 

(l675 — !729)  of  Gonville  and  Caius  College,  who, 

in  two  passages  of  his  Caesar  (1712),  expresses  his  admiration  of 

the  great  critic1,   and,   in    one  of  his  latest  notes  on  the  Jliad, 

draws  attention  to  Bentley's  discovery  of  the  digamma*.    Another 

contemporary,      Peter     Needham      (1680 — 1731), 

Fellow  of  St  John's,  who  had  edited  the  Gevponica, 

produced,   with   Bentley's  aid,  an  edition  of  the  Commentary  of 

Hierocles  on  the  'Golden  Verses  of  Pythagoras'  (1709),  which 

was  partly  superseded  by   that   of    Richard    Warren,    Fellow   of 

Jesus   College   (i742)3.     Needham  had  meanwhile  published   a 

variorum  edition  of  the  Characters  of  Theophrastus. 

Bentley    was    on    friendly    terms    with    Jeremiah    Markland 
(1693 — 1776),   Fellow  of  Peterhouse,   who,  in  his 

Markland 

earliest  work,  the  Epistola  Cntica  on  Horace,  shows 
the  highest  appreciation  of  Bentley  (i723)4.  Markland  produced 
an  important  edition  of  the  Sylvae  of  Statius  (1728).  In  his 
Remarks  on  the  Epistles  of  Cicero  to  Bruttis  (1745),  he  recorded 
his  entire  agreement  with  the  doubts  as  to  the  genuineness  of 
those  Epistles,  and  of  the  Speeches  post  Reditum,  which  had  been 
expressed  by  James  Tunstall  (1708 — 1762),  Fellow  and  Tutor  of 
St  John's,  and  Public  Orator5.  Markland  (besides  contributing 
to  Taylor's  Lysias)  edited  the  Supplices  of  Euripides  (1763)  and 
the  two  Iphigeneias  (1768).  He  dedicated  the  first  of  these 
three  plays  to  Hemsterhuys  and  Wesseling,  and  wrote  in  his  own 
copy : — '  probably  it  will  be  a  long  time  before  this  sort  of 
Learning  will  revive  in  England'".  During  his  travels  abroad,  he 
met  D'Orville,  the  eminent  geographer,  in  Amsterdam  ;  and  he 
was  familiar  with  the  works  of  J.  M.  Gesner,  whom  he  closely 
resembled  in  personal  appearance.  He  twice  declined  the  Regius 
Professorship  of  Greek,  and,  at  the  age  of  sixty,  withdrew  to 

1  Monk,  i  336  f.  2  Monk,  ii  263. 

3  Monk,  i  226  f.  4  Monk,  ii  169. 

5  Cic.  ad  Alt.  et  Q.fratrem  (1741)  ;  'Observations'  on  the  correspondence 
between  Cic.  and  Brutus  (1745).     See,  in  general,  Nichols,  v  412-4. 
8  Nichols,  iv  288. 


414  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

Milton  Court,  near  Dorking,  where  he  lived  in  feeble  health  for 
the  last  twenty-five  years  of  his  life.  His  best  work  as  a  Scholar 
was  characterised  by  a  peculiar  combination  of  caution  and 
boldness1.  In  the  opinion  of  Elmsley,  who  belongs  to  the  next 
generation, 

'  He  was  endowed  with  a  respectable  portion  of  judgment  and  sagacity. 
He  was  very  laborious,  loved  retirement,  and  spent  a  long  life  in  the  study  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin  languages.  For  modesty,  candour,  literary  honesty  and 
courteousness  to  scholars,  he  is  justly  considered  as  the  model  which  ought  to 
be  proposed  for  the  imitation  of  every  critic  '2. 

Markland's  Cambridge  friend,  John  Taylor  (1704 — 1766),  was 
Fellow   of    St   John's  and   successively    Librarian 

Taylor 

(1731-4)  and  Registrary  (1734-51)  of  the  university. 
He  is  best  known  as  an  editor  of  Lysias3,  and  of  part  of 
Demosthenes4.  He  was  the  first  to  publish  and  expound  the 
important  inscription  recording  the  accounts  of  the  Delian  Temple 
m  377-4  B-c-5  For  thirty  years  he  resided  continuously  in 
College.  '  Taylor's  friend ',  George  Ashby,  says : — 

'  If  you  called  on  him  in  College  after  dinner,  you  were  sure  to  find  him 
sitting  at  an  old  oval  walnut-tree  table  entirely  covered  with  books'  ... ;  'and 
he  instantly  appeared  as  cheerful,  good-humoured,  and  dcgage,  as  if  he  had 
not  been  at  all  engaged  or  interrupted.'  'He  understood  perfectly,  as  a 
gentleman  and  a  scholar,  all  that  belongs  to  making  a  book  handsome,  as 
the  choice  of  paper,  types,  and  the  disposition  of  text,  version,  and  notes.' 
'He  was  grand  in  his  looks,  yet  affable,  flowing  and  polite.'6  Dr  Johnson, 
who  was  far  less  familiar  with  him,  said  :  ' Demosthenes  Tay/0r...\va.s  the  most 
silent  man,  the  merest  statue  of  a  man,  that  I  have  ever  seen  '7. 

He  was  ordained  at  the  age  of  43,  and  was  Rector  of  Lawford  in 
Essex  from  1751  to  his  death.  He  left  his  MSS  to  Askew,  and 

1  F.  A.  Wolf,  Kleine  Schriften,  1104. 

2  Quarterly  Rev.  1812,  442.     Cp.  Nichols,  Lit.  Anecd.  iv  272 — 362,  657  f, 
with  portrait,  and  vii  249 f  (index).     F.  A.  Wolf,  /.  f.,  1096 — mo;   E.  H. 
Barker,  Parriana,  ii  241  f. 

3  410,  1739;  8vo>  I74°- 

4  vol.  iii,  1748  ;  ii,  1757  ;  i  never  appeared. 

6  Marmor  Sandvicense  (1743);  now  in  the  vestibule  of  Trinity  Library; 
cp.  Nichols,  iv  497 ;  Hicks,  Gk  Hist.  Inscr.  no.  82. 

6  Nichols,  Literary  Anecdotes,  iv  490 — 535,   662  f  (reprinted  separately, 
1819) ;    R.  F.  Scott,  St  John's  Coll.  Admissions  (1903),  339  f.     Cp.  E.  H. 
Barker's  Parriana,  ii  220 — 231. 

7  Boswell,  25  Apr.  1778. 


CHAP.  XXIV.]  TAYLOR.      DAWES.  415 

many  of  his  books  to  his  former  school — Shrewsbury.  He  took 
part  in  the  English  edition  of  the  Latin  Thesaurus  of  Robert 
Stephanus,  much  augmented  and  amended  by  the  Rev.  Edm.  Law, 
Fellow  of  Christ's1,  the  Rev.  T.  Johnson,  Fellow  of  Magdalene, 
and  Sandys  Hutchinson,  Librarian  of  Trinity  (1735).  In  the 
very  next  year  Robert  Ainsworth  (1660 — 1743)  produced  his 
'  Compendious  Dictionary  of  the  Latin  Tongue ',  on  the  same 
general  plan  as  Faber's  Thesaurus2.  It  passed  through  at  least 
five  editions,  the  fourth  being  revised  by  William  Young,  the 
original  of  Fielding's  '  Parson  Adams '. 

Among  the  earliest  productions  of  Richard  Dawes  (1709 — • 
1766),  Fellow  of  Emmanuel,  was  a  Greek  eclogue 
on  the  death  of  George  I  (1727),  followed  by  a 
specimen  of  a  proposed  translation  of  Paradise  Lost  into  Greek 
hexameters  (i736)3.  In  a  note  to  the  latter  he  adroitly  applied 
to  the  criticism  of  a  passage  in  Bentley's  singular  edition  of 
Milton's  great  epic4  one  of  Bentley's  own  comments  on  Horace5. 
He  was  a  diligent  student  of  Bentley's  Terence  and  of  the 
accompanying  schediasma.  In  1/38  he  became  master  of  the 
grammar-school  at  Newcastle  upon  Tyne,  and  in  1745  he  had  the 
satisfaction  of  seeing  his  Miscellanea  Critica  published  by  the 
Cambridge  Press  :  — 

The  work  is  in  five  parts : — (i)  corrections  of  Terentianus  Maurus ; 
(2)  criticisms  on  Oxford  editors  of  Pindar ;  (3)  Greek  pronunciation ; 
differences  between  Attic  and  Ionic  futures,  and  between  the  subj.  and 
opt. ;  and  corrections  of  Callimachus ;  (4)  the  digamma  •  (5)  ictus  in 
Attic  poets,  and  emendations  of  the  Dramatists. 

It  is  on  this  work  that  his  reputation  rests.  His  conjectures  on 
Aristophanes  have  left  their  mark  on  Brunck's  edition,  and  many 
of  them  have  been  confirmed  by  the  Ravenna  MS.  He  is  best 
known  in  connexion  with  '  Dawes's  Canon ',  which  declared  that 
the  first  aorist  subjunctive,  active  and  middle,  was  a  solecism 
after  oVw<;  /A?;6  and  ou  p.tj7.  In  all  such  cases  he  insisted  on 

1  Educated   at  St  John's ;   afterwards  Master  of  Peterhouse,  and  Bp  of 
Carlisle  (cp.  Nichols,  Lit.  Anecd.  ii  65 — 72). 

2  Nichols,  v  248 — 254. 

3  Cp.  Kidd's  ed.  of  the  Misc.  Crit.  (1817),  init. 

4  P.  L.  i  249  f.  B  Carm.  i  7,  27. 

6  Misc.  Crit.  ed.  Oxon.  p.  227  (Ar.  Nub.  822).        7  ib.  p.  221  (Nub.  366). 


ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVIII. 


altering  the  first  aorist  subjunctive  into  the.  future  indicative. 
The  fact  is  that,  owing  to  the  similarity  in  form  between 
these  subjunctive  aorists  and  the  future  indicative,  the  second 
aorist  was  preferred  to  the  first,  if  both  were  in  use1.  Dawes 
repeatedly  criticises  Bentley2,  who  had  died  three  years  before 
the  publication  of  the  work.  It  passed  through  five  editions, 
but  the  author  failed  to  produce  his  promised  recensions  of 
Homer  and  Pindar  and  the  Attic  poets.  Meanwhile,  he  satiri- 
cally described  his  former  pupil,  Anthony  Askew  of  Emmanuel 
(1722-74),  as  '  Aeschyli  editionis  promissor'3.  Though  Askew 
never  edited  Aeschylus,  he  collected  Greek  and  Latin  inscriptions 
and  left  behind  him  an  extensive  library  of  classical  MSS  and  of 
rare  editions.  As  master  of  the  school  at  Newcastle,  Dawes 
quarrelled  with  the  Town  Council  (he  even  taught  his  boys  that 
the  proper  translation  of  ovos  was  Alderman],  but  he  ultimately 
retired  on  a  pension  in  1748.  A  stalwart  man  with  flowing  snow- 
white  hair,  he  spent  most  of  his  time  in  rowing  on  the  Tyne,  but 
there  is  no  record  of  his  producing  any  classical  work  in  the 
eighteen  years  that  elapsed  between  the  date  of  his  retirement 
and  that  of  his  death4.  He  is  honourably  mentioned  by  Cobet, 
together  with  Bentley  and  Person,  Elmsley  and  Dobree,  as  one 
of  those  Englishmen,  from  whose  writings,  '  non  tantum  locis 
corruptis  clara  lux  affulget  sed  paulatim  addiscitur  ars  quaedam, 
qua  verum  cernere  et  eruere  et  ipse  possis'5. 

His  contemporary,  James  Harris  (1709  —  1780),  is  well  known 
as  the  author  of  Hermes  and  of  the  Philosophical  Inquiries. 

Among  the  poetic  translators  of  the  age  was  Christopher  Pitt 
(1699  —  1748),  of  Winchester  and  New,  who  pro- 
duced a  successful  rendering  'of  the  Aeneid  (1740) 

1  Goodwin,  Moods  and  Tenses,  §  363  f,  and  Trans.  Arner.  Philol.  Assoc. 
1869^  46  —  55  ;  cp.  Hermann,  Opusc.  vi  91  f.  2  pp.  261,  313  etc. 

3  Advt   in  Newcastle  Coiirant,   10  Oct.  to  14  Nov.  1747    (Giles,  p.  66). 
He  collected  all  the  editions,  and,  while  still  a  student  at  Leyden,  dedicated 
to  Dr  Mead  a  Specimen  of  his  proposed  work  (1746).     He  is  regarded  as  one 
of  the  founders  of  Bibliomania  in  England  (Allibone,  s.  z>.).     Cp.  Nichols, 
iii  494-7,  iv  725.     His  portrait  in  Emmanuel  is  engraved  in  Dibdin's  Typo- 
graphical Antiquities,  vol.  ii. 

4  P.  Giles,  in  Emm.  Coll.  Mag.,  v  (2)  49  —  69;   Monk's  Bentley,  ii  367  f. 
6  Or.  Je  Arte  Interprelandi  (1847),  136. 


CHAP.  XXIV.]  HEATH.      TOUP.  417 

and  an  interesting  version  of  Vida's  Art  of  Poetry^.     The  poet, 
Thomas  Gray  (1716 — 1771)  of  Eton  and   Peter- 
house,  who  migrated  to  Pembroke  in  1756,  wrote 
his  Latin  ode  on  the  Grande  Chartreuse  during  his  early  travels 
abroad.     His  notes  on  Linnaeus  were  mainly  written  in  Latin2. 
As  a  scholar  of  a  wide  range  of  reading  he  was  a  specially  diligent 
student   of  Plato,   and  not   a  few  of  his  notes3  are  quoted  in 
Thompson's   Gorgias.     He  was  mentioned  by  Parr  among  the 
few  persons  in  England  who  '  well  understood '  Plato.     Another 
of  these  was  Floyer  Sydenham  (1710 — 1787),  Fellow 
of  Wadham,  the  translator  of  the  whole  of  Plato 
(1759-80)".     His   contemporary,    Richard   Hurd   (1720—1808), 
Fellow   of  Emmanuel,    produced   an   aesthetic   commentary  on 
Horace's   Ars   Poetica   (1749)   and   the   Epistola   ad  Augustum 
(1751),   which  was   translated   into  German.     The  former  date 
marks  the  beginning  of  his  friendship  with  Warburton  (1698 — 
1779),  who  discourses  at  large  on  the  sixth  Aeneid  in  connexion 
with  his  paradoxical  work  on  the  Legation  of  Moses  (1737-41), 
and  borrows  largely  from  Meursius  in  his  account  of  the  Eleusinian 
Mysteries. 

We  may  next  notice  a  group  of  three  Greek  Scholars,  all  of  them 
associated  in  various  ways  with  Exeter.     Benjamin 
Heath  (1704 — 1766),   town-clerk  of   Exeter,   pub- 
lished notes  on   Aeschylus,  Sophocles,  and   Euripides  in   1762, 
and  received  an  honorary  degree  at  Oxford  in  the  same  year. 
He  has  been  recognised  as  one  of  the  ablest  of  English  editors  of 
Aeschylus5.    The  latest  English  editor  of  Sophocles  has  described 
him  as  'a  critic  of  fine  insight  and  delicate  taste'6.     He  also  left 
manuscript  notes  on  Latin  poets,  and  was  interested  in  the  English 
dramatists.    Jonathan  Toup(i7i3 — 1785)  of  Exeter 
College,    Oxford,   did   much   for   the   criticism   of 

1  Nichol.s,  ii  260  f.     For  Vincent  Bourne,  see  Addendum  on  p.  439. 
-  C.  E.  Norton,   Gray  as  a  Naturalist,  with  facsimiles  of  his  notes  and 
his  drawings  (Boston,  1903). 

3  Gray's  Works,  ed.  Gosse  (1884),  iv  67 — 338. 

4  Field's  Life  of  Parr,  ii  358. 

5  Eiim.  ed.  J.  F.  Davies,  p.  32. 

6  Jebb's  Introduction  to  text  of  Soph.  (1897),  xli. 

S.     II.  27 


418  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

Su'idas1,  and  produced  an  edition  of  the  treatise  On  the  Sublime 
(1778),  which  gave  Porson  the  first  impulse  to  classical  criticism. 
He  also  contributed  to  Thomas  Warton's  Theocritus  (1770). 
Reiske  contrasts  the  urbanity  of  Warton  with  the  truculence  of 
Toupa,  while  Wyttenbach  says  of  Markland  and  Toup,  'ilium 
ratione,  hunc  ingenio  Criticam  factitare'3.  'He  was  less  happy 
in  conjecturing  than  in  defending  his  conjectures,  and  in  this  he 
resembled  his  great  master  Bentley,  whose  very  errors  were 
instructive'4.  He  was  'not  wholly  untinctured  with  that  self- 
complacency,  which  is  the  almost  inseparable  companion  of  too 
much  solitude'5.  The  tablet  placed  in  the  church  at  East  Looe 
by  the  Delegates  of  the  Clarendon  Press  assures  us  that  '  his 
abilities  and  critical  sagacity  '  were  '  known  to  the  learned  through- 
out Europe  '6.  As  a  prebendary  of  Exeter  for  the  last  eleven  years 
of  his  life,  he  survived  his  younger  contemporary,  a  physician  of 
Exeter,  Samuel  Musgrave  (1732 — 1780),  M.D.  of 

Musgrave 

Leyden  and  Oxford,  who  counted  Ruhnken7, 
Ernesti8,  and  Schweighauser9  among  his  correspondents.  He 
visited  Paris  to  collate*  MSS  for  his  edition  of  the  Hippolytus 
(i756)10,  and  his  '  Exercitations '  on  Euripides  were  published  in 
the  same  year  as  the  notes  of  his  fellow-townsman,  Heath,  on  all 
the  Tragic  poets  (1762).  He  visited  Paris  again  in  1763-4,  and 
was  well  known  to  the  leading  scholars  there ;  Jean  Capperonnier 
refers  to  him  in  terms  of  gratitude.  Meanwhile,  he  had  edited 
the  whole  of  Euripides  in  1778.  The  popular  edition  of  Sophocles 
was  that  of  Thomas  Johnson  (1675  —  I75°)j  °f  Eton  and  Brent- 
ford, a  capable,  diligent  and  careful  scholar,  who  died  in  great 
poverty11.  This  edition  was  published  in  three  volumes  (1705-46), 
and  was  twice  reprinted  after  his  death.  Musgrave's  comments 
on  the  poet  were  incorporated  in  the  Oxford  edition  of  1800. 

1  Emendationes,  1760-6;  Ep.  Crit.  1767;  Cttrae  Novissimae,  1775. 

2  Reiske  to  Askew;  Mant's  Life  of  T.  Warton,  \  xlvi. 

8   Vita  Ruhnk.  218.  4  Gentleman's  Mag.  l.v  340. 

5  Nichols,  ii  341. 

6  Nichols,  ii  339 — 346,  427,  iii  58;  Barker's  Parriana,  ii  236  f;  Johnstone's 
Mem.  of  Parr,  i  534. 

7  Vita,  71,  and  Ep.  9  Jul.  1780. 

8  Corresp.  ed.  Tittmann,  55 — 62.  9  Cp.  Bibl.  Crit.  II  ii  i;7- 

10  Nichols,  iv  285.  u  Jebb,  Introd.  to  text  of  Soph,  xxxviii. 


CHAP.  XXIV.]          MUSGRAVE.      TYRWHITT.  419 

Two  years  before  Musgrave's  death.  Apollonius  Rhodius  had  been  edited 

at  Oxford  in  1778  by  Thomas  Shaw,  Fellow  of  Magdalen, 

T. Shaw 
who  is  said  to  have  found  the  earliest  recognition  of  his  work 

in  a  notice  of  one  of  his  conjectures,  followed  by  the  words  pittide  Shavius^. 
This  is  probably  only  a  pleasantry  of  the  Oxford  wits  of  the  day,  who  also 
made  sport  of  the  Latin  version  of  the  name  of  his  more  distinguished  name- 
sake, the  Fellow  of  Queen's  and  professor  of  Greek  (i747-5i)2.    The  criticism 
is  not  due  to  Brunck,  who  in  his  Apollonius  Rhodius  (1/80)  is  sufficiently 
severe  on  the  Oxford  editor,  but  always  calls  him  Shaw.     The  next  year  saw 
the  publication  of  an  English  commentary  on  the  Ion  and  Bacchae  (1781)  by 
Richard  Paul  Joddrell  (1/45 — -1831),  followed  by  the  Alcestis 
in  1790.     The  best  part  of  these  'Illustrations  of  Euripides' 
is  the  archaeological  introduction  to  the  Bacchae. 

Oxford  was  far  more  ably  represented  in  the  same  age  by  the 
widely  accomplished  scholar,  Thomas  Tyrwhitt 
(1730 — 1786).  Educated  at  Eton  and  Queen's, 
he  was  a  Fellow  of  Merton  (1755-62),  and  Clerk  to  the  House 
of  Commons  (1762-8).  He  is  credited  with  an  'unlimited  be- 
nevolence ',  and  a  knowledge  of  '  almost  every  European  tongue ', 
and  is  celebrated  as  an  editor  of  Chaucer,  a  critic  of  Shakespeare, 
and  as  the  principal  detector  of  the  forgeries  of  Chatterton.  He 
contributed  a  critical  appendix  to  Musgrave's  '  Exercitations '  on 
Euripides.  In  1776,  following  in  the  track  of  Bentley,  he  detected 
further  traces  of  Babrius  in  the  'Fables  of  Aesop'.  In  1781,  he 
boldly  assigned  to  the  age  of  Constantius  (357)  the  Orphic  poem 
De  L.apidibus,  and  his  edition  of  that  poem  received  the  rare 
distinction  of  a  review  by  Ruhnken3.  A  cursory  perusal  of  Strabo 
led  to  his  publishing  a  number  of  corrections  of  the  text  (1783). 
Further,  he  was  the  first  to  publish,  from  a  MS  in  Florence,  the 
Speech  of  Isaeus  'on  the  Inheritance  of  Menecles'  (1785).  He 
also  prepared  an  able  edition  of  Aristotle's  Treatise  on  Poetry, 
with  critical  notes  and  Latin  translation,  which  was  first  published 
in  1794,  eight  years  after  his  death.  All  his  works  are  characterised 
by  wide  reading,  and  by  critical  acumen4.  It  was  partly  in  re- 

1  Chr.  Wordsworth's  Scholae  Academicae,   94  n.  i  ;    Tuckwell's  Reminis- 
cences, 131  (where  '  Boeckh '  is  mentioned  by  an  error  of  memory). 
-  Wordsworth,  168. 

3  Bibliothcca  Critica,  iv  85  f;  and  Ep.  9  Jan.  1783  (Wordsworth's  Scholae, 

93  ".  5). 

4  Gentleman 's  Mag.  LVI  (2)  717;    Nichol,  iii  147  —  151  ;  Wolf,  Kl.  Schr. 

27 — 2 


420  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

cognition  of  his  own  earlier  work  that,  in  1786,  he  received  from 
Brunck  the  flattering  assurance  that  England  was  '  le  pays  de 
1'Europe  ou  la  litterature  grecque  est  la  plus  florissante". 

Between  Tyrwhitt's  death  in  1786  and  the  publication,  in 
1794,  of  his  edition  of  Aristotle's  treatise,  an  important  English 
translation  of  the  same  work  with  '  notes  on  the  translation  and 
on  the  original ',  and  '  two  dissertations  on  poetical,  and  musical, 

imitation',    was   produced   in    1789    by   the    Rev. 

Thomas  Twining  (1735—1804),  late  Fellow  of 
Sidney  Sussex,  Cambridge,  who  had  sole  charge  at  Fordham, 
near  Colchester,  from  1764,  and  was  Rector  of  St  Mary's, 
Colchester,  for  the  last  sixteen  years  of  his  life.  He  had  no 
aptitude  for  the  trade  in  tea  for  which  his  family  has  long  been 
famous,  his  main  interest  being  in  literature  and  music.  Before 
going  to  Cambridge,  he  had  learnt  Latin  and  Greek  in  the  family 
of  a  Colchester  clergyman,  where  his  sole  fellow-student  in  those 
languages  was  his  tutor's  daughter,  his  future  wife.  On  his 
marriage  in  1766,  he  wrote  his  wife's  name  in  the  first  leaf  of  the 
household  account-book,  adding  the  date,  and  a  quotation  from 
Tibullus  : — ////'  sint  omnia  curae,  Et  juvet  in  tota  me  nikil  esse  domo. 
His  English  rendering  and  his  suggestive  notes  on  Aristotle  were 
prepared  in  his  study  at  Fordham,  an  '  extremely  cheerful  and 
pleasant'  room,  'looking  into  a  garden  of  sweets12.  His  boat  on 
the  piece  of  water  at  the  parsonage  prompts  him  to  write  an 
English  imitation  of  the  Dedicatio  Phaseli  of  Catullus3.  He  is 
delighted  with  the  vignettes  in  a  new  edition  of  his  favourite 
Tibullus,  which  he  describes  as  '  by  far  the  most  elegant  German 
book '  he  had  ever  seen4.  He  says  of  Pindar : — 

'  There  are  here  and  there  fine  poetical  strokes  in  him,  and  moral  maxims 
well  expressed;  but  he  is  very  unequal,  often  very  tiresome,  very  obscure,  and 
to  us  moderns  very  uninteresting....  He  is one  of  those  ancient  authors, 


1111-3;    and   D.N.B.      His   portrait   is   prefixed  to   his  quarto   edition   of 
Chaucer. 

1  Luard  in  Camb.  Essays,  1857,  125. 

2  Recreations    and   Studies    of  a    Country    Clergyman   of  the  Eighteenth 
Century,   being  selections   from   the   Correspondence   of  Thomas   Twining, 
edited  by  his  grand-nephew,   Richard  (1882-3). 

3  ib.  240  f.  .  4  ib.  71  (17/9). 


CHAP.  XXIV.]  TWINING.      PARR.  421 

whose  real  merit  falls  short  of  their  echoed  character.  He  is  sometimes 
bombastic,  and  sometimes  prosaic1'.  'There  is  no  appearance  of  art  in 
Demosthenes:  in  Cicero  a  great  deal  too  much'2. 

He  delights  in  Tyrwhitt's  edition  of  Chaucer3.  In  preparing  his 
own  work  on  Aristotle's  Ars  Poetica,  he  writes  to  Charles  Burney 
in  1786  : — 

'  The  extreme  depravation  of  the  text,  its  obscurities  and  ambiguities,  are 
such  that  I  have  been  forced  to  give  up  a  greater  portion  of  my  comment  to 
philological  disquisitions  than  I  could  have  wished ;  and  a  great  part  of  my 
pains  have  been  employed  in  proving  passages  to  be  unintelligible.  But  what 
then  ?  When  people  fancy  they  understand  what  they  do  not,  it  is  doing 
some  good  to  show  them  that  they  do  not.  It  is  some  use  to  pull  down  what 
is  wrong,  if  one  can't  build  up  what  is  right'4. 

He  sends  Heyne  a  presentation  copy  of  his  translation,  writes  a 
Latin  letter  suggesting  a  correction  of  Odyssey,  xi  584,  and 
receives  a  flattering  reply  from  the  Gottingen  professor5.  His 
English  correspondence  gives  proof  of  his  interest  in  the  Greek 
Drama  and  in  Greek  Music6,  and  in  many  other  matters  un- 
connected with  the  Classics.  His  intimate  friends  included 
Ur  Burney  and  Dr  Parr. 

Parr  wrote  in  his  presentation  copy  of  the  Aristotle  : — '  The  gift  of  the 
author,  whom  I  am  proud  and  happy  to  call  my  friend,  because  he  is  one 
of  the  best  scholars  now  living,  and  one  of  the  best  men  that  ever  lived'7. 
Parr  also  wrote  his  epitaph : — '  Viro,  in  quo  doctrina  inerat  multiplex  et 
recondita,  ingenium  elegans  et  acutum,  scribendi  genus  non  exile  spino- 
sumque,  sed  accuratum  et  exquisitum,  in  rebus  quae  ad  artem  criticam 
pertinent  explicandis  sermo  sine  aculeo  et  maledictis  facetus  et  sapore  paene 
proprio  Athenarum  imbutus'8. 

The  writer  of  this  tribute  of  friendship,  Samuel  Parr  (1747  — 
1825)  of  Harrow  and  Emmanuel,  was  head-master 
of  three  schools  in  succession,  at  Stanmore,  Col- 
chester, and   Norwich,  and,  from    1785   to  his  death,  perpetual 
curate   and   private   tutor  at  Hatton  in  Warwickshire,  where  he 
built  himself  a  library,  which  contained  more  than  10,000  volumes. 

i  ib.  1 80  f  (i 793).  2  il,.  193. 

3  U>.  229.  4  ib.  140. 

5  !/>.  246 — 257  (oreDro  5e  di\f/duv  iruflv,  of'd'  flxfv  €\foOai). 

6  ib.  14,  26.  7  ib.   10  (1790). 

8  Johnstone's  Memoirs  of  Parr,  iv  597,  viii  584 ;  engraved  portrait  in 
Sidney  Sussex  College. 


422  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

He  attained  considerable  distinction  as  a  writer  of  Latin  Prose. 
His  stately  epitaphs  and  his  other  Latin  inscriptions1  were  con- 
fessedly modelled  mainly  on  the  contemporary  works  of  Morcelli2. 
Writing  to  Edward  Maltby,  he  says: — 'In  Westminster  Abbey 
I  do  not  know  one  inscription  that  is  formed  upon  the  models  of 
antiquity;  and  even  in  Oxford  I  have  met  only  with  one  which 
resembles  them  '3.  'It  is  all  very  well  to  say  that  So-and-so  is  a 
good  scholar ',  said  Samuel  Parr  to  Samuel  Butler  of  Shrewsbury, 
'  but  can  he  write  an  inscription  ?'*  In  1 787  he  reprinted  a  treatise 
on  Cicero  written  by  William  Bellenden  (fl.  i6i6)5,  who  had 
apparently  proposed  to  add  an  account  of  Seneca  and  the  Elder 
Pliny,  and  thus  complete  his  work  '  De  tribus  Luminibus  Romano- 
rum  '.  Parr  prefixed  to  his  reprint  a  long  Latin  preface  on  the 
'  Three  Lights  of  Britain ',  Lord  North,  Fox,  and  Burke.  The 
preface  is  modelled  on  Cicero  and  Quintilian,  and  references  to 
the  numerous  passages  borrowed  from  those  writers  are  added  in 
the  margin6.  In  the  generation  immediately  succeeding  the 
author's  death,  this  preface  used  to  be  studied  in  Cambridge  as 
an  accepted  model  of  modern  Latin  Prose7.  While  Person  was 
still  living,  Sydney  Smith  called  Parr  '  by  far  the  most  learned 
man  of  his  day';  and  Parr  admitted  Person's  superiority  to 
himself  in  Attic  Greek  alone.  '  Person ',  he  once  observed  to  a 
friend,  with  whom  he  was  out  riding,  '  has  more  Greek,  but  no 
man's  horse,  John,  carries  more  Latin  than  mine'8.  Another  of 
his  well-known  sayings  was  'Person  first, — Burney  third'9.  He 
sent  an  able  Latin  scholar,  Mr  James  Pillans  of  Edinburgh,  a 

1  94  in  Johnstone's  Memoirs,  iv  558 — 655  ;  cp.  ib.  677  f,  and  viii  555 — 656; 
also  Barker's  Parriana,  i  524,  526;  Johnstone's  Memoirs,  i  755  f;   Blunt's 
Essays,  244  f.     Parr  wrote  his  own  epitaph  in  English. 

2  p.  382  supra.     See  Johnstone's  Memoirs,  \  758. 

3  Johnstone,  i  758.  4  S.  Butler's  Life  and  Letters,  i  255  q.  v. 
5  Copied  by  Middleton  in  his  Life  of  Cicero  (1741) ;  Nichols,  v  414-7. 

8  Parriana,  i  523  n  ;  ii  147 — 152  ;  Memoirs,  i  180 — 206. 

7  Pryme's  Reminiscences,   136  ;    Wordsworth's  Scholae  Academicae,    100. 
My  copy  belonged  to  James  Hildyard  of  Christ's  in  1829,  and  to  W.  H. 
Bateson,  from  1848,  the  year  of  his  election  as  Public  Orator.     F.  A.  Wolf, 
Kl.  Schr.  ii  1 1 14  n,  describes  Parr  as  exhibiting,  in  his  Latin  prose,  mehr  echt- 
Romische  Farbe  than  most  Englishmen.     Parr  himself  preferred  Ernesti's  and 
Ruhnken's  Latin  to  that  of  Heyne  (Parriana,  ii  99). 

8  Parriana,  i  522.  9  ib.  i  521  f;  ii  723, 


CHAP.  XXIV.]  PARR.      H.   HOMER.  423 

monograph  on  the  subjunctive  mood1  which  fills  more  than 
twenty  pages  of  print.  It  was  by  the  advice  of  Parr  that  in  1791 
Samuel  Butler,  then  entered  at  Christ  Church,  was  transferred  to 
St  John's  College,  Cambridge ;  it  was  also  by  his  advice,  supported 
by  that  of  Person,  that,  in  1805,  another  eminent  head-master,  of 
the  same  surname,  but  of  another  family,  George  Butler,  was 
appointed  Joseph  Drury's  successor  at  Harrow.  Parr  migrated 
from  Emmanuel  to  St  John's,  where  one  of  his  portraits  is 
preserved2.  He  was  not  satisfied  with  any  of  them: — 'All  the 
artists ',  he  remarked,  '  fail  in  one  feature — none  of  them  give  me 
my  peculiar  ferocity'3.  Notwithstanding  his  extensive  erudition, 
he  accomplished  little  that  was  of  permanent  importance,  but  he 
freely  lavished  his  advice  and  his  aid  on  others,  and  thus  enabled 
them  to  accomplish  what  they  could  not  otherwise  have  done4. 
Person  spent  the  winter  of  1790-1  at  Hatton,  enriching  his  mind 
with  the  vast  stores  of  Parr's  library.  '  As  a  classical  scholar  he 
was  supreme...  Pre-eminent  in  learning, ...he  was... most  liberal 
in  communicating  it '.  Such  is  the  language  of  the  frank  and 
honest  funeral-sermon  preached  by  Samuel  Butler ;  he  has  since 
been  described  by  one,  who  has  surveyed  all  the  literature  of  the 
subject,  as  '  one  of  the  kindest  hearted  and  best  read  Englishmen  ' 
of  his  generation5;  while  Macaulay  has  characterised  his  'vast 
treasure  of  erudition '  as  '  too  often  buried  in  the  earth,  too  often 
paraded  with  injudicious  and  inelegant  ostentation,  but  still 
precious,  massive,  and  splendid  '6. 

One  of  his  faithful  friends  was  Henry  Homer  (1753—1/91),  Fellow  of 
Emmanuel,  who  aided  him  in  the  revision  of  his  preface  to 
Bellenden.      lie  was  so  modest  a  man  that  he  never  published 

1  Works,  ed.  Johnstone,  viii  533 — 554. 

2  The  author  once  showed  this  portrait  (in  1891)  to  a  lady  (Miss  Ilorner, 
of  Florence),   who    perfectly  remembered    '  sitting    next  to   Dr   Parr,    at   the 
christening  of  her  younger  brother'. 

3  Nicoll,  183.  4  ib.  187. 

5  J.  E.  B.  Mayor,  in  Baker-Mayor's  History  of  St  Johns  Coll.,  Cambridge, 
940.     Cp.  Johnstone's  Memoirs  etc.,  8  vols.  (1828) ;    Life  by  Field,  2  vols. 
(1828);  E.  H.  Barker's  Parriana,  2  vols.  (1828)  ;  De  Quincey,  v  9 — 145  (ed. 
Masson)  ;   J.  J.  Blunt,    Quarterly  Rev.,  Apr.   1829  (Essays,   172 — 249);    and 
II.  J.  Nicoll's  Great  Scholars,  139 — 187  ;  Allibone's  Diet.  s.  v. ;   also  L.  Ste- 
phen, in  D.  N.  B. 

6  Essays,  642,  ed.  1861. 


424  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

his  distinguished  name  on  the  title-page  of  any  of  the  handsome  volumes  of 
his  classical  editions,  which  included  Ovid's  Heroidcs,  Persius,  and  Sallust 
(1789),  and  Pliny's  Epistles,  Caesar,  and  Tacitus  (1790).  His  edition  of  Livy, 
begun  in  1787,  was  completed  by  his  brother  in  1794;  and  a  variorum  edition 
of  Horace  was  published  after  his  death  by  his  colleague,  Dr  Combe,  with 
readings  from  seven  Harleian  MSS  (I792)1.  This  edition  was  attacked  by 
Parr2,  who  had  aided  Homer  by  his  advice,  but  had  apparently  not  been 
courted  with  sufficient  deference  by  Combe3.  Parr,  in  the  course  of  his  review, 
pays  a  striking  tribute  to  Bentley,  as  an  editor  of  Horace4,  and  writes  as 
follows  on  verbal  criticism  : — 

'  Verbal  criticism  has  been  seldom  despised  sincerely  by  any  man  who  was 
capable  of  cultivating  it  successfully;  and  if  the  comparative  dignity  of  any 
kind  of  learning  is  to  be  measured  by  the  talents  of  those  who  are  most 
distinguished  for  the  acquisition  of  it,  philology  will  hold  no  inconsiderable 
rank  in  the  various  and  splendid  classes  of  human  knowledge  '5.  Dr  Johnson 
said  of  the  same  subject  in  his  Preface  to  Shakspeare  : — '  Conjectural  criticism 
demands  more  than  humanity  possesses,  and  he  that  exercises  it  with  most 
praise,  has  very  frequent  need  of  indulgence  'e. 

The  great  powers  of  Parr  'were  never  directed  to  one  great 
object '.  Of  his  contemporaries  in  England,  some  were  his 
superiors  as  critics  of  Attic  Greek, — 'as  universal  Greek  scholars, 
perhaps  none '.  '  Porson  could  not  have  produced  the  notes  on  the 
Spital  Sermon '  (which  exemplify  the  remarkable  range  of  Parr's 
philosophical  and  classical  reading);  'nor  could  Parr  have  written 
the  Preface  to  the  Hecuba  '7. 

At   the  close   of  the   eighteenth   century  the  greatest  name 
among  English  scholars  was  that  of  Richard  Porson 

Person 

(1759 — 1808).  The  son  of  the  parish  clerk  at 
East  Ruston,  near  North  Walsham,  in  Norfolk,  he  gave  early 
proof  of  the  most  remarkable  powers  of  memory.  The  liberality 
of  the  future  founder  of  the  Norrisian  Professorship  made  it 
possible  for  him  to  enter  Eton,  while  a  fund  started  by  an  Etonian, 
Sir  George  Baker,  President  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians 
enabled  him  to  become  a  member  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 

1  D.  N.  B. ;  and  F.  A.  Wolf,  Kl.  Schr.  1 113-5. 

2  British  Critic,  iii  8  (Blunt's  Essays,  208  f ). 

3  Parr,  in  Field's  Life  of  Parr,  ii  449 — 456  ;  Johnstone's  Memoirs,  i  408 — 
437  ;  Nicoll,  166  f. 

4  British  Critic,  iii  100  (Blunt,  211). 

5  ib.  iii  22.  6  Blunt,  212  f. 
7  Blunt,  173,  246. 


CHAP.  XXIV.]  PORSON.  425 

in  1778.  Elected  to  the  Craven  Scholarship  in  1781,  he  was 
First  Chancellor's  Medallist,  and  Fellow  of  Trinity,  in  1782.  Ten 
years  later  he  lost  his  Fellowship,  solely  because  of  his  resolve  to 
remain  a  layman.  But  the  generosity  of  his  friends  immediately 
provided  him  with  an  annual  income  of  £100,  and,  in  the  same 
year,  he  was  unanimously  elected  Professor  of  Greek,  the  stipend 
at  that  time  being  only  £40.  He  lived  mainly  in  London,  where 
his  society  was  much  sought  by  men  of  letters.  In  1806  he  was 
appointed  librarian  of  the  London  Institution,  and  in  1808  he 
died.  He  was  buried  in  the  ante-chapel  of  Trinity  College,  at  the 
foot  of  the  statue  of  Newton.  His  bust,  by  Chantrey,  is  in  the 
same  building  ;  a  plaster  cast  of  his  face,  taken  immediately  after 
his  death,  was  engraved  by  Fittler,  and  published  in  the  Adversaria^. 
His  portrait,  by  Kirkby,  is  in  the  dining-room  of  Trinity  Lodge ; 
that  by  Hoppner,  in  the  University  Library,  has  been  engraved  by 
Sharpe2  and  by  Adlard.  According  to  his  friend,  Pryse  Gordon, 
he  had  a  remarkably  fine  head  ;  an  expansive  forehead  with  his 
shining  brown  hair  smoothly  combed  over  it ;  a  Roman  nose, 
with  a  keen  and  penetrating  eye,  shaded  with  long  lashes  ;  a 
mouth  full  of  expression,  and  a  countenance  suggestive  of  deep 
thought.  He  was  nearly  six  feet  high.  Careless  and  slovenly  in 
his  dress,  when  alone,  and  engaged  in  study,  we  are  assured  that, 
on  important  occasions,  when  he  put  on  his  blue  coat,  white 
waistcoat,  black  satin  breeches,  silk  stockings,  and  ruffled  shirt, 
'he  looked  quite  the  gentleman'3. 

His  literary  activity  is  mainly  limited  to  the  twenty  years 
between  his  reviews  of  certain  editions  of  Aeschylus  and  Aris- 
tophanes4, and  his  restoration  of  the  Greek  inscription  on  the 
Rosetta  Stone5  (1783 — 1803).  The  first  work  that  made  him 
widely  known  was  his  Letters  to  Travis  (1788-9),  in  which  he 
proved  the  spuriousness  of  the  text  on  the  '  three  that  bear 
witness  in  heaven'",  thus  supporting  an  opinion  which  had  long 
been  held  by  critics  from  Erasmus  to  Bentley7,  and  had  recently 

1   1812  (in  large  paper  ed.). 
-  Reproduced  on  p.  426. 

3  Personal  Memoirs,  i  288  (Watson,  132). 

4  Kidd's  Tracts,  4 — 37;  cp.  Watson,  37 — 44. 

5  Kidd,  183.  B  i  St  John,  v  7.  7  Monk,  ii  18  f. 


RICHARD  PORSON. 

From  Sharpe's  engraving  of  the  portrait  by  Hoppner  in  the  University 
Library,   Cambridge. 


CHAP.  XXIV.]  PORSON.  427 

been  affirmed  afresh  by  Gibbon,  who  regarded  the  work  as  '  the 
most  acute  and  accurate  piece  of  criticism  since  the  days  of 
Bentley'1.  This  was  immediately  followed  by  his  preface  and  notes 
to  a  new  edition  of  Toup's  Emendations  on  Su'idas  (1790).  It 
was  by  a  copy  of  Toup's  Longinus,  presented  to  him  as  a  boy  by 
the  head-master  of  Eton,  that  he  (as  we  have  already  seen)  had 
been  first  drawn  to  classical  criticism2.  He  also  regarded  Dawes 
and  Bentley  as  his  greatest  masters3.  He  contributed  many 
corrections  to  the  folio  edition  of  Aeschylus  published  by  Foulis 
at  Glasgow  in  1795*.  Twelve  years  had  passed  since  he  had  been 
invited  by  the  Syndics  of  the  Cambridge  Press  to  edit  Aeschylus, 
but  his  offer  to  visit  Florence  with  a  view  to  collating  the 
Laurentian  MS  was  unfortunately  rejected,  Dr  Torkington,  Master 
of  Clare  and  Vice-Chancellor,  gravely  suggesting  that  '  Mr  Porson 
might  collect  his  manuscripts  at  home'5.  The  Syndics  had  also 
unwisely  insisted  on  an  exact  reprint  of  the  old  and  corrupt  text 
of  Stanley,  and  Porson  naturally  declined  the  task.  His  masterly 
edition  of  four  plays  of  Euripides  began  in  1797  with  \.\\Q  Hecuba ; 
it  was  continued  in  the  Orestes  (1798),  Phoenissae  (1799),  and 
Medea  (1801),  where  the  editor's  name  appears  for  the  first  time. 
In  1796  Hermann,  at  the  age  of  twenty-four,  had  produced  a 
treatise  De  Metris  Poetarum.  In  the  next  year  Porson  published 
his  Hecuba,  in  the  preface  of  which  he  settled  certain  points 
connected  with  Greek  metre  in  a  sense  contrary  to  that  of 
Hermann,  but  without  complete  proof.  In  1800  Hermann  brought 
out  a  rival  edition,  attacking  Person's  opinions ;  Porson  replied  in 
his  second  edition  (1802).  The  supplement  to  the  preface  has 
been  justly  regarded  as  'his  finest  single  piece  of  criticism'6.  He 
there  states  and  illustrates  the  rules  of  iambic  and  trochaic  metre, 
lays  down  the  law  that  determines  the  length  of  the  fourth 
syllable  from  the  end  of  the  normal  iambic  or  trochaic  line, 
tacitly  correcting  Hermann's  mistakes,  but  never  mentioning  his 

1  Gibbon,  Aliscell.  i  159.  2  p.  418  supra. 

3  Watson,  27  f. 

4  Cp.  F.  A.  Wolf,  Anal,  ii  284-9  (Kleine  Schriften,  1180-5). 

5  Ki eld's    Tracts,   p.   xxxvi ;    F.   Norgate   in  Athenaeum,    9   May,    1896, 
p.  621. 

6  Jebb,  in  D.  N.  B. 


428  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

name1.  After  Person's  death,  Hermann,  in  a  work  published  in 
1816,  honoured  his  memory  .by  describing  him  as  vir  magnae 
accurataeque  doctrinae'1'. 

Person  spent  at  least  ten  months  in  transcribing  in  his  own 
beautiful  hand  the  Codex  Galeanus  of  the  lexicon  of  Photius ; 
the  transcript  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1 796 ;  a  second  transcript 
was  prepared  by  Person  and  deposited  in  the  library  of  his  College, 
and  finally  published  by  Dobree  in  1822,  fourteen  years  after 
Person's  death3.  The  library  also  possesses  his  transcripts  of  the 
Medea  and  Phoenissae,  written  in  the  matchless  hand  that  was 
made  the  model  for  the  Greek  type  that  bore  his  name,  but  was 
not  used  until  after  his  death,  when  it  first  appeared  in  editions  of 
plays  of  Euripides  produced  by  Cambridge  scholars4. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  he  failed  to  finish  his  edition  of 
Euripides,  and  that  he  did  not  live  to  edit  either  Aristophanes  or 
Athenaeus.  He  would  doubtless  have  achieved  far  more,  if  the 
sobriety  of  his  life  had  been  equal  to  the  honesty  and  truthfulness 
of  his  character5. 

His  services  to  scholarship  were  chiefly  in  the  domain  of 
textual  criticism.  In  the  study  of  Attic  Greek,  he  elucidated 
many  points  of  idiom  and  usage,  and  established  the  laws  of 
tragic  metre.  He  was  singularly  successful  in  conjectural  emen- 
dation;  'his  emendations  were  the  fruit  of  an  innate  acumen, 
exercised  on  an  extraordinarily  wide  range  of  reading,  and  aided 

1  In  a  famous  note  on  Medea,  675,  he  had  made  effective  mention  of  that 
name  five  times  over  in  the  phrase  :-~yiiis  praeter  Herniannnm.     See  also 
Watson,    167 — 183;    Weston's  Porsoniana,    14,   and   Wordsworth's  Scholae, 
112  f. 

2  Elementa  Doctrinae  Metricae,  p.  xiii,  ed.  1817  ;  cp.  Opusc.  vi  93  f. 

3  An   inferior  edition,   published    by   Hermann   in    1808,  is  criticised   in 
Edinburgh  Kevieiv  for  July,   1813. 

4  C.  J.  Blomfield's  Prometheus,  1810,  p.  vi,  'litterarum  Graecarum  typos 
ad    Porsoni   mentem   cusos   fuisse';    and    Monk's   Hippolytus   (1811).      Cp. 
Wordsworth's  Scholae  Academicae,   392.     On  his  handwriting,   cp.  Watson, 
361,  422,  and  specimen  opposite  260;  also  the  collection  of  his  note-books 
preserved  in  the  Library  of  his  College. 

5  Parr  to  Burney  (1787),  in  Memoirs,  vii  403,  'He  is  not  only  a  matchless 
scholar,  but  an  honest,  a  very  honest  man ' ;    Turton's  Vindication,  348,  he 
'had  no  superior'  in  'the  most  pure  and  inflexible  love  of  truth'  (Watson, 
357)- 


CHAP,  xxiv.]  PORSON.  429 

by  the  resources  of  a  marvellous  memory".  After  he  had  made 
many  corrections  of  the  text  of  Aristophanes,  he  was  shown 
Bentley's  copy,  and  shed  tears  of  joy  at  finding  that  a  large 
portion  of  Bentley's  conjectures  exactly  coincided  with  his  own2. 
It  has  been  said  that  '  in  learning  he  was  superior  to  Valckenaer, 
in  accuracy  to  Bentley'3.  We  have  already  noticed  his  relations 
to  Hermann,  who,  in  an  extant  letter,  asks  his  aid  in  connexion 
with  MSS  of  Plautus4.  He  consults  Ruhnken  on  the  fragments 
of  Aeschylus5;  he  approves  of  Heyne's  receiving  from  Trinity 
College  a  transcript  of  Bentley's  Homeric  notes  and  emendations6; 
and  he  obtains  for  Villoison  a  presentation  copy  of  the  Grenville 
Homer7,  which  included  Person's  collation  of  the  Harleian 
Odyssey  (1801).  Monk  and  Blomfield  published  his  Adversaria 
(1812) ;  Kidd,  his  Tracts  (1815) ;  Dobree,  his  Aristophanica  (\%>2<z) 
and  his  transcript  of  Photius  (1822);  and  Gaisford,  his  notes  on 
Pausanias  (1820)  and  Sui'das  (1834).  His  memory  was  also 
perpetuated  by  Charles  Burney  (1757 — i8i8)8,  who  was  one  of 
the  trustees  of  the  fund  founded  in  his  honour,  a  fund  ultimately 
devoted  to  the  establishment  of  the  Porson  Prize  and  the  Person 
Scholarship  in  Cambridge.  Of  himself  the  great  critic  modestly 
said  : — '  I  am  quite  satisfied  if,  three  hundred  years  hence,  it  shall 
be  said  that  one  Porson  lived  towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  who  did  a  good  deal  for  the  text  of  Euripides'9.  'For 
Cambridge  and  for  England  he  became  in  a  large  measure  the 
creator  of  that  ideal  of  finished  and  exact  verbal  scholarship, 
which  prevailed  for  more  than  fifty  years  after  his  death'10.  It  was 
Person's  friend  Burney  who  happily  described  Bentley,  Taylor  and 
Markland,  with  Dawes,  Toup,  Tyrwhitt,  and  Porson,  as  forming 
the  constellation  of  the  Pleiades  among  the  English  scholars  of  the 

1  Cp.  Jebb  in  D.  N.  B.  162  f;  J.  E.  Sandys  in  Social  England,  vi  299. 

2  Luard,  in  Cambridge  Essays,  1857. 

3  Luard,  in  Enc.  Brit. 

4  Luard's  Correspondence  of  Richard  Porson,  62  f. 

5  Kidd's  Tracts,  xxxvi  f.  6  Corrcsf.  29. 

7  Corresp.  76—80. 

8  Author  of  the  Tentamen  Criticnm  on  the  Metres  of  Aeschylus  (1809)  ; 
cp.  Hermann,  Opusc.  vi  94. 

9  Rogers,  Table  Talk,  '  Porsoniana,'  334. 

10  Cp.  Jebb  in  D.N.B.  163;  J.  E.  Sandys  in  Social  England,  vi  300. 


430  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

eighteenth  century1.     Parr,   in  the  list  of  his  scholarly  friends, 
while  he  writes  of  Twining  as  TOV  'ATTLKWTO.TOV,  and  of  Burney  as 

TOV   KpLTlK(l)TO.TOV   KOt  TToXv/AatftOTaTOU,    applies   tO   PorSOtt   the    epithet 
TOU    TTO.VV 


Among  the  minor  lights  of  the  age  was  Gilbert  Wakefield  (1756  —  1801),  a 
Fellow  of  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  who  had  attained  the 
second  place  in  the  Wranglers,  the  Chancellor's  Medallists, 
and  the  Members'  Prizemen  of  his  year.  On  leaving  the  Church  of  England 
for  the  Unitarian  body,  he  became  a  classical  teacher  and  editor  at  Nottingham. 
In  matters  of  public  policy  he  was  inspired  with  a  violent  hatred  of  Pitt,  and 
in  1  799  his  treasonable  expression  of  a  hope,  that  England  would  be  invaded 
and  conquered  by  the  French,  led  to  his  imprisonment  for  two  years  in 
Dorchester  gaol.  During  his  imprisonment  he  continued  to  correspond  with 
Fox  on  points  of  scholarship3,  and,  shortly  after  his  release,  he  died.  In  the 
unduly  partial  opinion  of  Parr,  who  agreed  with  him  in  politics,  he  '  united 
the  simplicity  of  a  child  wth  the  fortitude  of  a  martyr  '  4.  Both  as  a  politician 
and  as  a  scholar  he  was  greatly  lacking  in  judgement  and  in  self-control5. 
A  passion  for  tampering  with  the  texts  of  the  Classics  pervades  all  the  five 
parts  of  his  Sylva  Critica,  as  well  as  his  editions  of  Horace6,  Virgil,  and 
Lucretius.  In  his  Lucretius  (i796f)  he  aimed  at  producing  a  text  founded  on 
manuscript  authority  alone,  but  his  collations  were  incredibly  careless,  while 
his  notes  displayed  ignorance  of  the  language  and  the  philosophy  of  his  author, 
and  were  further  disfigured  by  his  attacking  '  the  most  brilliant  and  certain 
emendations  of  Lambinus  '  '  with  a  vehemence  of  abuse  that  would  be  too 
great  even  for  his  own  errors'.  Nevertheless,  '  not  a  few  certain  corrections  ' 
are  due  to  Wakefield7.  His  Lucretius  was  completed  in  the  same  year  as 
Person's  first  edition  of  the  Hecuba.  Wakefield  had  proposed  certain  altera- 
tions in  the  text  of  that  play,  which  Person  'out  of  kindness'  had  forborne 


1  Preface  to  Burney's  Tentamen,  of  Porson,  '  ultimus  ille  ev  ry  TWV  /xaxa- 
PITUV  (parco  enim  viventium  nominibus)  Anglorum  IlXeiciSi '. 

2  Memoirs,  i  526.     Person's  Life  has  been  written  in  Cambridge  Essays, 
1857,  and  in  Enc.  Brit.,  ed.  9,  by  H.  R.  Luard,  who  edited  his  Correspondence 
(Cambridge  Antiquarian  Society,  1867);  also  by  J.  S.  Watson,  1861,  and  by 
Jebb  in  D.  N.  B.     Some  of  his  Greek  Iambics  in  Kidd's  Tracts,  p.  2  ;   cp. 
Barker's  Parriana,\\  652 — 671,  730 — 746.     Cp.  Hermann,  Opusc.  vi  92 — 95; 
II.  J.  Nicoll,  Great  Scholars,  91 — 138 ;  and  J.  E.  Sandys  in  Social  England, 
vi  297  f. 

3  Correspondence  of  W.  with  C.  y.  Fox,  1813. 

4  Parriana,  ii  549.  8  Watson's  Porson,  248  f. 

6  Cp.  Parriana,  ii  566  f. 

7  Munro's  Lucretius,  i  p.  19';  cp.  Munro's  criticism  on  Wakefield's  render- 
ing of  'The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave',  'Ad  tumuli  fauces  ducit 
honoris  iter'  (Macinilla)is  Mag.  Feb.  1875). 


CHAP.  XXIV.]   WAKEFIELD.    HORNE  TOOKE.    BURGESS.   43! 

to  mention,  but  his  silence  led  to  Wakefield's  composing  a  violent  and  hasty 
'Diatribe'  teeming  with  injudicious  and  intemperate  criticisms.  On  the  eve 
of  its  publication,  Person  being  present  at  a  party,  in  which  every  toast  was 
to  be  coupled  with  a  quotation  from  Shakespeare,  good-naturedly  proposed 
'My  friend,  Gilbert  Wakefield, — "What's  Hecuba  to  him,  or  he  to  Hecuba?"  M. 

Porson  had   a  high  opinion  of  the  mental  powers2  of  his  earlier  con- 
temporary, the  politician  and  philologist,  John  Home  Tooke 
(1736 — 1812),   of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge3.     His  re- 
putation as  a  scholar  rests  on  the  'Diversions  of  Purley'  (i786)4,  a  work 
which  Lord  Brougham  regarded  as  '  one  of  the  most  amusing  and  even  lively 
of  books  '5,  and  John  Hill  Burton  as  '  one  of  the  toughest  books  in  existence ' a. 
It  certainly  excited  a  new  interest  in  matters  of  etymology,  and  it  had  the 
special  merit  of  insisting  on  the  importance  of  the  study  of  Gothic  and  Anglo- 
Saxon7. 

Porson  professed  a  certain  contempt  for  the  scholarship  of  Thomas  Burgess8 
( [756 — 1837),  Fellow  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  who, 
early  in  his  career,  reprinted  Burton's  five  Greek  plays  (1779), 
and  Dawes'  Miscellanea  Critica  (i78i)9.  Three  years  later,  he  was  well 
received  by  Ruhnken  at  Leyden10,  and  it  was  through  Burgess  that  Wyttenbach 
was  induced  to  edit  the  Moralia  of  Plutarch  for  the  Clarendon  Press.  As 
bishop  of  St  David's,  he  founded  Lampeter  College,  and,  as  bishop  of  Salis- 
bury, he  attempted  to  defend  the  traditional  text  on  the  '  Three  Heavenly 
Witnesses'  against  the  strictures  of  Porson,  who  was  then  no  longer  living. 
The  bishop  of  Salisbury  was  finally  refuted  in  1827  by  Dr  Turton,  the  future 
bishop  of  Ely11. 

An   interest   in    Classical   Archaeology   was  fostered   by  the 
foundation  of  the  Society  of  Dilettanti  at  the  close 
of    1733.     It  was   founded    by    'some   gentlemen         ^ociet"*1 
who  had  travelled  in  Italy',  who  were  'desirous  of 
encouraging  at  home  a  taste  for  those  objects  which  had  con- 
tributed so  much  to  their  entertainment  abroad'12.    One  of  the 
few  commoners  among  its  earliest  members  was  Spence,  the  author 
of  the  Polymetis.     The  liberality  of  this  distinguished  Society  has 

1  Watson's  Porson,  155 — 166,  239 — 249.  2  ib.  309. 

3  Entered  as  John  Home,  he  assumed  the  name  of  Tooke  in  1782;    see 
R.  F.  Scott's  Admissions  (1903),  621  f. 

4  Ed.  2,  1798  ;  part  2,  1805,  often  reprinted. 

6  Statesmen,  Time  of  Geo.  Ill,  ii  105,  ed.  1856. 

6  Book- Hunter,  Part  ii.  7  Bust  of  Tooke  in  Fitzwilliam  Museum. 

8  \Vatson,  304.  9  Wordsworth,  Scholae  Academicae,  94^ 

iQ  W7yttenbach,   Vita  Ruhnkenii,  189.  n  Watson,  82,  304. 

12  Preface  to  Antiquities  of  Ionia. 


432  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

produced  a  splendid  series  of  archaeological  publications,  those 
belonging  partly  or  wholly  to  the  eighteenth  century  being  the 
four  folio  volumes  of  Stuart  and  Revett's  Antiquities  of  Athens 
(1762 — 1816),  the  three  of  the  Antiquities  of  Ionia  (1769 — 1840), 
as  well  as  Chandler's  Inscriptions  and  Travels  (1774-6)'. 

The   first   of    the  authors   above    mentioned,    James   Stuart 
(1713 — 1788),  the  painter  and  architect  known  as 

I.  Stuart 

'Athenian  Stuart',  visited  Rome  in  1741.  In  Rome 
the  erection  of  the  obelisk  on  the  Monte  Citorio  led  to  his 
composing  a  monograph  on  that  subject2.  Ten  years  later  he  left 
for  Greece  in  the  company  of  the  architect  and  draughtsman, 
Nicholas  Revett  (1720 — 1804).  Their  united  labours  at  Athens 
resulted  in  the  production  of  a  great  work  of  permanent  value, 
the  full  title  of  which  is  The  Antiquities  of  Athens  measured  and 
delineated  (i762)3.  This  work,  which  incidentally  led  to  the 
adoption  of  Greek  Architecture  in  St  James's  Square,  appeared  in 
a  second  edition  in  1825-30  ;  it  was  also  translated  into  German, 
and  is  still  deservedly  held  in  high  esteem  as  containing  the 
earliest  accurate  reproductions  of  the  monuments  of  Athens4. 

One  of  the  leading  supporters  of  Stuart  and  Revett  in  their 
proposals  for  the  delineation  of  the  remains  of  Athenian  archi- 
tecture, was  the  eminent  traveller  and   politician, 

R.  Wood 

Robert  Wood  (c.  1717 — 1771).  He  visited  many 
parts  of  France,  Italy,  Western  Europe,  and  Asia  Minor.  His 
travels  in  the  remoter  regions  of  Syria  resulted  in  the  publication 
of  important  works  on  the  ruins  of  Palmyra  (1753)  and  of 
Heliopolis  (1757),  while  the  ancient  associations  of  the  Troad 
prompted  him  to  compose  his  Essay  on  the  original  genius  and 
writings  of  Homer,  with  a  comparative  view  of  the  ancient  and 
present  state  of  the  Troade*.  It  was  in  admiration  of  all  these 
three  works  that  Goethe  exclaimed  : — 

1  Michaelis,  Ancient  Marbles  in  Great  Britain,  62-5;   cp.  Lionel  Gust's 
History  of  the  Society  of  Dilettanti,  ed.  Sidney  Colvin,  1898. 

2  De  obdisco  Caesaris  Augusti  Campo  Martis  nttpcr  effosso,  1750. 

3  Vol.  ii  1789;  vol.  iii  1794;  vol.  iv  1816;  cp.  Nichols,  ix  57,  143 — 150. 

4  Stark,  184-6. 

6  Seven  copies  privately  printed  in  1769;  posthumously  published  in  1775; 
other  editions  1776  and  1824. 


CHAP.  XXIV.]  J.  STUART.      R.  WOOD.  433 

'  With  the  exception  of  England,  not  one  of  the  European  nations  of  the 
present  day  possesses  that  enthusiasm  for  the  remains  of  classical  antiquity 
which  spares  neither  cost  nor  pains  in  the  endeavour  to  restore  them  to  their 
perfect  splendour'1. 

In  his  Essay  Wood  conjectures,  in  the  course  of  a  chapter  on 
'  Homer's  language  and  learning ',  that  the  art  of  writing  was  not 
introduced  into  Greece  until  about  554  B.C.2  His  opinions  on 
this  point  were  reviewed  and  defended  by  Merian  in  1788,  and 
were  partially  accepted  by  F.  A.  Wolf  in  i7953.  ^  ^s  ^n  tne  same 
work  that  Wood  tells  the  story  of  his  waiting  as  Under-Secretary 
of  State  on  the  President  of  the  Council,  John  Cartaret,  Earl  of 
Granville,  with  the  preliminary  articles  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris, 
which  closed  the  Seven  Years'  War  in  1763.  On  that  memorable 
occasion  the  aged  statesman  recited  some  lines  from  the  speech  of 
Sarpedon  in  the  twelfth  Iliad4,  dwelling  with  a  singular  emphasis 
on  a  line  that  recalled  the  distinguished  part  he  had  taken  in 
public  affairs,  and  repeating  the  last  word  of  the  passage,  io/xev, 
several  times  with  a  calm  and  determinate  resignation,  before 
declaring  the  approbation  of  a  dying  statesman  'on  the  most 
glorious  War,  and  most  honourable  Peace,  this  nation  ever  saw'5. 

The  above  story  has  been  quoted  by  Matthew  Arnold  mainly  because  of 
its  interest  '  as  exhibiting  the  English  aristocracy  at  its  very 
height  of  culture,   lofty  spirit,  and  greatness ',   towards  the         Stc  °  ^  y 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century6.     It  was  the  century  of 
those  great  parliamentary  orators,  Chatham  (1708 — 1/78)  and  Burke  (1729 — 
1797)  and  Fox  (1749 — 1806)  and  Pitt  (1759 — 1806).     Passages  of  a  thoroughly 
Demosthenic  type,  as  well  as  direct  reminiscences  of  Demosthenes,  may  be 
found  in  the  speeches  of  all  four  of  those  statesmen7.     The  dictum  of  Sir 
James  Macintosh  that  Fox  was  'the  most  Demosthenean  speaker  since  Demos- 
thenes' is  opposed  by  Brougham,  but  a  modern  critic  has  noticed  at  least 
ten   characteristics  of  the   oratory  of  Fox  that  bear  a  striking  resemblance 
to  those  of  the  great  Athenian  orator8.     We  find  Payne  Knight  writing  to 
Parr  from  Whitehall : — '  Fox  and  I  have  been  reading  Lycophron  '9.    Chatham 

1  Sdmmtl.  Werke,  xxxiii  21  (Stark,  187).  2  p.  258. 

3  Proleg.  ad  Horn.  c.  xii.  4  322-8,  w  irtirov — tofjiev. 

5  p.  vii,  ed.  1775.     On  Robert  Wood,  cp.  Nichols,  iii  81-6,  viii  426  f,  ix 
i44f. 

6  On  Translating  Homer,  18,  ed.  1896. 

7  Quoted  in  prefaces  to  Dem.  Philippics,  vols.  i  and  ii,  ed.  Sandys. 

8  C.  A.  Goodrich,  Select  British  Eloquence,  New  York,  1852,  p.  461. 

9  Parr's  Works,  vii  304  (Jan.  1805?). 

S.    II.  28 


434  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

caused  his  distinguished  son,  the  younger  Pitt,  to  acquire  a  wider  command 
of  language  by  translating  aloud,  and  at  sight,  passages  from  the  Greek  or 
Latin  Classics1.  That  excellent  classical  scholar,  the  Marquis  of  Wellesley, 
described  him  as  '  perfectly  accomplished  in  classical  literature,  both  Latin 
and  Greek',  adding  that  Lord  Grenville2  had  'often  declared  that  Mr.  Pitt 
was  the  best  Greek  scholar  he  ever  conversed  with '  3.  During  the  peroration 
of  his  great  speech  on  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  even  his  opponents 
listened  to  him  as  to  one  '  inspired ' 4.  The  debate  had  lasted  through  the 
night,  and  the  rays  of  the  rising  sun  were  streaming  into  the  House,  when 
the  orator  closed  a  splendid  period,  on  the  coming  dawn  of  a  brighter  day 
for  the  natives  of  Africa,  with  the  fine  quotation  from  Virgil  :— 
'nosque  ubi  primus  equis  Oriens  afflavit  anhelis, 
illic  sera  rubens  accendit  lumina  Vesper'5. 

Returning  to  the  Classical  Archaeologists  of  the  century,  we  note  the  name 
Archaeologists:     of  Sir  William  Hamilton  (1730—1803),  the  British  Minister 
Sir  Wm  at  Naples  (1764 — 1800),  who  sent  the  Society  of  Antiquaries 

an  account  of  the  early  discoveries  at   Pompeii,  and  made 
important  collections  of  Greek  vases  and  other  antiquities,  which  were  ulti- 
mately sold  to  the  British  Museum  (1772)  and  to  Thomas  Hope  of  Deepdene 
(i8oi)6.     His  contemporary,  Charles  Townley  (1737 — iSo.s), 
who  first  visited  Italy  in  1765,  struck  up  a  friendship  with 
Hamilton  at  Naples,   and  afterwards  spent  four  years  in   Rome,  collecting 
marbles,  bronzes,  coins,  gems,  and  vases,  which  were  removed  to  his  house  in 
London  in  1772,  received  many  additions  during  the  next  twenty  years,  and 
after   his   death    were   bought   by   the    Museum7.     The    French   adventurer, 
'  D'Hancarville',  author  of  a  fanciful  work  on  the  Arts  of  Greece  (1785), 
had  a  considerable  influence  on  Townley  and  on  Payne  Knight,  both  of  them 
members  of  the  Dilettanti  Society.     It  was  under  the  auspices  of  that  Society 
that  Richard  Chandler  (1738  — 1810),  of  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford,   the    editor    of  the   Marmora    Oxoniensia    (i763)8, 
pursued  those   learned  researches  in   Greece   and  Asia    Minor,  which  were 
published  in  his  Antiquities  of  Ionia,  and  in  his  Inscriptions  and   Travels. 
Under  the  influence  of  'D'Hancarville',  Richard  Payne  Knight  (1750 — 

~          „  1824),  who  had  visited  Sicily  in   1777,  began  in   178*  the 

Payne  Knight 

great  collection  of  Greek  and  Roman  bronzes  and  coins,  which 

he  bequeathed  to  the  British  Museum.  His  '  Analytical  Essay  on  the  Greek 
Alphabet'  (1791)  contains  much  that  is  fanciful  on  the  subject  of  the  digamma, 
while  it  proposes  a  system  of  metrical  quantity  founded  mainly  on  the  practice 

1  Stanhope's  Life  of  Pitt,  i  8,  iii  413,  ed.  1879. 

2  Wm  Wyndham  Grenville  (1759 — 1834).  3  Quarterly  Rev.  Ivii  488  f. 
4  Life  of  Wilberforce,  i  346;   2  April,  1792. 

6  Virgil,  Georg.  i  250  f. 

8  Michaelis,  109 — 112.  7  ib.  96 — 99. 

8  Michaelis,  41,  540. 


CHAP.  XXIV.]        PAYNE   KNIGHT.      GIBBON.  435 

of  Homer1.  His  didactic  poem  on  the  'Progress  of  Civil  Society'  (1796) 
owes  its  main  inspiration  to  the  fifth  book  of  Lucretius.  He  also  wrote  the 
introduction  and  text  to  the  'Specimens  of  Antient  Sculpture  in  Great  Britain' 
(1809),  mainly  selected  from  his  own  collection  and  that  of  Townley, — a  work 
that  forms  a  brilliant  conclusion  to  the  golden  age  of  classic  dilettantism  in 
England'2. 

In  1808  he  printed  fifty  copies  of  an  edition  of  Homer  with  notes  and 
prolegomena3,  the  earliest  work  published  outside  of  Germany  in  which  the 
views  of  Heyne  and  Welfare  discussed4.  It  is  reprinted  in  his  later  edition 
of  the  Iliad  (1820),  in  which  he  carries  out  Bentley's  intention  of  restoring  the 
digamma  to  an  extent  far  exceeding  the  limits  which  that  great  scholar  would 
doubtless  have  observed.  Thus,  he  spells  the  Greek  name  of  the  Iliad  as 
FIAFIAS,  and  introduces  the  letter  ten  times  in  the  first  three  lines  of  the 
poem  5. 

Constitutional  Antiquities  are  represented  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century  by  Alexander  Adam  (1741— 
1809),   rector  of  the  Edinburgh  High  School,  the 
author  of  a  work  on  Roman  Antiquities  (1791),  which  remained 
long  in  use,  and  was  even  translated  into  German6.     The  greatest 
representative  of  Ancient  History  in  the  same  age 
is  Edward  Gibbon  (1737 — 1794)1  who,  after  spend- 
ing fourteen  '  unprofitable '  months  at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford, 
embarked  on  an  extensive  course  of  reading  at   Lausanne,  in- 
cluding the  whole  of  Cicero,  and  the  Latin  Classics  in  general, 
from  the  time  of  Plautus   '  to  the  decline  of  the  language  and 
empire  of    Rome'.     Finding   it    'scarcely   possible   for   a   mind 
endowed  with  any  active  curiosity  to  be  long  conversant  with  the 
Latin  Classics  without  aspiring  to  know  the  Greek  originals'7,  after 
regretting  that  he  had  not  begun  with  Greek,  he  worked  through 

1  Porson's    interesting    review   is    quoted   in    Watson's  Parson,    118 — 121. 
Payne  Knight  was  the  first  to  detect  (in  §§  6,  7)  the  forgeries  in  the  Greek 
Inscriptions  of  the  Abbe  Fourmont,  and  Person  accepted  his  proof  as  con- 
clusive (Monthly  Review,  1794);  cp.  R.  C.  Christie's  Selected  Essays,  80 — 85. 

2  Michaelis,  119 — 123;  cp.  Stark,  251. 

3  Reprinted  in  Class.  Journ.  (1813),  and  at  Leipzig  (1816). 

4  Cp.  Volkmann,  Gesch.  u.  Kritik  der  Wolfischm  Prolegomena,  166 — 172. 
•'  Dissen  (1821),  Kl.  Schr.  277,  describes  this  text  aseine  baare  litterarischt 

Lacker lichkeit,  and  Volkmann  (1874)  as  eine  dildtantische  Grillenhaftigkeit 
(167).  Cp.  Hermann  (1821),  Opusc.  vi  73  f. 

6  Life  by  Alex.  Henderson,  1810. 

7  Autobiography,  41  f,  ed.  1869. 

28  —  2 


436  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

half  the  Iliad  and  a  large  part  of  Xenophon  and  Herodotus. 
During  his  perusal  of  Livy  he  made  an  ingenious  correction, 
which  was  at  once  adopted  by  Crevier1.  Returning  to  England 
in  1758,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  a  historical  library  by  spending 
£20  on  the  twenty  volumes  of  the  Memoirs  of  the  French 
Academy  of  Inscriptions,  a  series  which,  in  Gibbon's  opinion, 
presents  many  discoveries  in  the  field  of  ancient  literature,  and 
sometimes,  what  is  almost  as  valuable,  'une  ignorance  modeste  et 
savante'*.  In  his  earliest  work,  his  French  Essay  on  the  Study  of 
Literature,  he  proposes  to  prove  that  'all  the  faculties  of  the  mind 
may  be  exercised  by  the  study  of  ancient  literature'3,  and  he 
complacently  considers  that  his  own  view  of  '  the  patriotic  and 
political  design  of  the  Georgia  is  happily  conceived'4.  During 
two  and  a  half  years  of  service  in  the  Hampshire  militia,  he  read 
the  modern  Memoires  Militaires  of  Quintus  Icilius5,  and  it  is  in 
this  connexion  that  he  writes  : — 'The  discipline  and  evolution  of 
a  modern  battalion  gave  me  a  clearer  notion  of  the  phalanx  and 
the  legion;  and  the  captain  of  the  Hampshire  grenadiers... has 
not  been  useless  to  the  historian  of  the  Roman  Empire'6.  He 
also  studied  Homer  and  'Longinus'7,  while  (he  adds)  'on  every 
march,  in  every  journey,  Horace  was  always  in  my  pocket,  and 
often  in  my  hand'8.  After  a  short  stay  in  Paris  he  began  the 
study  of  the  great  palaeographical  works  of  Mabillon  and 
Montfaucon.  At  Lausanne  he  spent  a  year  (1763-4)  on  the 
topography  of  old  Rome,  the  ancient  geography  of  Italy,  and  the 
'science  of  medals'9.  All  this  was  in  preparation  for  his  visit  to 
Italy,  in  the  course  of  which  he  formed  the  design  of  the  great 
work  of  his  life.  In  his  first  publication  in  English,  the 
Critical  Observations  on  the  Sixth  Book  of  the  Aeneid,  published 
anonymously  in  1770,  he  argues  against  the  opinion  expressed  in 
Warburton's  Divine  Legation  that,  in  the  sixth  Aeneid,  Aeneas,  'in 


1  otio  for  odio  in  xxx  44,  7  ;    '  nee  esse  in  vos  odio  vestro  consultum  ab 
Romanis  credatis,  nulla  magna  civitas  quiescere  potest';  'nee  est  cur  vos  otio 
etc.'  (Madvig). 

2  Autob.  54;  cp.  319  n.  5  supra.  3  ib.  55. 

4  ib.  58.  8  i.e.  C.  T.  Guischardt  (1758). 

6  Autob.  61.  7  Journal,  3  and  12  Sept.  1762. 

8  Autob.  66.  9  Autob.  76  f. 


CHAP.  XXIV.]  GIBBON.  437 

the  character  of  a  lawgiver',  is  represented  as  having  been  initiated 
in  the  Eleusinian  mysteries.  Heyne,  who  approves  of  Gibbon's 
argument,  styles  the  unknown  author  as  doctus...et  elegantissimus 
Britannus1.  In  the  fifteen  years  that  elapsed  between  his  Essay 
on  the  Study  of  Literature  (1761)  and  the  publication  of  the 
first  volume  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  (1776),  he  continued  to  read 
the  Latin  Classics  and  the  original  authorities  on  Roman  History 
from  Dion  Cassius  to  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  and  to  study  coins 
and  inscriptions,  as  well  as  the  great  historical  collections  of 
Muratori.  After  his  return  to  London,  and  on  the  death  of  his 
father  (1770),  he  began  the  composition  of  his  History.  The  first 
impression  of  the  first  volume  (1776)  was  exhausted  in  a  few  days. 
The  work  had  been  warmly  welcomed  by  the  leading  historians  of 
the  day.  '  The  candour  of  Dr  Robertson  embraced  his  disciple. 
A  letter  from  Mr  Hume  overpaid  the  labour  of  ten  years  '2.  On 
the  publication  of  the  second  and  third  volumes  (1781),  ending 
with  the  fall  of  the  Western  empire,  he  hesitated  for  nearly  a  year 
as  to  continuing  the  work,  returning  meanwhile  to  the  reading  of 
Homer  and  Plato,  and  the  Greek  Historians  and  Dramatists. 
Resuming  his  study  of  the  age  of  Justinian,  he  had  nearly  finished 
his  fourth  volume,  when  he  left  London  for  Lausanne  (1783). 
Four  years  later  the  composition  of  the  last  two  volumes  was 
finished.  '  It  was  at  Rome,  on  the  i5th  of  October,  1764',  as  he 
'  sat  musing  amidst  the  ruins  of  the  Capitol,  while  the  bare-footed 
fryars  were  singing  vespers  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  that  the  idea 
of  writing  the  decline  and  fall  of  the  city  first  started  to '  his 
mind3;  and  'it  was  on  the. ..night  of  the  27th  of  June,  1787',... 
that  he  '  wrote  the  last  lines  of  the  last  page,  in  a  summer-house ' 
in  his  garden  at  Lausanne,  near  the  'covered  walk  of  acacias', 
commanding  '  a  prospect  of  the  country,  the  lake,  and  the 
mountains'4.  The  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth  volumes  of  the  original 
quarto  edition  were  published  in  1788.  Later  historians  have 
traversed  portions  of  the  same  vast  field,  and  have  treated  those 
portions  with  greater  fulness  and  minuter  detail ;  but  the  work, 
as  a  whole,  has  never  been  superseded.  The  survey  of  the 
Roman  Civil  Law  in  the  44th  chapter  is  well  known  as  a  masterly 
monograph,  while  the  account  of  the  Revival  of  Greek  Learning 

1  ib.  84  f.  -  ib.  91.  3  ib.  79.  4  il>.  103  f. 


438  ENGLAND.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

in  Italy  which  closes  the  66th  is  a  splendid  and  eloquent  page  in 
the  History  of  Classical  Scholarship1. 

While  Gibbon  was  captain  of  the  South  Hampshire  militia  in 
1760-2,    the   colonel   of    the   same  regiment   was 

Mitford 

William  Mitford  (1744—1827),  who  had  matricu- 
lated at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  in  1761.  Like  Gibbon  he  was 
a  Member  of  Parliament,  but  for  many  more  years  than  the 
historian  of  the  Roman  empire.  It  was  at  Gibbon's  suggestion 
that  Mitford  embarked  on  his  History  of  Greece  (1784 — 1810). 
It  was  written  in  a  spirited  and  lively  style,  but,  in  a  work  where 
the  history  of  Athens  necessarily  occupied  a  prominent  place, 
there  was  an  obvious  disadvantage  in  the  fact  that  its  author  was 
inspired  by  an  invincible  dislike  of  every  form  of  democracy. 

Two  years  after  the  History  of  Greece  had  been  begun  by 
Mitford,  and  two  years  before  that  of  Rome  had  been  completed 

by  Gibbon,  is  the  date  that  marks"  the  birth  of  the 
Sirj™esiam      study  of  Comparative  Philology.      William  Jones 

(1746 — 1794),  who  was  educated  at  Harrow,  and 
became  a  Fellow  o£  University  College,  Oxford,  and  enjoyed  the 
friendship  of  Burke  and  Gibbon  and  Parr2,  studied  the  grammar 
and  the  poetry  of  Persia,  and  in  1779  published  an  English 
translation  of  the  Speeches  of  Isaeus.  In  1783  he  was  knighted 
as  Judge  of  the  High  Court  at  Calcutta,  and  in  the  following  year 
he  founded  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal.  He  had  passed  from 
English  and  Attic  law  to  the  law  of  India,  and  from  the  study  of 
Indian  law  to  that  of  Sanskrit.  In  1786,  after  the  first  glance  at 
that  language,  he  made  the  memorable  declaration  :  — 

'The  Sanscrit  language,  whatever  may  be  its  antiquity,  is  of  a  wonderful 
structure ;  more  perfect  than  the  Greek,  more  copious  than  the  Latin,  and 
more  exquisitely  refined  than  either,  yet  bearing  to  both  of  them  a  stronger 
affinity,  both  in  the  roots  of  verbs  and  in  the  forms  of  grammar,  than  could 
have  been  produced  by  accident ;  so  strong  that  no  philologer  could  examine 
the  Sanscrit,  Greek,  and  Latin,  without  believing  them  to  have  been  sprung 
from  some  common  source,  which,  perhaps,  no  longer  exists.  There  is  a 
similar  reason,  though  not  quite  so  forcible,  for  supposing  that  both  the  Gothic 

1  Person's  critique  on  Gibbon  is  reprinted  in  Watson's  Parson,  85  f ;  cp. 
Traill  in  Social  England,  v  448  f. 

2  For  his   Character  of  Parr  (in  the  style  of  Theophrastus),  see  Parr's 
Memoirs,  i  478. 


CHAP.  XXIV.]      MITFORD.      SIR  WILLIAM  JONES.  439 

and  Celtic  had  the  same  origin  with  the  Sanscrit.  The  old  Persian  may  be 
added  to  the  same  family'1. 

In  1789  he  pointed  out  the  connexion  between  Sanskrit  and  Zend2. 
He  has  thus  earned  the  right  (a  right  far  stronger  than  that  of 
Giraldus  Cambrensis3)  to  be  regarded  as  the  true  'father  of 
comparative  philology '.  His  'genius  and  learning',  his  'virtues' 
and  his  '  public  services '  are  commemorated  by  a  monument  in 
St  Paul's4,  while  the  tablet  in  University  College,  Oxford,  re- 
cognises in  him  an  '  ingenium  scientiarum  omnium  capax'5.  As 
the  far-sighted  pioneer  in  the  new  field  of  comparative  philology, 
he  fitly  closes  a  century  adorned  in  England  by  the  names  of 
those  who  had  triumphantly  extended  the  boundaries  of  the 
ancient  empire  of  classical  learning, — -Bentley  and  Person  and 
Gibbon. 

1  Asiatic  Researches,  i  422   (1786),   Works,  iii  34  (1807),  duly  noticed  in 
Max  Mailer's  Lectures,  i  ifj5,  Benfey's  Gesch.  dcr  Sprac/iwissenschaft,  348,  and 
Thomsen's  Sprogvidcnskabens  Historic  (Copenhagen,  1902),  46. 

2  His  translations  of  Kalidasa's  Sakuntala  and  of  Manu's  Institutes,  his 
Commentaries  on  Eastern  poetry,  and  his  History  of  Nadir  Shah,  are  well 
known  to  Oriental  scholars. 

3  Freeman's  Norman  Conquest,  v  579. 

4  Nichols,  iii  757.  5  ib.  242  f. 


Addendum  to  p.   417,  /.  i. 

Christopher  Pitt's  Cambridge  contemporary,  Vincent  Bourne  (1695 — 1747), 
a  Fellow  of  Trinity  and  a  master  at  Westminster,  published 
in  1734  a  volume  of  elegant  Latin  poems,  some  of  which  were  Bourne* 

translated  into  English  verse  by  his  pupil,  Cowper,  and  by 
Charles  Lamb.     Macaulay,  in  his  Essay  on  Addison,  has  coupled  the  'noble 
alcaics  of  Gray'  with  the  'playful  elegiacs'  of  Vincent  Bourne,  who  celebrated 
Addison's  recovery  from  illness  in  a  Latin  poem  worthy  of  the  pen  of  Addison 
himself. 


CHAPTER     XXV. 

THE  NETHERLANDS  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

IN  the  Netherlands  the  age  that  corresponds  to  that  of  Bentley 
in  England  opens  with  the  name  of  one  .whose  pretensions  to 
scholarship  brought  him  into  conflict  with  the  great  English  critic. 

Jean  Le  Clerc,  or  Clericus  (1657 — 1736),  the  son  of  a 
Greek  Professor  at  Geneva,  was  educated  at 
Geneva,  Grenoble  and  Saumur,  and,  after  a  brief 
stay  in  England,  settled  for  the  rest  of  his  life  in  the  Nether- 
lands. It  was  in  1683  that  he  took  up  his  abode  in  Amsterdam  ; 
in  the  following  year  he  was  appointed  to  a  Professorship  in 
the  Arminian  College,  and  he  continued  to  reside  there  for 
more  than  half  a  century.  His  published  works  extended  over 
the  wide  domain  of  theology,  philosophy,  and  scholarship. 
The  last  of  these  is  represented  primarily  by  his  Ars  Critica,  a 
work  in  three  volumes,  which  was  thrice  reprinted1.  He  here 
deals  with  the  study,  interpretation  and  criticism  of  the  Classics, 
ending  with  an  examination  of  the  historic  credibility  of  Quintus 
Curtius.  It  was  regarded  by  J.  M.  Gesner  as  a  liber  quantivis 
pretip.  In  Latin,  he  produced  an  edition  of  the  grammarian 
Festus,  the  poets  C.  Pedo  Albinovanus  and  P.  Cornelius  Severus 
(the  reputed  author  of  the  Aetna],  and,  lastly,  the  whole  of  Livy. 
In  Greek,  he  edited  Hesiod,  the  fragments  of  Menander  and 
Philemon  (1709),  and  the  Dialogues  of  Aeschines  Socraticus. 
He  also  published  Greek  scholia  on  Lucian,  collected  Latin  in- 

1  Joannis  Clerici  Ars  Critica,  in  qua  ad  studia  linguarum  Latinae  Graecae 
et  Ilebraicae  via  munitur;  veterumque  emendandorum,  spuriorum  scriptorum 
a  genuinis  dignoscendorum  et  judicandi  de  eorum  libris  ratio  traditur  (1696 — 
1700). 

-  Isagege,  §  135.     Cp.  Van  der  Iloeven,  De  Joanne  Clerico  (1843),  151-4- 


442  THE   NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

scriptions',  and  promoted  the  sale  of  a  new  issue  of  the  Lexicon 
Philologicum  of  Matthias  Martinius  (1623)  by  contributing  a 
brief  Etymological  Dissertation  (1701),  which  agrees  with  that 
Lexicon  in  the  fatal  error  of  deriving  Greek  from  Hebrew.  He 
had  a  wide  reputation  as  a  reviewer,  being  the  editor  and  principal 
writer  of  the  Bibliotheque  successively  designated  Universelle 
(1686-93),  CSawfif  (1703— 13),  and  Ancienne  et  Moderne  (1714-27). 
In  these  his  chief  aim  was  to  give  a  careful  summary  of  the 
contents  of  the  works  reviewed,  only  occasionally  indulging  in  a 
'very  gentle  confutation'2.  It  was  one  of  these  reviews  that  is 
supposed  to  have  led  to  his  memorable  feud  with  Bentley. 

Bentley  was  apparently  nettled  by  the  way  in  which  his  contributions  to 
Davies'  Tusculan  Disputations  (1/09)  had  been  noticed  by  Le  Clerc  in  the 
Bibliotheque  Choisie*.  A  few  months  later,  Le  Clerc  produced  an  edition  of 
the  fragments  of  Menander  and  Philemon.  He  had  collected  these  from  the 
Dramatic  Excerpts  of  Grotius,  and  the  Indices  of  Meursius  and  Fabricius,  and 
in  the  course  of  his  work  he  had  given  abundant  proof  of  his  ignorance  of 
Greek  metre,  even  printing  passages  of  prose  in  lines  outwardly  resembling 
those  of  verse.  Thereupon  Bentley  immediately  wrote  out  his  own  corrections 
of  323  of  the  fragments,  restoring  the  metre  and  exposing  the  many  metrical 
mistakes  committed  by  Le  Clerc.  The  MS,  under  the  assumed  name  of 
Phileleiitherus  Lipsiensis,  was  sent  to  a  Dutch  scholar  at  Utrecht,  Pieter 
Burman,  who  had  a  feud  with  Le  Clerc,  and  was  only  too  glad  to  publish 
the  MS.  As  soon  as  the  work  appeared,  its  authorship  was  manifest,  and, 
within  three  weeks,  the  first  edition  of  this  exposure  of  the  metrical  demerits 
of  Le  Clerc  was  completely  exhausted  (1710).  Jacob  Gronovius,  who  had 
a  feud  with  Bentley  as  well  as  with  Le  Clerc,  wrote  a  pamphlet  abusing  both4; 
and  Jan  Cornells  de  Pauw  of  Utrecht,  under  the  name  of  Philargyrius  Canta- 
brigiensis,  attacked  Bentley  in  a  pamphlet  which  was  published  with  a 
lengthy  preface  by  Le  Clerc5. 

In  1711  Le  Clerc  printed  an  apologetic  account  of  his 
literary  career,  concluding  with  some  letters  addressed  to  himself 

1  Van  der  Hoeven,  i75f. 

2  Life  and  Writings  (1712),  19  ;  cp.  Hallam,  ii  274,  548*. 

3  xx  (1710)  213 — 227~(the  tone,  however,  is,  on  the  whole,  complimentary 
and  distinctly  deferential). 

4  Infamia  Emendationum  in  Menandrutn  nitper  editarum.     Cp.  Mahly's 
Bentley,  128. 

6  For  fuller  details,  see  Monk's  Life  of  Bentley,  i  267 — 280;  cp.  Bentley 's 
Correspondence,  397 — 411  Wordsworth,  and  Van  der  Hoeven,  De  Joanne 
Clerico,  80 — 98  (1843)  ;  also  Mahly's  Bentley,  129,  and  Jebb's  Benlley,  \i$. 


CHAP.  XXV.]  LE   CLERC.      BURMAN.  443 

by  Graevius  and  Spanheim1;  and,  when  Bentley's  Horace  was 
published,  in  the  same  year,  Le  Clerc  wrote  a  review  which  is 
liberal  in  its  tone  and  reflects  credit  on  its  writer2.  Though  he 
has  obviously  no  claims  to  being  a  specialist  on  Greek  metre, 
he  deserves  the  credit  of  being  a  courteous  and  well-informed 
reviewer.  He  was  helpful  to  Cambridge  scholars  such  as  John 
Davies,  and  Wasse  and  Needham3;  and  he  must  be  gratefully 
remembered  as  the  industrious  editor  of  the  ten  folio  volumes  of 
the  standard  edition  of  Erasmus4. 

Pieter  Burman  (1668  —  1741),  Bentley's  ally  in  the  feud  with 
Le  Clerc,  was  a  pupil  of  Graevius  at  Utrecht  and 

Burman 

of  Jacob  Gronovius  at  Leyden.  In  1696  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  History  and  of  'Eloquence'  (i.e.  Latin) 
at  Utrecht,  and  in  1715  was  transferred  to  the  corresponding 
Professorship  at  Leyden,  where  he  passed  the  remaining  twenty- 
six  years  of  his  life.  As  an  editor  he  confined  himself  to  the 
Latin  Classics.  Of  the  poets,  he  edited  Phaedrus,  Horace, 
Claudian,  Ovid,  Lucan,  and  the  Poetae  Latini  Minores,  besides 
producing  a  new  edition  of  the  Valerius  Flaccus  of  N.  Heinsius, 
and  leaving  materials  for  an  edition  of  Virgil  posthumously 
published  by  his  nephew.  Of  the  writers  of  prose,  he  edited 
Petronius,  Velleius  Paterculus5,  Justin,  Quintilian,  Suetonius.  We 
also  have  his  Variae  Lectiones  and  Observations  Miscellaneae,  his 
Orationes  and  Poemata,  and  his  Somm'um,  sive  Iter  in  Arcadiam 
novam  (1710).  He  owed  his  interest  in  the  Latin  poets,  and  his 
skill  in  versification,  to  Broekhuyzen  and  Francius,  and  one  of 
his  own  poems  commemorates  the  third  Jubilee  of  Leyden 
(1725)".  He  distinguished  himself  for  a  time  at  the  bar.  As  an 
editor  of  Latin  poets,  he  was  regarded  by  Ruhnken  as  equal  to 

1  Engl.  Transl.  1712. 

2  Bibl.  Choisie,  xxvi  (1713)  260 — 279;  Monk,  i  332. 

3  Van  der  Uneven,  98. 

4  On  Le  Clerc,  see  his  own  Life  (r7ii)  and  Parrhasiana  (E.  T.  1700), 
and  Van  der  Iloeven,  DC  Joanne  Clcrico,  299  pp.  (1843) ;  also  L.  Miiller,  47  f. 

5  Longius  a  Lipsii  laiule  abest  ultimus  Velleii  editor,  Petrus  Burmannus, 
praesertim  in  eo  scriptore  recensendo,  in  quo,  propter  crebras  corruptelas,  res 
omnis  ad  acumen  criticum,  quo  ilium  minus  valuisse  scinius,  rediret  (Ruhnken, 
Opnsc.  542,  ed.  1823). 

(i  Peerlkamp,  De  Poetis  La/.,  489  f.;  L.  Miiller,  213. 


PlETER   BURMAN    I. 


CHAP.  XXV.]  KUSTER.  445 

N.  Heinsius  in  learning,  but  inferior  in  acumen  and  in  emendatory 
skill '.  He  had  access  to  the  unpublished  notes  of  his  predecessor, 
but  he  is  careless  in  his  use  of  them2;  he  is  less  widely  read  in 
Greek3;  and  his  editions  are  overloaded  by  a  mass  of  ill-digested 
variants.  As  an  industrious  manufacturer  of  Variorum  Editions 
(which  were  not  invented  by  him,  but  brought  into  vogue  by  his 
example),  he  is  naturally  held  in  high  esteem  by  his  nephew, 
Burman  II,  and  by  the  other  unwearied  compilers  who  follow  in 
his  wake4.  In  his  Horace  (1699)  be  reproduces  the  marginal 
notes  of  John  Bond  of  Taunton  (1600),  which  in  their  turn  were 
mainly  borrowed  from  Lambinus,  but  in  1712  he  fully  appre- 
ciates the  originality  of  Bentley's  edition5.  His  introductions  are 
apt  to  be  monotonous,  but  an  exceptional  interest  attaches  to  his 
preface  to  Lucan,  in  which  he  dwells  on  the  literary  characteristics 
of  the  poet,  while  his  preface  to  Ovid  was  so  libellous  that  it 
could  not  be  printed  in  the  life-time  of  the  editor6.  In  his  in- 
troduction to  Gruter's  Inscriptions  he  is  loud  in  his  praise  of  the 
generous  aid  afforded  to  Gruter  by  Scaliger7.  His  great  powers 
of  endurance  and  his  laborious  patience  have  led  to  his  being 
described  as  the  '  beast  of  burden '  of  classical  learning.  The 
five  quarto  volumes  of  his  great  Sylloge  Epistolarum  a  Fin's 
Illustribus  Scriptarum  are  of  permanent  value  in  connexion  with 
the  History  of  Scholarship  in  the  Netherlands8. 

In  contrast  to  the  distinctively  Latin  Scholarship  of  Burman 
we  have  a  representative  of  Greek  in  the  person  of 
the  Westphalian,    Ludolf   Kiister,    or    '  Neocorus ' 
(1670 — 1716).     Educated  at  Berlin  and  at  Frankfurt  on  the  Oder, 
he  went  to  Utrecht  at  the  age  of  twenty-six,  and  afterwards  visited 
Paris  and  Cambridge,  having  had  the  good  fortune  to   be   in- 

1  Elogium  Hctnst.  14. 

2  MerkeFs  Pref.  to  Ovid's  Tristta,  n — 16. 

3  Harlesii  De  Vitis  Philologormn,   i  150  (L.  Miiller,   55).     Prof.   Mayor, 
however,  tells   me  that,  on  Ovid,  Ars  Am.  i  99,  spectatum  veniunt,  veniunt 
spectentur  ut  ipsae,  he  independently  quotes  a  parallel  from  Aelian. 

4  L.  Miiller,  56  f. 

6  Bentley's  Correspondence,  439. 

6  L.  Miiller,  57  f.  7  Hallam,  ii  29o4  f. 

8  Harless,  I.e.,  i  93 — 167;    Saxe's  Onomasticon,  v  466 — 4/7;    L.  Miiller, 
45  f.  54—59- 


446  THE   NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

troduced   to   Bentley  by  Graevius.     In  the   scarlet  gown   of  a 
Cambridge   Doctor   he  was  one  of  the  representatives   of  that 
university  at  the  centenary  of  Frankfurt1.     After  a  brief  tenure 
of  the  office  of  librarian  and  professor  at  Berlin,  he  returned  to 
the  Netherlands,  living  mainly  at  Rotterdam.     Towards  the  end 
of  his  life  he  left  for  Paris,  where  he  joined  the  Roman  Church 
two  years  before  his  death.     His  graphic  and  detailed  description 
of  the  Abbe  Bignon's  villa  on  an  island  in  the  Seine  near  Meulan 
is  one  of  the  most  interesting  parts  of  his  correspondence  with 
Bentley*.     In   1696  he  wrote  a  Historia   Critica  Homeri,  which 
was  incorporated  in  Wolfs  edition  nearly  a  century   later.     In 
1705  he  produced  an  edition  of  Sui'das  in  three  folio  volumes, 
published  by  the  Cambridge  Press.     This  was  founded  on  the 
editor's  collation  of  three  Paris  MSS,  together  with  corrections  by 
Bishop  Pearson  and  other   aid  supplied   by   Bentley,  and   was 
completed  in  the  short  space  of  four  years3.     Bentley  offered  to 
promote  a  proposed  edition  of  Hesychius,  but  Kuster  was  mean- 
while engaged  on  the  Lives  of  Pythagoras,  by  lamblichus  and 
Porphyry  (1707).     This  was  followed  by  his  comprehensive  folio 
edition  of  Aristophanes,  including  the  whole  of  the  Greek  scholia, 
with  a  metrical  version  in  a  column  parallel  to  the  text,  and  a 
collection  of  all  the  modern  comments  at  the  end  of  the  volume, 
including  many  original  notes  contributed  by  Bentley4  (1710).    In 
the  same  year  he  published  a  reprint  of  Mill's  Greek  Testament, 
followed  by  a  diatribe  against  Jacob  Gronovius  (who  had  attacked 
his  Sui'das),  and  by  a  treatise  on  the  Greek  Middle  Verb.    Finally, 
he  began  an  edition  of  Hesychius,  half  of  which  had  been  written 
out  for  the  press  at  the  time  of  his  death.     In  1736  his  MS  was 
handed  over  to  Alberti5. 

Greek  Grammar  occupied  the  attention  of  Kuster's  short-lived 

contemporary  Lambert  Bos  (1670  — 1717),  professor 

at  Franeker,  the  editor  of  Thomas  Magister  (1698) 

and  the  author   of  a  work   on    Ellipses    Graecae   (1700),   twice 

1  Monk's  Life  of  Bentley,  i  191 ;  Correspondence,  233;  Chr.  Wordsworth's 
Scholae  Academicae,  98. 

2  Correspondence,  491-4. 

3  Monk's  Life  of  Bentley,  \  i54f,  190.  *  ib.  i  193-6. 
5  ib.  i  402-5.     Cp.  Mahly's  Bentley,  125  f;  Bursian,  i  364-7. 


CHAP.  XXV.]      BOS.      DUKER.      DRAKENBORCH.  447 

reprinted  in  the  nineteenth  century.  He  also  produced  a  folio 
volume  on  the  spread  of  Greek  learning  by  means  of  the  colonies 
of  Greece  (1704). 

The  Westphalian  scholar,  Karl  Andreas  Duker  (1670 — 1752), 
who    ultimately   became   a   professor    at    Utrecht 

Duker 

(1713-34),  is  best  known  as  an  editor  of  Thucy- 
dides  in  two  folio  volumes,  including  the  unpublished  com- 
mentary left  in  MS  by  the  Cambridge  scholar,  Wasse  (1731). 
Duker's  notes  on  Florus,  and  on  the  Latinity  of  the  Roman 
jurists,  passed  through  three  editions,  while  his  memoranda  on 
Livy,  Suetonius,  Servius  and  Aristophanes  were  published  in  the 
works  of  other  editors  of  those  authors.  Thus  his  notes  on  Livy 
were  incorporated  in  the  great  edition  of  Arnold 

Drakenborch 

Drakenborch  (1684 — 1748),  who  studied  law  at 
Utrecht  and  Leyden,  and  was  professor  of  History  and  of 
'Eloquence'  at  Utrecht  (1716-48).  It  was  there  that  he  pub- 
lished the  seven  quarto  volumes  of  his  Livy  (1738-46).  This 
had  been  preceded  by  a  treatise  De  Praefcctis  Urbi  (which  was 
twice  reprinted),  and  by  an  edition  of  -Silius  Italicus1. 

His  contemporary,  Siegbert  Ilavercamp  (1684 — 1742),  is  remembered  as 

the  Leyden  professor  who,  in  editing  the  two  large  volumes  of 

Havercamp 
his  Lucretius  (1725),  failed  to  see  the  importance  of  the  two 

Leyden  Mss,  and  was  singularly  careless  in  reporting  their  readings,  besides 
giving  proof  of  his  incompetence  as  a  commentator2.  His  Orosius  attained 
a  second  edition,  but  he  did  less  service  by  his  own  recensions  of  ancient 
authors  than  by  publishing  the  works  of  his  predecessors,  e.g.  the  numismatic 
Thesaurus  of  Andreas  Morell  (1734),  and  the  Sylloge  of  tracts  on  the  pro- 
nunciation of  Greek  (1736-40).  In  1721  it  was  probably  the  baneful  influence 
of  Burman  that  led  to  the  appointment  of  Ilavercamp  as  professor  of  Greek  at 
Leyden  instead  of  Hemsterhuys. 

The  honour  of  reviving  the  study  of  Greek  in  the   Nether- 
lands belongs  to  Tiberius    Hemsterhuys    (1685 — 

Hemsterhuys 

1766),  who  was  educated  at  Gromngen  under  the 
eminent  mathematician,   John   Bernoulli,  and  at   Leyden  under 
the   learned   editor  of  Aelian  and  of  Curtius,  Jacob  Perizonius. 
At  Leyden  he  was  entrusted  by  the  Curators  with  the  duty  of 

1  Portrait  in  first  volume  of  his  Livy ;    life  in  Uhl's  ed.  of  De  Praefictis 
Urbi. 

2  Munro's  Lncr.  pp.  17 — i9:i. 


448 


THE   NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVIU. 


rearranging  the  disordered  MSS  of  the  public  library,  and  this 
recognition  of  his  early  promise  inspired  the  general  hope  that 
he  would  at  some  future  day  be  appointed  to  succeed  Jacob 
Gronovius  as  professor  of  Greek.  He  was  hardly  nineteen  when 
he  was  invited  to  fill  the  Professorship  of  Mathematics  and 
Philosophy  at  the  Athenaeum  of  Amsterdam  (1704).  He  there 
counted  among  his  pupils  D'Orville,  the  future  author  of  a 
standard  work  on  Sicily;  and  he  came  under  the  influence  of 
Broekhuyzen,  the  editor  of  Propertius,  and  Bergler  and  Kiister, 
the  future  editors  of  Aristophanes.  He  afterwards  contributed 
to  the  criticism  of  both  of  those  authors.  In  the  year  before  his 
arrival  in  Amsterdam,  Lederlin,  who  had  begun  to  edit  Homer 
and  Pollux,  left  his  publisher  in  the  lurch  by  abandoning  his 
editorial  undertakings  at  Amsterdam  for  a  professorship  in  his 


HEMSTERHUYS. 
From  an  engraving  by  Schellhorn,  published  by  Schumann,  Zwickau. 


CHAP.  XXV.]  HEMSTERHUYS.  449 

native  city  of  Strassburg.  The  edition  of  Homer  was  transferred 
to  Bergler.  That  of  Pollux,  by  the  advice  of  the  veteran  Graevius, 
who  died  in  that  year,  was  assigned  to  the  youthful  Hemsterhuys. 

Lederlin  had  already  prepared  for  the  press  the  first  seven  books,  and  we 
still  possess  his  letter  to  Bentley  asking  for  his  aid  in  the  work1.  Hemsterhuys 
must  have  begun  the  last  three  before  becoming  professor  at  Amsterdam  (1704), 
for  he  had  already  spent  two  and  a  half  years  on  the  task  when  he  wrote  his 
first  letter  to  Bentley  in  July,  1705.  At  the  suggestion  of  Kiister,  he  asked 
for  Bentley's  opinion  on  ten  passages  in  the  last  two  books.  Bentley,  who 
was  busy  with  his  Horace  when  the  letter  arrived,  immediately  laid  aside  his 
work,  seized  his  copy  of  Pollux,  and  promptly  stated  his  opinion  on  most 
of  the  passages  in  a  vigorous  reply  that  fills  six  pages  of  print2.  Two  of  the 
young  Dutchman's  letters  of  grateful  thanks  failed  to  reach  Bentley;  the  third, 
written  in  the  spring  of  1708,  expressed  the  writer's  regret  that  the  edition 
of  Pollux,  published  in  1706,  had  been  printed  too  soon  to  allow  of  Bentley's 
suggestions  being  inserted.  He  promises  to  add  them,  with  any  further 
criticisms,  at  some  future  opportunity3.  Early  in  June,  Bentley  replied  in  a 
letter  filling  twenty-four  pages  of  print,  in  which  he  examines  all  the  Comic 
fragments  in  the  tenth  book,  corrects  the  original  text  and  the  errors  of  the 
editor,  and  restores  the  true  reading  by  means  of  his  mastery  of  Greek  metre 
and  Attic  usage.  At  the  beginning  of  his  letter  he  assures  his  correspondent 
that  his  corrections  occur  to  him  so  easily  and  spontaneously,  that  he  has  no 
claim  to  any  profusion  of  thanks  for  so  trifling  an  effort ;  at  the  end  he  adds 
that  he  is  weary  of  writing,  and  that  it  takes  him  far  longer  to  set  down  his 
emendations  than  to  make  them.  He  incidentally  states  that  he  had  bought 
the  new  edition  of  Pollux  as  soon  as  it  appeared,  and  he  congratulates  the 
youthful  editor  on  his  industry,  learning,  judgement,  acumen  and  accuracy; 
his  only  regret  is  that,  in  dealing  with  the  quotations  from  the  poets,  the 
editor  had  not  shown  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  metre,  and  this  knowledge 
he  strongly  urged  him  to  acquire4.  Hemsterhuys  had  been  fully  aware  of 
the  importance  of  these  poetical  passages,  and  had  spent  considerable  pains 
upon  them.  Bentley's  success  in  correcting  them  was  the  measure  of  his  own 
failure.  So  deep  was  his  distress  that  he  determined  to  abandon  Greek  for 
ever,  and  for  two  months  did  not  dare  to  open  a  Greek  book.  On  reflexion, 
however,  it  occurred  to  him  that  he  had  not  been  justified  in  comparing  a 
young  scholar  like  himself  with  a  veteran,  who  was  the  prince  of  critics; 
he  was  soon  reconciled  to  himself  and  to  the  literature  of  Greece,  and  he 
resolved  never  to  attempt  the  criticism  of  the  Comic  poets,  until  he  had 
mastered  all  their  metres.  He  made  Bentley  his  great  example,  placing 
him  above  all  the  critics  of  his  time,  and  never  concealing  his  disapproval 

1  Oct.  1702,  Correspondence,  198  f. 

2  Correspondence,  2i9f.  3  il>.  263  f. 
4  il>.  270 — 293. 

S.    II.  29 


450  THE   NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

of  any  who  enviously  depreciated  the  intellectual  grandeur  of  one  whom  they 
could  not  possibly  rival1. 

Two  years  after  completing  Pollux,  Hemsterhuys  edited  some 
select  dialogues  of  Lucian,  with  the  Tabula  of  Cebes  and  moral 
maxims  from  Menander  (1708),  and  a  presentation  copy  was 
acknowledged  by  Bentley  as  an  elegantissimum  munus*.  In  1720 
he  undertook  an  edition  of  the  whole  of  Lucian.  Ten  years  later 
the  printing  began ;  in  the  next  six  years,  the  editor  had  only 
translated  and  expounded  a  sixth  part  of  the  text,  and  had  thus 
filled  525  quarto  pages.  As  the  publisher  desired  to  see  the 
work  finished  within  the  limits  of  his  own  life-time,  he  entrusted 
its  completion  to  J.  F.  Reitz,  a  schoolmaster  at  Utrecht,  -who  in 
five  years  completed  the  remaining  five-sixths  of  the  work3. 

In  connexion  with  Aristophanes,  Hemsterhuys  contributed  to 
Kiister's  edition  a  version  of  the  Birds  (1710),  besides  editing  the 
Plutus  (1744).  In  the  text  of  an  Italian  edition  of  Xenophon 
Ephesius,  he  corrected  many  errors  and  restored  many  mutilated 
passages,  and  his  corrections  and  restorations  were  largely  con- 
firmed by  the  text  published  from  a  new  MS  by  D'Orville.  He 
also  contributed  notes  to  the  edition  of  Hesychius  by  Alberti  and 
Ruhnken,  to  Ruhnken's  Timaeus,  and  Ernesti's  Callimachus. 
His  notes  on  Propertius  found  their  way  into  the  edition  by 
Burman  II,  completed  by  Santen  in  1780-4. 

Meanwhile,  in  1705,  he  had  been  promoted  from  his  appoint- 
ment at  the  Athenaeum  of  Amsterdam  to  a  Professorship  at  the 
university  of  Harderwyk.  When  Jacob  Gronovius  died  at  Leyden 
(1716),  it  was  generally  hoped  that  Hemsterhuys  would  at  once 
be  appointed  to  succeed  him  ;  a  year  passed,  and  he  became  a 
Professor  at  Franeker.  Those  at  Leyden,  who  feared  that  his 
appointment  might  throw  their  own  merits  into  the  shade4,  suc- 
ceeded in  ultimately  securing  in  1721  the  nomination  of  Haver- 
camp6,  who  cast  a  cloud  over  the  university  for  more  than  twenty 

1  Ruhnken,  Elogium  Hemsterhusti,  24 — 27. 

2  Correspondence,  p.  270. 

3  Four  quarto  vols.  1743-6  ;  reprinted  in  ten  octavo  vols.,  Biponti,  1793. 

4  Ruhnken,  Elogium  Hemst.  21 ;  Burman  is  suspected  by  L.  Miiller,  74  n. 
(cp.  Bergman's  ed.  of  the  Elogium,  p.  315). 

8  p.  447  supra. 


CHAP.  XXV.]  HEMSTERHUYS.  45 1 

years.  At  Franeker  the  most  famous  pupil  of  Hemsterhuys  was 
Valckenaer,  but  that  small  university,  in  its  remote  and  isolated 
position  near  the  N.E.  corner  of  the  Zuyder  Zee,  could  not 
become  a  new  centre  for  the  learning  of  the  Netherlands.  At 
last,  in  1740,  two  years  before  the  death  of  Havercamp,  Hemster- 
huys was  called  to  Leyden,  where,  for  a  quarter  of  a  century, 
he  kept  the  flag  of  Greek  flying  in  the  foremost  of  the  Dutch 
universities.  He  even  rallied  around  it  the  sons  of  other  lands. 
Among  his  pupils  was  J.  S.  Bernard  of  Berlin  (1718 — 1793),  the 
learned  physician,  who  was  interested  in  Greek  to  the  end  of  his 
life,  but  was  compelled  to  allow  his  edition  of  Thomas  Magister 
to  be  completed  and  published  by  Oudendorp  (1757).  In  1743, 
Hemsterhuys  was  joined  by  the  most  famous  of  his  pupils, 
Ruhnken,  who  had  been  assured  at  Wittenberg  that,  if  he  wanted 
to  study  Greek,  his  best  course  was  to  go  to  the  Netherlands. 
In  1766,  Hemsterhuys  was  succeeded  as  professor  of  Greek  by 
his  Franeker  pupil,  Valckenaer ;  meanwhile,  on  the  death  of 
Oudendorp  in  1761,  the  professorship  of  History  and  Latin  had 
been  assigned  to  Ruhnken. 

Hemsterhuys  had  obtained  his  eminence  by  specialising  in 
Greek.  In  the  Netherlands  (as  in  Germany)  the  professorial 
teaching  of  Greek  had  been  generally  attached  to  the  professor- 
ship of  Oriental  Languages,  including  Hebrew  and  Arabic.  In 
contrast  to  the  early  Latinists  of  Holland,  with  their  vast  output 
of  variorum  notes,  the  Greek  scholars  who  succeeded  them  pro- 
duced comparatively  little,  but  the  work  of  a  Hemsterhuys  was 
worth  whole  bundles  of  the  mechanically  manufactured  products 
of  a  Burman1. 

Hemsterhuys  has  had  the  supreme  felicity  of  being  immortal- 
ised by  a  laudator  eloqucntissiinus.  The  Elogium  delivered  in 
1768  by  his  devoted  pupil  Ruhnken,  on  resigning  the  office  of 
Rector,  is  one  of  the  Classics  in  the  History  of  Scholarship.  It 
presents  us  with  the  living  picture  of  the  perfect  critic. 

The  sagacity  of  the  true  critic  is  the  rare  and  singular  gift  of  nature.  He 
must  also  be  endowed  with  a  wide  erudition,  a  keen  intellectual  faculty,  a 
vivid  imagination,  and  a  capacity  for  prompt  and  judicious  decision.  Meursius 
and  Spanheim  had  derived  their  learning  from  the  fountains  of  Greek  lore, 

1  Cp.  L.  Miiller,  77  f. 

29 — 2 


452  THE   NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

but  were  inferior  as  critics.  The  younger  Heinsius,  and  Burman,  had  spent 
all  their  pains  on  elaborating  the  text  of  the  Latin  poets,  rivalling  one  another 
in  learning,  but  unequal  in  acumen  and  in  felicity  of  emendation.  The  know- 
ledge and  the  natural  powers  required  of  a  critic  were  so  singularly  united  in 
Hemsterhuys  that  one  felt  that  Nature  had  aimed  in  producing  in  him  the 
perfect  type.  All  the  world  wondered  at  the  singular  keenness  of  his  eye- 
sight, which  resembled  that  of  the  lynx  or  the  eagle1;  but  the  keenness  of 
his  mental  vision  was  far  more  wonderful.  His  intellectual  vigour  remained 
unimpaired  to  the  eighty-second  year  of  his  age,  which  was  also  the  last  year 
of  his  life.  It  was  only  his  memory  that  would  sometimes  fail  him,  and  that 
solely  if  the  name  of  some  individual  had  to  be  suddenly  recalled. 

He  had  entered  the  university  of  Groningen  at  the  age  of  fourteen ;  and, 
in  after  life,  his  face  glowed  and  his  eyes  flashed  with  delight,  whenever  he 
recalled  the  debt  that  he  owed  to  the  mathematical  teaching  of  Bernoulli. 
In  studying  the  Greek  poets,  he  followed  the  order  of  chronology,  and  he 
recommended  his  pupils  to  do  the  same ;  and  similarly  with  the  writers  in 
Greek  prose.  The  familiarity,  which  he  thus  acquired  with  Thucydides, 
enabled  him  to  detect  the  passages  in  which  that  historian  was  imitated  by 
Polybius,  Dionysius,  and  Plutarch. 

He  often  regretted  that  mathematics  and  philosophy  were  no  longer  in- 
cluded among  the  studio,  humanitatis.  Even  in  criticism  and  exegesis  he  owed 
much  to  his  mathematical  training.  He  was  also  an  accomplished  student  of 
philosophy.  In  history,  he  lamented  that  modern  critics  had  not  resumed 
the  learned  labours  of  Scaliger ;  in  his  own  historical  studies,  his  model  was 
Polybius.  He  was  interested  in  ancient  art,  and  urged  his  pupils  to  give  early 
attention  to  drawing. 

He  regarded  a  perfect  familiarity  with  the  classical  languages,  and  especially 
with  Greek,  as  the  portal  of  all  knowledge.  Since  the  Revival  of  Learning, 
'no  better  Greek  scholar  had  arisen'2;  he  had  even  surpassed  Casaubon.  He 
held  that  Latin  was  so  closely  connected  with  Greek,  that  to  separate  Greek 
from  Latin  was  like  parting  the  mind  from  the  body.  Muretus  had  not 
hesitated  to  say  that  those  who  were  ignorant  of  Greek  could  not  possibly 
have  a  perfect  knowledge  of  Latin3.  Hemsterhuys  derived  from  his  knowledge 
of  Greek  so  much  assistance  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Latin  poets,  that  he 
sometimes  declared  that  students  ignorant  of  Greek  could  not  appreciate  Latin 
poets  such  as  Propertius  or  Horace.  Even  the  gentle  Casaubon4  had  been 
roused  to  indignation  by  the  saying  of  Lipsius5  that  Greek  was  an  ornament 
to  a  scholar,  but  not  a  necessity.  Happily  that  opinion  had  not  prevailed. 
Scaliger  had  founded  in  Holland  the  study  of  Latin  combined  with  Greek,  and 
that  tradition  had  been  maintained  by  a  Grotius,  a  Heinsius,  a  Gronovius, 
and  a  Graevius.  Subsequently,  scholars  who  had  neglected  Greek,  had  once 

1  Cp.  portrait  on  p.  448.  -  p-  40.     Cp.  Creuzer,  /.  c.,  183. 

3   Var.  Lect.  ii  20.  4  Epf>.  291,  294. 

5  Ep.  336,  in  Burman's  Sylloge,  i  376. 


CHAP.  XXV.]          J.    F.    REITZ.      WESSELING.  453 

more  begun  to  confine  themselves  to  Latin.     The  need  had  arisen  for  another 
Scaliger,  and  that  need  had  been  supplied  by  Hemsterhuys. 

His  early  notes  on  Lucian  had  been  admired  for  their  terseness  and  pre- 
cision, as  contrasted  with  the  loose  profusion  of  a  Salmasius.  The  foundation 
for  his  criticism  of  any  text  had  been  laid  in  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
author  as  a  whole.  In  making  emendations  he  had  relied  partly  on  his 
familiarity  with  the  various  contractions  used  in  MSS,  but  mainly  on  con- 
siderations of  sense.  He  was  also  masterly  as  a  commentator ;  and  exemplary 
in  his  relations  towards  other  scholars,  suffering  even  fools  gladly.  In  his 
home-life,  he  was  conspicuous  for  his  self-control ;  once  while  he  was  enter- 
taining some  visitors  for  two  days  at  Franeker,  he  heard  of  the  decease  of 
a  promising  son  in  a  distant  land,  but,  like  Xenophon  on  receiving  the  news 
of  the  death  of  Gryllus,  he  would  not  allow  his  private  sorrows  to  interfere 
with  his  immediate  duty.  His  knowledge  of  public  affairs  was  derived  from 
the  study  of  the  history  of  his  country,  on  which  he  lectured  to  his  pupils  in 
the  spirit  of  a  Polybius  or  a  Tacitus1. 

From  Hemsterhuys  we  turn  to  the  scholar  who  completed  his  Lucian. 
Johann  Friedrich  Reitz  (1695 — 1778),  born  at  the  Castle  of  Braunfels  on 
the  Lahn,  and  educated  at  Siegen  and  at  Wesel  on  the  lower 
Rhine,  studied  at  Utrecht,  to  which  he  returned  after  holding 
a  mastership  at  Rotterdam.  He  there  became  headmaster  of  the  local  School, 
and  ultimately,  for  thirty  years,  professor  of  History  and  Eloquence  in  the 
University  (1748 — 78).  His  treatise  on  ambiguous  words  and  phrases  (1736), 
his  edition  of  Maittaire's  Greek  Dialects  (1/38),  and  his  successful  completion, 
in  1742,  of  the  great  edition  of  Lucian  begun  by  Hemsterhuys,  were  all  prior 
to  his  appointment  as  professor.  The  lexicon  to  Lucian  in  the  fourth  volume 
of  this  edition  was  the  work  of  his  brother,  Karl  Conrad  Reitz  (1708 — 1773), 
afterwards  professor  at  Ilarderwyk. 

Among  those  who  came   under  the  immediate  influence  of 
Hemsterhuys  was  the  Westphalian,  Peter  Wesseling 
(1692  — 1764),  who,  after  completing  his  early  edu- 
cation in   the  schools   of  his   native  land,   became   a  student  at 
Leyden  and  at  Franeker.     After  holding  scholastic  appointments 
elsewhere,  he  was  for  twelve  years  professor  of  '  Eloquence '  at 
Franeker,  and,  for  twenty-nine,  professor  of  History  and  Greek 
at  Utrecht.      He  is  best  known  as  the  learned  editor  of  Diodorus 
(1746)  and  Herodotus  (1763).     In  his  wide  erudition  he  was  the 
true  pupil  of  Jacob  Gronovius,  under  whom  he  had  worked  at 

1  Ruhnken's  Elogium  Hemsterhusii,  ed.  1768,  1789;  ed.  Frey,  Teubner, 
1875;  annotated  ed.  Bergman,  with  Bentley's  two  Letters,  and  Wyttenbach's 
'Life  of  Ruhnken,'  Leyden,  1824.  Cp.,  in  general,  L.  Miiller,  74 — 82. 


454  THE   NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

Leyden ;  but,  in  systematical  and  methodical  study,  he  owed 
much  to  Hemsterhuys,  having  been  admitted  into  his  intimate 
friendship  immediately  on  his  own  appointment  at  Franeker. 
From  Hemsterhuys  he  learnt  that  no  erudition,  however  varied 
and  copious,  was  of  any  real  avail  without  criticism1.  His  learned 
edition  of  Herodotus  owed  much  to  the  grammatical  and  critical 
element  supplied  by  Valckenaer,  the  pupil  of  Hemsterhuys2. 

It  could  only  have  been  as  a  boy  of  eight  or  nine  that  Jacques  Philippe 
D'Orville  (1696 — 1751)  came  under  the  notice  of  Hemsterhuys 
at  Amsterdam  (1704).  He  had  originally  looked  forward  to 
a  mercantile  career,  but  eventually  he  studied  law  at  Leyden,  where  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Burman.  He  travelled  from  1723  to  1729;  from  1730 
to  1742  he  was  a  professor  at  Amsterdam,  where  he  continued  to  live  for 
nine  years  after  resigning  his  professorship.  His  ample  means  and  his  extensive 
travels  in  early  life  had  enabled  him  to  collect  a  considerable  amount  of  new 
material  in  the  province  of  scholarship  and  of  archaeology.  His  earliest  work 
was  a  scathing  denunciation  of  the  demerits  of  that  arrogant  scholar  of  Utrecht, 
Jan  Cornelis  de  Pauw3.  This  was  followed  by  his  edition  of  Chariton  in  two 
quarto  volumes  (1750),  founded  on  a  bad  copy  of  a  MS  of  that  author,  and 
marked  by  a  want  of  clearness  and  precision,  and  by  the  intrusion  of  much 
irrelevant  matter.  This  last  defect  may  be  ascribed  to  the  influence  of  Burman4. 
The  twelve  volumes  of  Miscellaneae  Observationes  Criticae  (1732-51),  begun  by 
Burman,  were  continued  by  D'Orville,  whose  greatest  work,  that  on  Sicily, 
in  two  folio  volumes,  was  edited  by  Burman's  nephew  in  1762-4. 

The  last  of  the  great  Latinists  of  the  third  age  of  scholarship 
in  the  Netherlands  is  Franz  van  Oudendorp  (1696 — 

Oudendorp 

1761),  a  student  of  Leyden,  who,  for  the  last  twenty- 
one  years  of  his  life,  was  professor  of  'Eloquence'  and  History  at 
Leyden.  During  all  that  time  he  was  the  Latin  colleague  of 
Hemsterhuys,  whose  influence  led  to  the  appointment  of  Ruhnken 
as  the  successor  of  Oudendorp.  He  produced  in  1728  a  quarto 
edition  of  Lucan,  with  variorum  notes,  and  with  the  modern 
supplement  by  May,  and  this  edition  is  generally  preferred  to  that 
of  Burman  (1740).  He  also  edited  Frontinus,  Caesar,  and  Sue- 
tonius. His  Apuleius  was  published  with  a  preface  by  Ruhnken 
in  1761;  his  notes  on  Cicero's  Letters,  by  Liebmann  (1834-9),  and 
his  Epistolae  Criticae,  by  Hand  (1850). 

1  Ruhnken,  El.  Hemst.  60  f.  "  Wyttenbach,  Vita  Ruhnkenii,  85  f. 

3  Critica  Vannus  in  inanes  J .  C.  Pavonis paleas,  1737. 

4  L.  Muller,  75. 


CHAP.  XXV.]    OUDENDORP.     BURMAN  II.     SCHRADER.      455 

On  the  death  of  Oudendorp,  the  normal  tradition  of  Latin 
scholarship  might  have  been  maintained  at  Leyden 

Burman  II 

by  the  appointment  of  Pieter  Burman  II,  instead 
of  Ruhnken.  Burman  II  (1714—1778),  the  nephew  of  the  elder 
Burman,  was  born  at  Amsterdam,  and  studied  at  Leyden.  In 
1736  he  became  professor  of  'Eloquence  '  and  History  at  Franeker. 
In  1 742  he  was  called  to  the  Athenaeum  of  his  native  city,  where 
he  continued  to  teach  until  near  the  end  of  his  life.  His  most 
important  work  was  his  edition  of  the  Latin  Anthology  (1759-73). 
His  Propertius  was  completed  by  Santen  (1780).  His  edition  of 
the  Ad  Herennium  and  De  Invent io fie  was  twice  reprinted.  He 
also  edited  Aristophanes  with  the  notes  of  Bergler,  and  Claudian 
with  those  of  the  elder  Burman.  He  was  only  in  a  secondary 
sense  a  pupil  of  Uuker  and  Drakenborch;  he  was  primarily  a  pupil 
of  the  elder  Burman,  to  whom  he  was  superior  in  his  intellectual 
attainments,  and  especially  in  his  knowledge  of  Greek.  He  was 
devoted  to  his  uncle's  memory,  and  scholars  who  were  silent  on 
the  merits  of  the  elder  Burman  were  subject  to  the  suspicion  and 
even  the  vituperation  of  the  nephew1.  He  has  been  eulogised 
as  a  stimulating  teacher2,  and  as  an  excellent  Latin  poet3. 

At  Franeker  Johannes  Schrader  (1722-83),  a  pupil  of  Bur- 
man II,  and  of  Hemsterhuys  and  Valckenaer,  was 
professor  of  '  Eloquence '  and  History  for  the  last 
thirty-five  years  of  his  life.  His  Musaeus,  published  at  the  age 
of  twenty,  and  reprinted  in  the  following  century,  was  inspired  by 
the  influence  of  Hemsterhuys.  His  Obserrationes  and  Emenda- 
tioncs  and  his  Epistola  Critica  in  Part  II  of  Burman's  Latin 
Anthology  give  proof  of  a  skill  in  emendation  not  unworthy  of 
N.  Heinsius,  combined  with  a  higher  degree  of  judgement.  He 
exhibits  a  sound  knowledge  of  metre,  and,  in  the  preface  to  his 
Ewcndationes,  gives  a  long  list  of  the  metrical  blunders  of  some 
notable  scholars4.  His  Latin  poems  include  a  spirited  set  of 

1  L.  M tiller,  56. 

"  Santen  in  Pref.  to  his  cd.  of  lUirman  It's  Propertius ,  and  I).  J.  van 
Lennep's  Laudatio  H.  Boschii,  viii  (il>.  98  n).  His  feuds  with  Saxe  and  Klotz 
are  recounted  by  G.  C.  Harless,  De  Vitis  Philologoruni,  i  95 — 234;  cp.  Saxe, 
Onomasticon,  vi  533-5 ;  Bursian,  i  446. 

3  Peerlkamp,  512-5.  4  pp.  30  f. 


456  THE    NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

elegiacs  written  in  defence  of  the  university  of  Franeker  (1773)*. 
He  was  an  excellent  teacher  and  had  many  pupils*. 

Greek  scholarship  was  meanwhile  ably  represented  by  Lode- 
wyk  K  aspar  Valckenaer  (1715 — 1785),  who  was  born 

Valckenaer 

at  Leeuwarden  and  was  educated  there,  and  also  at 
Franeker  and  Leyden.  At  Franeker  he  was  a  pupil  of  Hemster- 
huys,  whom  he  twice  succeeded  as  professor  of  Greek,  first  at 
Franeker  (1741-66),  and  afterwards  at  Leyden  (1766-85).  He 
had  previously  produced  an  edition  of  Arnmonius,  De  Differentia 
Adfinium  Vocabulorum.  As  professor  at  Franeker,  he  edited 
///Wxxii,  with  scholia  (1747),  and  in  the  same  year  brought  out 
a  new  edition  of  Fulvio  Orsini's  Virgilius  illustratus.  His 
masterly  work  on  Euripides,  begun  at  Franeker  in  his  edition 
of  the  Phoenissae  (1755),  was  continued  at  Leyden  in  his  Hippo- 
fytus,  and  in  his  Diatribe  on  the  Fragments  (1768).  This  was 
followed  by  his  edition  of  Theocritus,  Bion  and  Moschus.  His 
Fragments  of  Callimachus,  and  his  treatise  on  the  Alexandrian 
impostor,  the  Jew  Aristobulus,  were  published  after  his  death  by 
Luzac.  He  was  mainly  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  Greek  poets, 
but  his  familiarity  with  the  Latin  poets  is  proved  by  his  preface 
to  the  Virgilius  illustratus.  He  was  also  specially  familiar  with 
hellenistic  Greek3. 

The  '  Greek  triumvirate '  of  the   Netherlands  comprises  the 

names  of  Hemsterhuys,  Valckenaer,  and  Ruhnken. 

David  Ruhneken,  or  Ruhkenius,  commonly  called 
Ruhnken  (1723-98),  was  a  native  of  Northern  Pomerania,  who, 
after  being  a  schoolfellow  of  Kant  at  Konigsberg,  went  to  study 
for  two  years  at  Wittenberg  under  the  Latin  scholar,  J.  W.  von 
Berger,  and  the  historian,  J.  D.  Ritter.  He  completed  his  course 
at  Wittenberg  by  writing  a  dissertation  on  Galla  Placidia  (1743). 
Finding  from  his  professors  that  an  accurate  knowledge  of  Greek 
hardly  existed  except  in  the  Netherlands,  he  followed  the  advice 
of  Ernesti,  who  urged  him  not  to  resort  to  the  teaching  of  J.  M. 
Gesner,  at  Gottingen,  but  to  betake  himself  to  Hemsterhuys  at 

1  Peerlkamp,  5i8f.  2  L.  Miiller,  99  f. 

3  Cp.  Wyttenbach's  Vita  Ruhnkenii,  175 — 181  etc.  ed.  Bergman;  J.  T. 
Bergman's  Memoria  (Utrecht,  1871);  L.  Miiller,  82  f;  and  Wilamowitz,  Eur. 
Heracles  i  2,}!1  f,  'Er  libertraf  an  Wucht  der  Gelehrsamkeit  alle  Zeitgenossen '. 


CHAP.  XXV.]         VALCKENAER.      RUHNKEN.  457 

Leyden.  Against  the  wishes  of  his  parents,  he  left  for  the  Nether- 
lands. He  was  delighted  with  the  dignity  and  courtesy  with  which 
he  was  received  by  Hemsterhuys1,  who  thenceforth  became  his 
sole  model  and  example,  and  whose  portrait  he  afterwards  drew 
as  that  of  the  ideal  critic.  Ruhnken  began  with  Greek,  and  read 
through  all  the  Greek  and  Latin  Classics  in  chronological  order. 
In  Greek  he  used  the  Greek  lexicographers  themselves,  with 
Stephens'  Thesaurus,  and  an  interleaved  copy  of  Scapula ;  in 
Latin,  an  interleaved  Faber.  The  first-fruits  of  at  least  five  years 
of  study  were  his  two  Epistolae  Criticae,  (i)  on  Homer  and  Hesiod, 
dedicated  to  Valckenaer  (1749),  and  (2)  on  Callimachus  and 
Apollonius  Rhodius,  dedicated  to  Ernesti  (1751).  Meanwhile, 
he  had  begun  to  help  Alberti,  who  had  been  led  to  undertake  an 
edition  of  Hesychius,  owing  to  his  interest  in  the  '  sacred  glosses '. 
With  a  view  to  qualifying  for  a  professorship  in  law,  he  prepared 
a  dissertation  on  the  Greek  Commentators  on  the  Digest  (1752). 
His  next  work  was  his  edition  of  the  Platonic  Lexicon  of  Titnaetis, 
from  a  MS  (in  the  Coislin  library),  a  specimen  of  which  had  been 
printed  by  Montfaucon.  The  transcript  used  by  Ruhnken  was 
made  by  Jean  Capperonnier  through  the  kind  offices  of  Dr  Henry 
Gaily,  Canon  of  Norwich,  whom  Ruhnken  had  met  while  he 
accompanied  Alberti  to  Spa.  Its  publication,  with  the  learned 
notes  of  Ruhnken,  drew  the  attention  of  scholars  to  the  literary 
interest  of  Plato.  Wyttenbach  and  Brunck  agreed  in  considering 
this  volume  as  at  once  the  briefest  and  the  most  learned  work  that 
had  been  published  in  connexion  with  Greek  a. 

Ruhnken  had  now  been  for  ten  years  at  Leyden.  Ritter, 
Berger,  and  Ernesti  were  eager  that  he  should  become  a  professor 
in  Germany,  but  nothing  would  induce  him  to  leave  the  Nether- 
lands. He  enjoyed  taking  an  occasional  private  tutorship  in  or 
near  Leyden,  which  would  allow  of  a  certain  amount  of  leisure  for 
travelling  and  visiting  foreign  libraries.  In  1755  he  went  for  a 
year  to  Paris,  where  he  devoted  a  large  part  of  his  time  to  making 
transcripts  and  extracts  from  MSS.  In  Paris,  besides  enjoying  the 
intellectual  life  of  the  place,  he  became  acquainted  with  two 
English  scholars,  Musgrave  and  Tyrwhitt3,  while  the  circle  of  his 

1  Wyttenbach,  Vita  Ruhnkenii. 

2  1754;  Wyttenbach,  59.  :!  //>.  71. 


RUHNKEN. 


From  a  portrait  by  H.  Pothoven  (1791),  engraved  by  P.  II.  Jonxis  (1792), 
and  lithographed  by  Oehme  and  Muller  (Brunsv.  1827). 


CHAP.  XXV.]  RUHNKEN.  459 

French  friends  included  Villoison,  Larcher,  and  Sainte-Croix. 
Hemsterhuys,  however,  advised  him  not  to  remain  abroad  too 
long.  On  his  return,  he  was  appointed,  in  1757,  to  assist 
Hemsterhuys  as  Reader  in  Greek,  and,  four  years  later,  succeeded 
to  the  Latin  Chair  vacated  by  Oudendorp.  His  inaugural  oration 
De  Doctore  Umbratico,  interesting  in  itself  as  showing  by  contrast 
the  professor's  own  ideal  of  the  true  scholar,  gave  offence  to 
certain  pedants,  and  especially  to  certain  head-masters,  who 
assumed  that  the  portrait  was  meant  for  themselves.  Accordingly, 
when  their  pupils  left  them  for  Leyden,  they  suggested  that  it  was 
unnecessary  for  them  to  attend  the  lectures  of  the  Latin  professor. 
Any  foreigner  holding  a  public  position  in  Holland  was  regarded 
with  a  jealous  eye,  and  Burman  II  and  Schrader  may  well  have 
thought  that  they  had  a  better  claim  to  the  Latin  Chair.  On  his 
appointment,  Ruhnken  went  once  more  through  the  Latin  Classics, 
and  entered  with  vigour  on  his  three  courses  of  customary  lectures, 
(i)  on  Universal  History,  (2)  on  Roman  Antiquities,  and  (3)  on 
'  Eloquentia',  i.e.  the  public  exposition  of  a  Latin  author.  In 
this  last  his  favourite  subjects  were  Terence,  Suetonius,  Cicero, 
ad  Familiares,  and  Ovid's  Heroides^.  He  was  content  with  a  com- 
paratively small  class, — a  class  larger,  however,  than  that  of 
J.  F.  Granovius,  who  in  the  palmy  days  of  Leyden  sometimes 
had  scarcely  ten  pupils.  He  declined  the  Chair  vacated  by 
Gesner  at  Gottingen,  and  recommended  the  appointment  of  Heyne 
(1763).  By  1765  he  had  completed  Alberti's  Hesychius.  The 
numerous  renderings  of  extracts  from  the  Greek  Orators  in 
Rutilius  Lupus  led  to  his  prefixing  to  his  edition  of  that  work  an 
elaborate  Historia  Critica  Oratorum  Graecorum  (1768).  He  also 
edited  Velleius  Paterculus  and  Cornelius  Nepos.  While  reading 
the  Greek  rhetoricians  in  connexion  with  Rutilius  Lupus,  he 
noticed  a  sudden  change  of  style  in  the  Rhetoric  of  Apsines,  and 
thus  discovered  that  the  work  of  Apsines  had  been  interpolated 
with  passages  from  another  Rhetoric,  which  a  quotation  by 
Joannes  Siceliotes2  led  him  to  identify  as  that  of  Cassius 
Longinus8.  In  this  connexion  he  wrote  a  treatise  De  Vita  et 

1  Cp.  his  Dictata  in  Ter.,  Sueton.,  and  Ovid's  Hcroides. 

2  Rhetores  Gr.  ed.  Walz,  vi  119  (cp.  v  451,  ix  p.  xxiii). 

3  Rhetores  Gr.  ed.  Spengel,  i  310,  10 — 15. 


460  THE    NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

Scriptis  Longini  (1776),  which  Wyttenbach  does  not  hesitate  to 
pronounce  'immortal'.  'Hie  ejus  libellus  apud  intelligentissimos 
judices,  triplicis  artis,  Historiae,  Criticae,  Eloquentiae,  palmam 
tulit'1.  Shortly  afterwards,  C.  F.  Matthaei  sent  him  from  Moscow 
a  transcript  of  the  lately  discovered  Homeric  Hymns  to  Dionysus 
and  Demeter,  and,  within  the  space  of  two  years,  two  editions  of 
the  same  were  published  by  Ruhnken  (1780-2).  In  1784  he 
began  his  complete  edition  of  Muretus,  whom  he  regarded  as  an 
admirable  model  of  modern  Latin.  In  the  same  year  he  had  a 
welcome  visit  from  Thomas  Burgess,  the  editor  of  five  Greek 
plays  and  the  future  bishop  of  Salisbury2,  and,  two  years  later, 
he  saw  much  of  Spalding,  the  future  editor  of  Quintilian.  Among 
the  latest  works  on  which  he  was  engaged  was  an  edition  of  certain 
scholia  on  Plato,  with  a  revision  of  the  Latin  lexicon  of  Scheller. 
In  1795  F.  A.  Wolfs  'Prolegomena  to  Homer'  was  dedicated 
Davidi  Ruhnkenio  Principi  Criticorum.  For  the  author  he  had 
the  highest  esteem,  and  it  was  with  a  peculiar  pleasure  that  he 
read  this  work,  even  when  he  differed  from  its  conclusions.  Three 
years  afterwards,  while  his  mind  was  wandering  during  an  illness 
that  proved  fatal,  he  was  heard  to  murmur  broken  snatches  of 
Greek  and  Latin,  till,  as  he  slumbered,  'at  last  Sleep  laid  him 
with  her  brother,  Death'.  Thus,  in  the  land  of  his  adoption,  the 
German  student  who  had  left  his  home  to  learn  Greek  at  Leyden, 
passed  away  at  the  time  when  a  new  age  of  criticism  was  beginning 
to  dawn  in  the  land  of  his  fathers. 

Ruhnken's  portrait  was  drawn  on  an  ample  scale  by  his 
favourite  pupil,  Wyttenbach,  whose  Life  of  his  master  is  practically 
a  survey  of  the  History  of  Scholarship  during  this  age.  Ruhnken 
himself  is  there  described  as  endowed  with  every  grace  of  mind 
and  body,  a  well-built  frame,  a  dignified  bearing,  a  cheerful 
countenance,  skill  in  music  and  drawing,  in  riding  and  leaping, 
and  in  the  pursuits  of  the  chase3. 

1  Vita,  169  f.  2  p.  431  supra. 

3  Vita  (L.  B.  1799;  ed.  Bergman,  ?'£.  1824;  ed.  Frotscher,  Friberg,  1846). 
Opuscula,  2  vols,  ed.  2  (1823);  Orationes,  Dissertations s  et  Epistolae,  W.  Friede- 
mann,  Brims.,  1828;  Epp.  ad  Wyttenbach.,  ed.  Mahne  (Altona,  1834);  Select 
Epp.  etc.  in  H.  H.  Wolf's  Edogae  Latinae,  140 — 191  (1885).  Cp.  L.  Miiller, 
84—88,  101  f;  and  H.  Petrich,  in  Z.f.  Gymn.  xxxiv  (1880)  81  — in. 


CHAP.  XXV.]      PIERSON.      LUZAC.      WYTTENBACH.  461 

Before  turning  to  Wyttenbach,  the  pupil  and  biographer  and  successor  of 
Ruhnken,  we  may  briefly  notice  a  few  minor  scholars,  who,  in  the  date  of 
their  birth,  fall  between  the  two  great  scholars  already  mentioned. 

Johann   Pierson   (1731  — 1759)5   a   pupil   of  Valckenaer  and   Schrader  at 
Franeker,  and  of  .Hemsterhuys  at  Leyden  (1751),  and  for  four 
brief  years   Rector  of  the  school  at   Leeuwarden   (1/55-9), 
published  his   Verisitnilia  in   1752,  and  his  edition  of  the  lexicon  of  Moeris 
four  years  later. 

Gisbert  Koen  (1/36—1767),  a  native  of  Breda,  studied  at  Franeker  and 
Leyden.     After  holding  several  head-masterships,  he  became 
professor  of  Greek  at  Franeker  in  the  last  year  of  his  life. 
It  was  during  the  same  year  that  his  edition  of  Gregorius  Corinthius  was 
published  at  Leyden. 

Laurens  van  Santen  of  Amsterdam  (1746 — 1798)  studied  under  Burman  II 

at    Leyden,   where   he    became    Curator   of  the    university. 

Santen 
He  completed  Burman's   edition   of  Propertius   and   edited 

Callimachus'  Hymn  to  Apollo,  with  Valckenaer's  notes.  His  own  edition 
of  Terentianus  Maurus  was  completed  by  J.  D.  van  Lennep  (1825).  His 
collections  for  an  edition  of  Catullus  are  preserved  in  the  Royal  Library  at 
Berlin.  He  was  in  good  repute  as  a  Latin  poet J. 

Jean  Luzac   (1746 — 1807),  tne  pupil  and  the  son-in-law  of  Valckenaer, 

studied  law  at  Leyden,  practised  as  a  barrister  at  the  Hague, 

Luzac 
and  succeeded  Valckenaer  as  professor  of  Greek  from   1785 

to  1/96,  and  again  from  1802  to  1807.  I"1  tms  'ast  vear>  he  was  one  of  the 
many  victims  of  a  fatal  explosion  of  a  cargo  of  gunpowder  on  board  a  barge 
in  Leyden2.  Besides  editing  Valckenaer's  Fragments  of  Callimachus  (1799) 
and  his  Diatribe  on  Aristolnilus  (1806),  he  was  prompted  doubtless  by  his 
father-in-law's  edition  of  the  Hippolytus  to  include  many  criticisms  on  that 
play  in  his  Exereitationes  Academieae  (1792-3).  He  also  contributed  to 
his  pupil  Janus  Otto  Sluiter's  Lee ti ones  Andocideae  (1804).  lie  appears  in 
the  light  of  a  lawyer  rather  than  a  scholar  in  his  Lectiones  Atticae,  edited 
after  his  death  by  Sluiter,  a  professor  of  Greek  and  Roman  literature  at 
Deventer,  who  died  in  1815.  In  the  first  of  the  two  periods  of  his  pro- 
fessorship, Luzac  was  overshadowed  by  Ruhnken,  and  in  the  second  by 
Wyttenbach3. 

Daniel  Wyttenbach  (1746 — 1820),  who  was  born  at  Bern,  was 
educated  at  Marburg,  and  studied  for  a  time  at  the 

Wyttenbach 

universities  of  Marburg  and  Gottingen.      Just  as 
Ruhnken  left  Wittenberg  and  neglected  Gottingen,  to  become  a 
pupil    of   Hemsterhuys  at    Leyden,    so    Wyttenbach    abandoned 
Gottingen  in    1770   to  live  at   Leyden  for  one   memorable   year 

1   Peerlkamp,  512-5.     Cp.  L.  Miiller,  177,  186,  214. 

'-'  Cp.  Mahne's  IVyttenbach^  153-9'".  3  ^.  Miiller,  92  f. 


WYTTENBACH. 
From  a  photograph  of  the  portrait  in  the  Aula  of  the  University  of  Leyclen. 


CHAP.  XXV.]  WYTTENBACH.  463 

under  the  tuition  of  Ruhnken.  In  the  next  twenty-eight  years, 
he  held  professorships  at  Amsterdam  (1771-99),  and  then  returned 
to  Leyden  as  Ruhnken's  successor  for  seventeen  years  (1799 — 
1 8 1 6).  For  the  last  four  years  of  his  life,  he  withdrew  to  a  country- 
house  in  the  neighbourhood.  He  had  lost  his  sight  for  some 
time  before  his  death  in  1820. 

His  early  studies  at  Gottingen  are  represented  by  his  Epistola 
Critica  on  passages  in  Julian,  Eunapius,  and  Aristaenetus  (1769)'. 
It  was  addressed  to  Ruhnken.  Wyttenbach  had  been  reading 
Xenophon,  and  was  beginning  Plato,  when  a  friend,  finding  that 
Ruhnken's  edition  of  the  Platonic  Lexicon  of  Timaeus  had  nothing 
to  do  with  the  Platonic  dialogue  of  that  name,  handed  over  his 
copy  to  Wyttenbach.  The  latter  was  soon  lost  in  admiration  of  its 
editor,  who  thus  became  to  him  novae  veluti  vitae  aucior2.  Heyne, 
who  owed  his  own  professorship  at  Gottingen  to  the  good-will  of 
Ruhnken,  gave  Wyttenbach  an  introduction  to  the  great  scholar 
of  Leyden.  On  entering  that  university,  Wyttenbach  worked 
mainly  under  Ruhnken,  but  he  also  attended,  and  fully  appre- 
ciated, the  lectures  of  Valckenaer.  The  first-fruits  of  the  year 
at  Leyden  were  his  edition  of  Plutarch,  De  sera  Numinis  vindicta 
(1772).  More  than  twenty  years  later  this  led  to  his  undertaking 
a  complete  edition  of  Plutarch's  Moralia  for  the  Oxford  Press. 
Six  quarto  volumes  of  Greek  Text  and  Latin  Translation  (1795  — 
1806)  were  followed  by  two  volumes  of  Animadversions  (1800-21) 
and  completed  by  an  Index  in  two  volumes  of  more  than  1700 
pages,  published  under  Gaisford's  superintendence  in  1830.  The 
successive  instalments  of  'copy'  were  sent  to  the  Press  through  the 
British  Minister  at  the  Hague;  the  first  arrived  safely  in  1794; 
in  1798  (when  Holland  was  at  war  with  England)  the  next  was 
despatched  in  a  box  protected  with  pitch  from  the  perils  of  the 
sea,  and  was  mislaid  at  the  Hague  for  two  years  and  a  half;  during 
all  this  time  the  editor  was  anxiously  uncertain  as  to  its  fate3. 

On  the  death  of  Ruhnken,  Wyttenbach  became  the  most 
influential  scholar  in  the  Netherlands.  His  influence  was  main- 
tained and  extended  by  the  articles  which  he  wrote  for  two 

1  This    Epistola,    with    notes,    on   Julian's    Eulogy    of    Constantius,    was 
reprinted  by  G.  H.  Schaefer  (1802). 

2  Wyttenbach,  Vita  R.  148.  3  Mahne's  Wyttenbach,  \\i.-->-. 


464  THE   NETHERLANDS.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

Classical  Reviews  in  succession : — (i)  the  Bibliotheca  Critica 
(1777  — 1809),  to  which  he  was  the  principal  contributor;  and 
(2)  the  Philomathia  (1809-17),  written  entirely  by  himself.  His 
contributions  were,  however,  not  unfrequently  distinguished 
more  for  the  elegance  of  their  Latinity  than  for  precise  and 
thorough  treatment  of  the  work  reviewed.  Both  of  these 
periodicals  give  abundant  proof  of  the  friendly  relations  between 
scholars  in  the  Netherlands  and  in  England1. 

While  Wyttenbach  was  still  at  Amsterdam,  he  had  proved  his 
aptitude  for  attracting  promising  students,  such  as  Hieronymus 
de  Bosch  (1740 — 1811),  the  editor  of  the  Greek  Anthology, 
Nieuwland  (1764-94),  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  Musonius  Rufus, 
and  D.  J.  van  Lennep  (1774—1853),  the  editor  of  Hesiod,  who, 
together  with  de  Bosch,  followed  him  to  Leyden.  At  Leyden  his 
influence  was  still  greater.  His  pupils  there  included  Alexander 
Basse  (d.  1844),  and  Philip  Willem  van  Heusde  (1778 — 1839). 
All  of  them  were  formed  on  his  own  model,  and,  in  their 
devotion  to  Greek  Philosophy  and  to  Cicero,  became  '  miniature 
Wyttenbachs'.  It  was  an  exception  when  their  work,  as  in  the 
case  of  van  Heusde's  Specimen  Criticum  in  Platonem,  was  con- 
cerned with  emendation  and  interpretation.  Wyttenbach  himself, 
who  began  with  an  unbounded  admiration  for  the  critical  works 
of  Ruhnken  and  Valckenaer,  an  admiration  expressed  in  the 
Epistola  Critica  of  his  time  at  Gottingen,  found  himself  intellectually 
further  and  further  removed  from  them,  the  nearer  he  came  under 
their  immediate  and  personal  influence.  Thus,  his  edition  of  the 
Phaedo  (1810),  which  has  been  far  too  highly  praised,  reflects  the 
influence  of  Heyne  rather  than  that  of  Ruhnken.  The  grammatical 
and  critical  method  here  gives  .place  to  an  aesthetic  type  of 
commentary,  full  of  charm  and  elegance,  but  only  too  apt  to 
ignore  real  difficulties,  and  not  always  distinguished  by  clearness 
and  simplicity  of  expression.  His  monographs  on  leading  repre- 
sentatives of  Greek  literature  are  far  less  elaborate  in  their  method, 
far  less  rich  in  their  results,  than  the  works  of  Ruhnken  and 
Valckenaer  on  similar  subjects.  Even  his  conclusive  proof  of  the 
spuriousness  of  the  '  Plutarchic '  treatise,  De  Educations  Puerorutn, 

1  Chr.  Wordsworth,  Scholae  Academicae,  93-6. 


CHAP.  XXV.]  WYTTENBACH.  465 

is   inferior   to   Valckenaer's   masterly   exposure  of  the  impostor 
Aristobulus. 

But  his  departure  from  Ruhnken's  critical  method  was  less 
pronounced  than  his  breach  with  the  old  Latin  traditions  of  the 
Netherlands.  The  unanimous  voice  of  his  scholarly  con- 
temporaries assures  us  that  he  had  little  taste  for  modern  Latin 
poetry,  and,  although  this  is  not  so  grave  a  crime  as  it  might 
have  seemed  in  the  eyes  of  the  pupils  of  Burman  II  and  of 
Schrader,  Lucian  Miiller  demurs  to  the  dictum  of  Peerlkamp, 
that  Wyttenbach  is  entitled  to  the  gratitude  of  the  scholars  of  the 
Netherlands  for  '  suppressing  the  perverse  study  of  Latin  versifica- 
tion'. Such  gratitude  would  only  be  in  place,  if  he  had  trans- 
formed this  '  perverse  study '  into  one  that  was  sane  and  rational. 
This  he  was  neither  able  nor  willing  to  do,  and  the  'suppression'  of 
Latin  verse  in  the  Netherlands  has  been  accompanied  by  a  decline 
in  Latin  scholarship.  He  was  more  interested  in  the  Greek  poets, 
but,  strange  to  say,  he  does  not  apply  that  interest  to  the  numerous 
poetic  passages  imbedded  in  the  prose  of  Plutarch.  In  fact,  he 
does  not  always  detect  their  existence.  Nevertheless,  a  permanent 
value  attaches  to  his  edition  of  the  Moralia,  and  to  the  efforts 
aroused  by  himself  and  his  pupils  for  the  understanding  of  the 
old  philosophy,  especially  that  of  Plato  and  the  Platonists.  He 
also  helped  to  oppose  the  introduction  of  the  modern  Kantian 
philosophy  into  Holland1.  The  highest  praise  must  be  assigned 
to  his  Life  of  Ruhnken,  a  work  of  absorbing  interest  to  his  scholarly 
contemporaries,  which  still  retains  its  importance  as  a  com- 
prehensive picture  of  the  Scholarship  of  the  Netherlands,  and  not 
the  Netherlands  alone,  in  the  age  of  Ruhnken.  Like  Ruhnken 
himself,  he  represents  the  close  of  the  old  order ;  he  had  no 
sympathy  with  the  new  direction  that  was  being  given  to  classical 
studies  by  Wolf2. 


1  L.  Miiller,  91 — 96. 

2  On  Wyttenbach,  cp.  Mahne's  Vita,  Ghent,  1823  ;  ed.  Friedemann  (with 
Epp.  iueditae),  Braunschweig,  1825;  Sclectae  Epp.,  ed.  Kraft  (Altona,  1834); 
Opuscula  (Leyden,  1821)  ;  Epp.  sex  incditac  (Marburg,  1839)  >  a'so  Pattison's 
Casanbon,  423,  439,  449-  ;  Praecepta  philosophise  logicae  (Halle,  1820). 


S.     II.  30 


466  RETROSPECT.  [CENT.  XVIII. 

Thus  far  we  have  surveyed  the  progress  of  scholarship  during 
the  eighteenth  century  in  Italy  and  France,  in  England  and  the 
Netherlands.  We  have  seen  that,  in  the  two  Latin  nations,  the 
study  of  Latin  continued  to  flourish  by  the  side  of  the  study  of 
archaeology.  In  Italy,  Greek  was  in  a  subordinate  position, 
Corsini's  Fasti  Attic?  being  the  only  important  product  of  Greek 
learning,  as  contrasted  with  numerous  publications  connected  with 
the  study  of  Latin,  culminating  in  the  great  lexicon  of  Forcellini2. 
In  France,  the  study  of  Greek  was  well  represented,  in  the  early 
part  of  the  century,  by  Montfaucon's  Palaeographia  Graeca3,  and, 
towards  its  close,  by  Villoison's  Venetian  Scholia* — the  armoury 
from  which  Wolf  drew  some  of  the  weapons  for  his  .famous 
Prolegomena.  In  England,  Bentley's  immortal  Dissertation, 
originally  written  to  correct  an  indiscriminate  admiration  for  all 
the  reputed  works  of  the  'ancients'5,  placed  the  sequence  of 
ancient  literature  in  a  proper  historical  perspective ;  it  also  set  an 
effective  example  of  critical  method,  while  it  incidentally  proved 
that,  for  the  discussion  of  a  complicated  problem  in  Greek 
literature,  the  artificial  Latin  hitherto  in  fashion  was  a  less 
adequate  medium  than  the  vigorous  use  of  the  mother-tongue6. 
Bentley's  influence  as  a  Greek  scholar  had  also  a  direct  effect  on 
Holland,  and,  through  Holland,  on  Germany.  It  was  owing  to 
Bentley's  encouragement  that  Hemsterhuys  resolved  on  mastering 
the  defects  in  his  knowledge  of  Greek7,  and  thus  ultimately  achieved 
so  great  a  reputation  that  Ruhnken  left  Germany  to  learn  Greek  at 
Leyden8,  just  as,  in  the  next  generation,  Wyttenbach  went  to  learn 
Greek  from  Ruhnken9.  Lastly,  we  may  recall  the  influence  exerted 
in  Germany  by  Robert  Wood's  Essay10,  which  inspired  Heyne  with 
a  new  interest  in  Homer,  and  supplied  Wolf  with  part  of  the 
materials  for  his  Prolegomena.  Our  survey  of  the  eighteenth 
century  in  Germany  is  reserved  for  the  first  two  chapters  in  the 
next  volume. 

1  P-  379-  2  P-  375-  3  P-  387- 

4  P-  397  supra;   iii  56,  58  infra.  5  p.  403. 

6  Cp.  Wilamowitz,  in  Lexis,  Die  Reform  des  hbheren  Schulwesens  (1902), 

i/4- 

7  p-  449-  8  P-  456.  9  P-  461- 
10  p.  43-2  supra;   iii  41,  $5  infra. 


INDEX 


Aberdeen,  249 

Academy,    French,    290  f;    Academy 

of  Inscriptions,  297  f,  436  ;.  Italian 

Academies,  380;  Florence,  81-89; 

Naples,  89  ;  Rome,  90-93  ;  Venice 

(Aldine)  98 
Achery,  Luc  d',  295 
Achilles    Tatius,    ed.    pr.    (Heidelb. 

1601);  ed.  Salmasius  (1640),  309 
Achillini,   Alessandro,   1 1 1 
Acidalius,  Valens,  273 
Adam,   Alexander,  435 
Adamantius,  35 
'Adams',   'Parson',   415 
Addison,  281,  410 
Adrian  VI,    122,    137 
Adrianus,  Marcellus  Virgilius,  135  n.  $ 
Aegius,  Ben.,    105 
Aeschines,  trans,  by  Bruni,    46 ;  ed. 

pr.  in  Rlietores  Graeci  (Ven.  1513), 

104;    ed.    H.    Wolf  (Bas.    1572); 

Taylor  (Camb.   1748-69),  414 
Aeschines   Socraticus,  ed.  Le  Clerc, 

44i 
Aeschylus,    Laur.    MS,    36 f;    ed.  pr. 

6  plays  (Ven.  1518),  105;   7   pla)s 

(Ven.  1552),  105;  with  Agam.  323- 

1050   (Par.    1557),    105,    138,   176; 

ed.    Robortelli    (1552),    141,    143  ; 

Turnebus  (1552),  186;  Dorat,  P.  ^. 

(1549),    187;    Canter   (1580),  216; 

Stanley  (1663),  351  ;  Heath  (1762), 

417  ;   Person  (1795),  427 
Aesop,  transl.  Valla,  69  ;  Milan  ed. 

(c.     1478),    97,     104  ;     transl.    by 

Faernus  (1564),   148;   Bentley  on, 

403-5 
Aetna,  441 
Agatharchides,  272 
Agincourt,  J.   B.    L.   G.    Seroux   d', 

393 

Agostino,  Antonio,   160;   154,    162 
Agrippa,     (i)     Cornelius,     183  ;     (2) 

Rudolphus,  253;  62,  127,  211,  258 
Ailly,  Pierre  d',   166 


Ainsworth,   Robert,  415 

Alberti,  (i)  Leo  Battista,  33,  61,  82; 
(2)  Johann,  446,  457,  459 

Albinovanus,  441 

Alciati,  Andrea,    147,    160,   193 

Aldrovandi,   Ulisse,    154 

Aleander,  Hieronymus  (Girolamo 
Aleandro),  169 

Alexander,  (i)  of  Aphrodisias  104, 
109  f,  in;  Gaza's  transl.  of  his 
Problems,  62  n. ;  (2)  Alexander  VI, 
90,  107,  115 

Alfonso,  the  Magnanimous  (1383- 
1458),  king  of  Aragon  and  Sicily 
(1416-58),  and  king  of  Naples 
(1442-58),  45,  62,  66,  69,  89 

Allatius,  Leo  (Leone  Allacci),  361 

Alvarez  (Alvarus),   Emanuel,   163 

Amaduzzi,   Giovanni   Cristoforo,  384 

Amaltheus,  Joannes  Baptista,    114 

Amantius,  Bartholomaeus,    260 

Ammianus  Marcellinus,  MS  dis- 
covered by  Poggio,  29  f;  ed.  pr. 
Rome  (1474),  (2)  Augsburg  (1533), 
103  ;  ed.  Gelenius,  Bas.  (1533), 
265  ;  Valesius  (1636),  287 

Ammonius  (1500,  1503),  iO4;Valcke- 
naer  (1739),  456 

Amyot,  Jacques,    195  f;   197,  242 

Anacreon,  ed.  pr.  (Par.  1554),  1/6; 
105 

Analecta,   Brunck's,   395 

Anapaestic  system,  synaphcia  of  the, 
402 

Ancients  and  moderns,  controversy 
on  the,  403 

Ancona,  Ciriaco  dc'  Pizzicolli  d'  (Cy- 
riacus  Anconitanus),  39  f 

Ancyranum,   Mori.,   305 

Andrews,   St,   24  7  f 

Andronicus  Rhodius,  ed.  pr.   (Augs. 

J594).  105 

Annius  Viterbiensis.  Joannes  (Gio- 
vanni Nanni),  154  n.  3 

Anthologia  Graeca  (i)  Planndca,  ed. 

30—2 


468 


INDEX. 


pr.  (Flor.  1494),  79,  97,  104  ;  330 ; 

Chalcondyles'  MS,  64;  trans.  Poli- 

tian,  85,  Grotius,   317  f;  (2)  Pala- 

tina,  285,  361 
Anthologia  Latino,  35,  454 
Antiquite  Expliquee  (Montfaucon's), 

387. 

Antonius  (i)  Liberalis,  ed.  pr.  (Bas. 
1568),  105;  (2)  Panormita  (An- 
tonio Beccadelli),  89 

Anville,   Jean  Baptiste  Bourguignon 

d',  391 

Apianus    (Bennewitz    or    Bienewitz), 

Petrus,  260 
Apicius,  MS,  35  ;  ed.  pr.  (Milan,  1498), 

'03 

Apollodorus,  Bibliotheca,  ed.  pr. 
(Rome,  1555),  105 

Apollonius,  (i)  grammarian,  270; 
(2)  lexicographer,  398  ;  (3)  mathe- 
matician, 252;  (4)  paradoxographer, 
ed.  pr.  (1568),  105  ;  (5)  poet,  A. 
Rhodius,  Laur.  MS,  36  f;  ed.  pr. 
(Flor.  1496),  79,  97,  104;  ed.  Shaw, 
419;  Brunck,  395 

Apostolius,  Michael,  75  f 

Appian,  70,  272  ;  ed. pr.  (R.  Stephanus 
(Par.  1551),  105,  175 

Apsines,  459 

Apuleius,  ed.  pr.  (Rome,  1469),  97, 
103;  ed.  Wowerius,  306;  Ouden- 
dorp,  454;  Acidalius  on,  273;  De 
Deo  Socratis,  ed.  Mercier,  210 

Aquinas,  Thomas,   109  f 

Aratus,  ed.  pr.  in  Astronomici  Veteres 
(Ven.  1499),  104;  studied  by  Vic- 
torius,  137;  ed.  Grotius  (L.  B. 
1600)  ;  Bandini  (1765),  379 

Archaeology,  classical,  38-40;  121, 
145'  '53  f>  i6of,  279  f,  299, 
327.  33'.  334.  380-384,  393 f, 
43i  f.  434 

Archimedes,  ed.  pr.  (Bas.  1544),  105; 
Latin  ed.,  Barrow,  349 

Aretaeus,  ed.  pr.  (Par.    1554),  105 

Argyropulos,  Joannes,  63 ;  75  f,  83, 
221,  257,  274 

Ariosto,   156 

Aristaenetus,  ed.  pr.  (Ant.  1566), 
105;  ed.  Mercier,  210 

Aristides,  ed.  pr.   (Flor.   1517),   105 

Aristobulus,  456 

Aristophanes,  ed.  pr.,  9  plays  (Ven. 
1498),  79,  98,  104;  Thesm.  Lys. 
(Flor.  1516  N.S.),  104;  ii  plays 
(Bas.  1532),  105  ;  Bentley  on,  408  ; 
Person  on,  429  ;  ed.  Brunck,  395  ; 


Kiister,  446  ;  Bergler,  455  ;  Hem- 
sterhuys  (Plu/ns),  450 

Aristotle,  ed.  pr.  (Ven.  1495-8),  98, 
104;  ed.  Erasmus  (1531).  '3'; 
Casaubon  (1590),  208;  Sylburg 
(1584-7),  270;  Hist.  Anim.  and 
Mech.  Probl.  transl.  by  Gaza,  62  ; 
De  Caelo,  165,  274  ;  De  Gen.  et 
Corr.  transl.,  76;  Ethics  transl. 
by  Manetti,  45;  Oec.,  Elk.,  Pol. 
by  Bruni,  46,  221  ;  Eth.,  Pol., 
Oec.,  De  An.,  De  Caelo,  by  Argy- 
ropulos, 63;  Rhet.  (1380,  Poet. 
(n\},Pol.,Eth.  (138),  ed.Victorius, 
137;  Eth.,  Oec.,  Top.,  Muretuson, 
149 f;  Met.  transl.  by  Bessarion, 
61  ;  paraphr.  by  Flaminin,  119; 
Poet.  ed.  pr.  in  Rhet  ores  •  Gracci 
(I5l$)'  98,  104,  133;  ed.  Robortelli, 
141,  143;  188,  291,  313,  392,  419; 
Fracastoro  on,  119;  its  influence  in 
Italy,  133-5;  definition  of  tragedy, 
348  ;  Rhetoric,  ed.  pr.  (in  Rhetores 
Graeci),  98,  104;  Rhet.  and  Probl. 
transl.  by  Trapezuntius,  63  ;  Rhet. 
by  Sigonius,  143,  and  Majoragius, 
146;  Rhet.  i,  ii  transl.  by  Muretus, 
150;  Politics,  Machiavelli,  89 ;  158, 
165;  ed.  Conring,  368.  Mediaeval 
study  of,  247  ;  Petrarch's  attitude 
towards,  10;  Boccaccio's  know- 
ledge of,  1 5 ;  controversy  on  Aristotle 
and  Plato, 60, 7 1 ,  74  f ;  Italian  study 
of  Aristotle,  109-112;  Politian  on, 
84;  Ramus  on,  i33f;  the  elder 
Scaliger  on,  135  ;  Patrizzi  on,  152  f; 
Aristotelians  of  Padua,  10,  109  f; 
Aristotelians  attacked  by  Valla,  67; 
Aristotelian  influence  in  England, 
314;  Bacon  and  Aristotle,  338  f 

Aristoxenus,  ed. pr.  (L.  B.  1616),  311 ; 
Meibom  in  MnsiciScriptores(i6;)i), 

327. 
Arlenius,  Arnoldus  (Paraxylus),  105, 

265  n.  i 

'Arretinus',  'Joannes',  26 
Arrian,  Anabasis,  transl.  by  Vergerio, 

49  ;  Anabasis  and   Indica,  ed.  pr. 

(Ven.  1535),  105  ;  Gerbel  (Strassb. 

1539)  ;  H.  Stephanus  (Par.  1575) ; 

J.   Gronovius  (L.  B.    1704);   Cyne- 

geticus,  ed.  pr.,   Holstenius    (Par. 

1644),  364 

Arsilli,  Francesco,    120 
Arvales,  Fratres,  382 
Ascham,  Roger,   234-6;    231  f,    238, 

267  f,  269,  339 


INDEX. 


469 


Ascoli,  Enoch  d',  33,  35 

Asconius,  28,  162 

Askew,  Anthony,  416 

Aspasius  on  Aristotle,   ro 

aspirate,  Latin  and  Greek,  84 

Astronomici  Veteres,  ed.  pr.  (Ven. 
1499),  104 

Athenaeus,  ed.  pr.  (Ven.  1514),  79, 
98,  104;  ed.  Basil.  1535;  Casau- 
bon  (1597),  209;  Schweighauser 
(1801-7),  396 

Athens,  Antiquities  of,  432  ;  the 
Parthenon,  299,  394 

Athos  MSS,  37 

Augsburg  MSS,  268,   272,  296 

Augustine,  De  Civ.  Dei,  ed.  pr. 
(Subiaco,  1467),  103 

Auratus  (Dorat),    j86  n.  4,   190 

Aurelius,  Marcus,  ed.  pr.  (Zurich, 
1558),  105 

Aurispa,  Joannes,  34,  36  f 

Ausonius,  studied  by  Petrarch,  6 ; 
MS  discovered  by  Boccaccio,  13; 
ed.  pr.  (Ven.  1472),  103  ;  Politian 
on,  84;  ed.  J.  A.  Ferrarius  (Milan, 
1490);  Ugoletus  (Parma,  1499); 
Phil.  Junta  (Flor.  1519);  Auso- 
nianarum  Lectionum  I.  it,  Scaliger 
(1574),  201  ;  Variorum  ed.,  Tollius 
(Amst.  1671) 

Averroes,    109,   in 

Babrius,  405,  419 

Bacon,  Francis,  338  f 

Baif,   Lazare  de,   194 

Baldini,    134 

Balzac  (1594-1654),   139,   314,  326 

Bandini,  Angelo  Maria,  379 

Banduri,   Anselmo,  390 

(i)   Barbaro,  Francesco,  52  ;   26,   30, 

33,  83  ;  (2)   Barbarus,   Hermolaus, 

83;  34,    i [4,   226,  254,    257 
Barbosa,   Arias,   157,   162 
Barclay,  John,   341 
Barlaam  of  Seminara,  8,   15 
Barnes,  Joshua,   357  f;  405 
Baronius,  Cardinal  Caesar,    154,   207 
Barrow,   Isaac,  350 
Baith,   Caspar  von,  363 
Barthelemy,  Jean  Jacques,   3,   392  f 
Bartoli,   Pietro  Santo,  280,   391 
Barzizza,    Gasparino  da    (Gasparinus 

Barzizius),    23;    27,    31,    48,    55, 

167  f 
Basel,  Council   of,  34  ;   Erasmus  at, 

1 29  ;  univ.,  262  ;   printing  presses, 

262 


Basil,  St,  45,  158,  316 
Basse,  Alexander,  464 
Bast,  Friedrich  Jacob,   397 
Bateson,   William   Henry,  422 
Batrachomyomachia,  transl.   in   Latin 

verse  by    Marsuppini,    47  ;   ed.   (c. 

1474),    102  ;  (1486),  97,  104 
Baudius,  Dominicus,  306 
Baune,  Jacques  de  la,    292 
Baxter,  William,   356 
Bayer,  Francesco   I'erez,   162 
Beaufort  (Cardinal),  Henry,  220 
Bebel,   Heinrich,  261 
Beccadelli,  Antonio  (Antonius  Panor- 

mita),  89 

Beccario,  Antonio,   221 
Becchi,  Gentile  de',  bp  of  Arezzo,  64 
Beger  (Boeger),   Lorenz  (Daphnaeus 

Arcuarius),  368 
Bellay,  Jean  du,  182;  Guillaume  du, 

183;  Joachim  du,   148  f,   188 
Bellenden,  William,  422 
Bellori,  Giovanni  Pietro,   279 
Bembo,  Pietro,    112-115;   118,    121, 

123;  pupil  of  Const.  Lascaris,  77, 

112;   91,   93,    in;   portrait,    106  ; 

his  son  Bernardo,   282 
Bene,  Bartolomeo  del,   282 
Benedictines  of  Saint-Maur,   389 
Beni,   Paolo,    [35 
Bentley,     Richard,     401-410;     370; 

portrait,  400  (cp.  408) ;  ed.  Horace, 

406,  424,    445;   Lucan,   407;    Ma- 
nilius,  408;  Milton,  415  ;  Phaedrus, 

407,  409;  Philemon  and  Menander, 
406,   442  ;  Terence,   407.     Bentley 
on  Aesop,  403,  405  ;  Aristophanes, 
408  ;  the  digamma,  407  f ;  Euripides, 
Epp.,     404;    Greek    inscr.,     406; 
Homer,  407  f,  ^if),  Journal  of  Phi- 
Id,  xiii.  122-163;    Lucretius,  407 ; 
Malalas,     410  f;     Nicander,     407; 
Phalaris,  £/>/<.,  403-5  ;  Philostratus, 
in  Olearius'  ed.  (1709);    Socrates, 
Epp.,   404;  Synaphcia,  402;  The- 
mistocles,  Epp.,  404.         Bentley  on 
Barnes,    358 ;    Boyle,  404 ;  Castel- 
vetro,    134;    Madame   Dacier,   292 
n.  2  ;  J.  F.  Gronovius,  321;  Jakob 
Gronovius,  329;  D.  Heinsius,  314; 
Huet,    292;    Pearson,    351;    Pope, 
4iof;  Scaliger,  203,  292;  Stanley, 
352;  Temple,  403;  \Vasse,  41 2;  the 
Vossian  MSS,  322  f ;  the  three  Hea- 
venly Witnesses,  425.         Bentley's 
relations    to    Bui-man,    409,    442  ; 
Graevius,    328,     402,    408;    Hem- 


470 


INDEX. 


sterhuys,  408,  449  ;  R.  Johnson, 
406;  Ker,  406;  Kiister,  408,  446; 
Le  Clerc,  441-3;  Spanheim,  402; 
327  n.  3.  Evelyn  and  Pepys  on 
Bentley,  405 ;  Pope,  407  f ;  Porson, 
405,  427;  Ruhnken,  402;  Tyrwhitt, 
405;  Valckenaer,  402.  J.  E.  B. 
Mayor,  Cambridge  under  Queen 
Anne,  135-9,  421-436 

Benvenuto  on  Dante,  13 

Berauld,  Nicolas,   173  n.  2 

Bergler,  Stephan,  448  f 

Bernard,  Johann  Stephan,  451 

Bern  MSS,  192 

Bernegger,  Matthias,  367 

Beroaldo,  Filippo,  (i)  86 f,  91;  (2) 
91,  103,  108 

Bersuire,  Pierre,   165,  194 

Bessarion,  61  ;   37,  66,   71,  741",  77f 

Beza,  Theodorus,   180,   i8r,  205 

Bibbiena,  Cardinal,   156 

Biblia  Sacra  Graeca  (1518),    105 

Bibliotheca  Bibliothecarum  (Mont- 
faucon's),  387 

Bion,  Moschus  etc.,  ed.  pr.  (Ven. 
1496  N.S.),  104;  Bion,  Moschus, 
ed.  Mekerch  (Bruges  1565),  105. 
Theocritus,  Bion,  Moschus,  ed. 
H.  Stephanus  (1579);  Wakefield 

.('795) 

Biondo  (Blondus),  Flavio,  40 f;  32 

Bipontinae,  editiones,  396  f 

Blomfield,  Charles  James,  429;  iii  400 

Bobbio,   35 

Boccaccio,  Giovanni,  11-16;  irepj 
•yevfa\oyias  Deorum,  12,  16  ;  De 
Montium,  Sylvaruin  etc.  nominibus, 
12,  16;  De  Claris  Mnlieribus,  12, 
14;  De  Casibus  Virorum  II- 
lustrium,  12  ;  his  study  of  Greek, 
12,  15;  his  allegorical  interpreta- 
tions of  ancient  poets,  15;  his  study 
of  the  Latin  poets,  i2f,  and  of 
Livy,  13,  and  Tacitus,  13,  32  f ;  his 
Latin  prose,  12;  his  relations  to 
Petrarch,  uf;  his  influence  on 
Chaucer,  219,  and  Lydgate,  220 

Bodin,  Jean,  194 

Bodley,  Sir  Thomas,  335 

Boekler,  Johann  Heinrich,  367 

Boethius,  De  Phil.  Cons.,  ed.  pr. 
(Savigliano,  c.  1470),  103 

Boileau,  Nicholas,  299 

Bois,  John,  337 

Bois-le-Duc  (Hertogenbosch),  127,212 

Bologna,  printing  at,  97 

Bond,  John  (1530-1612),  445 


Bongars,  Jacques,   192 ;  205 
Boninus,  Euphrosynus,  ed.  pr.  Xeno- 

phon  (1516),  Aristides  (1517),  iO4f 
Borrichius,  Olaus  (Olaf  Claudii  von 

Borch),  374 
Bos,  Lambert,  446 
Bosch,     Hieronymus     (Jerome)     de, 

318  n.  4,  464 

Bossuet,  J.  B.  le,  292,  296 
Bouhier  (Buherius),  Jean,  390 
Bourne,  Vincent,  439 
Boyd,  Mark  Alexander,   249 
Boyle,  the  Hon.  Charles,  404  f 
Bracciolini,  Poggio  (y.v.),  25-34;  38  f 
Brant,  Sebastian,  256 
Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,   128, 

21  I 

Brisson,  Barnabe,    193 

Britannico,  Giovanni,   87 

Brixius,  Germanus,   173  n.  2 

Brodaeus  (Brodeau),  Jean,  265 

Brotier,  Gabriel,  394 

Broukhusius,  Janus  (Jan  van  Broek- 

huyzen),  329  f,  443,  448 
Browning's  Grammarian,  228 
Brunck,    Richard    Fran£ois    Philipp, 

395  f,  420,  457 
Bruni    (Aretino)    Leonardo,    45-47 ; 

18,  19,  22,  27,  3r,  33,  37,  4o,  44, 

47,  66,  221 

Bruyere,  Jean  de  la,  290 
Buchanan,  George,  243-6 ;  197,  249, 

314,  412  ;  portrait,   244 
Buda,   275 
Budaeus  (Guillaume  Bude),  170-173; 

68,    78,    169,    177,    182,  196,  227; 

portrait,   164 

Bullock  (Bovillus),  Henry,  230  f 
Buonaccorsi,   Filippo,  259,  276 
Buonamici,  Francesco,  on  Ar.  Poet., 

135 

Buonarroti,  Philip,   341 
Burette,  Pierre  Jean,   390 
Burgess,  Thomas,  431,  460 
Burke,  Edmund,  433 
Burman,  Pieter,  (i)  443-5  ;  409,  442, 

447,  452,   454;   portrait,  444;    (2) 

455  5  45°>  459 
Burney,  Charles,  429;  421 
Burton,   (i)  John,  Five    Greek  plays, 

431  ;     (2)     Robert,     Anatomy    of 

Melancholy,  340 
Bury,  Richard  of,  219 
Busbequius(Augher  Ghislen  Busbec), 

3°5. 

Busche     (Buschius),     Hermann    von 
dem,  261 


INDEX. 


47' 


Busleiden,  Jerome,  212 

Bussi,  Giovanni   Andrea  de',   bp    of 

Aleria,    54,    97;  Joannes   Andreas 

de  Buxis,   103 

Butler,  Samuel,  422  f;  iii  398  f 
Byzantine  historians,  268,  287,   289 

Caesar ;  his  works  studied  by  Petrarch, 
8,  and  Guarino,  50 ;  ed.  pr.  (Rome, 
1469),  97,  103  ;  ed.  Fra  Giocondo 
('5 '3).  42;  Golding's  transl.  (1565), 
242  ;  ed.  Jungermann  (1606);  Grae- 
vius  (1697),  328;  Cellarius  (1/05); 
Davies  (Camb.  1706,  1727),  412; 
Clarke  (1712),  413;  Oudendorp 

(1737),  454 
Caius,  Dr  John,  227 
Cajetan,  Cardinal,  109 
Calcagninus,     Coelius,     105  ;     Celio 

Calcagnini,    116 
Calderinus,  Dom.,  103 
Callierges,  Zacharias,  80,  104,  107,  108 
Callimachus,  ed.  pr.  (Flor.  1495),  79, 
97,    104;    transl.  by    Politian,  85; 
ed.  Robortelli  (1555),  141  ;  Madame 
Dacier  (1675),  292;  Th.  Graevius, 
Spanheim  and  Bentley  (1697),  327, 
402;  Ernesti  (1761),  450;  Bandini 
('.764).  379;  Valckenaer  (1799),  456 
Callistus,  Andronicus,  37,  75  f,  83 
Callixtus  III,  71,  90 
Calpurnius    (and    Ausonius),    ed.   pr. 

(Yen.    1472),   103 
Calvi,  Fabio,  121  f 
Calvin,  Jean,  116,  182 
Calvisius  (Kallwitz),  Sethus,  203 
Calepinus,  Ambrosius,  173,  373  f 
Cambridge,  doctor's  degree,  symbols 
of,  407  ;  Erasmus,  129,  230  ;  office 
of  Public  Orator  instituted,  231  ; 
controversy  on  Greek  and  Latin 
pronunciation,    232-4  ;    study    of 
I  atin  prose,  422  ;  the  Cambridge 
Platonists,  353  ;  Cambridge  prin- 
ters,   Siberch,    227,     University 
Press,  408,  427 

Colleges,  238  f;  Christ's,  345,  353  f; 
Emmanuel,  357,  415,  421  ;  Gon- 
ville  and  Caius,  359  ;  Pembroke, 
35  r;  Queens',  230;  St  John's, 
227,  232,  336,  353,401,414,413, 
431 ;  Sidney  Sussex,  420;  Trinity, 

338-  349 f.  355,  405,  425 

Camerarius,  Joachim,  266f;  261,  362 

Camers,  (i)  Guarino,   107  n.  3  ;    (2) 

Johannes    (Giovanni    Ricuzzi    Vel- 

leni    of  Camerino),    1448-1546,    a 


Minorite  who  taught  philosophy  in 
Padua,  and  died  in  Venice 

Campanus  (Giannantonio  Campano), 
64  n.  2,  72,  103 

Cange,  Charles  du  Fresne,  Sieur  du, 
289 ;  287,  295  ;  portrait,  288 

Canisius,  Cardinal   Egidius,    122 

Canter,  (i)  Willem,  2i6f;  105,  150, 
199,  214;  (2)  Theodor,  Var.  Lect. 
Antv.  1574 

Canterbury,  Christ  Church,  220,  225 

Capella,  Martianus,  ed.  pr.  (Vicenza, 
1499);  Modena,  1500;  Vienna, 
1516;  Bas.  15/7;  ed.  Grotius 
(L.  B.  1599),  315 

Caper,   Flavius,   29 

Capo  d'  Istria,  Bart.,    104 

Capperonnier,  Claude,  Jean  (457), 
and  Jean  Augustin,  389 

Car,  Nicholas,  339 

Caraffa,   Cardinal,   115 

Carpi,   Gk  printers  of,   98,    104 

Carrey,  Jacques,   299 

Carteromachus  (Scipione  Fortiguerra), 
98,  104,  115 

Casaubon,   (i)    Isaac,    204-210;    105, 

i6r,    203  f,    304  f,    307,    335,    337, 

352,     362  f,    452  ;    on    Salmasius, 

285  ;     portrait,     206  ;    (2)     Meric, 

^  210,    355 

Castelvetro,  Lodovico,  134,  141,  188 

Castiglione,  Baldassare,  93,  113,  114 

Cato,  the  Elder  ;  Salutati,  1 7  ;  Vic- 
torius,  137 

Catullus,  rarely  referred  to  by  Pe- 
trarch, 6;  known  to  Salutati,  17, 
and  Guarino,  50;  Catullus,  Tibullus, 
Propertius  and  Statius,  Silvae,  ed. 
pr.  (Ven.  14/2),  84,  103  ;  Catullus 
imitated  by  Bern  bo,  H4f;  ed. 
Muretus  (1554),  150;  Scaliger 
(1577),  201  ;  Passerat  (1608),  191; 
Isaac  Vossius  (1624),  322  f;  N. 
lleinsius  on  (1742),  325  ;  Twining's 
transl.  of  Phaselus,  420 

Cavaleriis,  Joannes   Baptista  de,    154 

Caylus,  Anne  Claude  Philippe  de 
Tubieres,  Comte  de,  390  f 

Cebes,  309,  450 

Cellarius,   Christoph,  369 

Celsus,  Aurelius  Cornelius,  ^4,  50, 
84  ;  ed.  pr.  (Flor.  1478),  103 

Celtes  or  Celtis  (Pickel),  Conrad, 
259  f,  276 

Cenci  de'  Rustic!,  Agapito,  21 

Cennini,   Bernardo,  97 

Censorinus,  ed.  pr.   (place  and   date 


472 


INDEX. 


unknown),  with  Latin  transl.  of 
Cebes,  Plutarch  and  Basil,  De 
Invidia  et  Odio,  and  Basil,  De 
Vita  Solitaria  ;  ed.  2  (Bol.  1497), 
with  Cebes,  Epictetus,  Plutarch 
and  Basil,  De  Invidia  et  Odio,  etc. ; 
ed.  Vinetus  (Pictav.  1568);  Aldus 
Manutius  (Ven.  1581);  Carrio  (Par. 
1583)  ;  H.  Lindenbrog  (Hamb. 
1614)  etc.,  364  ;  Havercamp  (L.  B. 

1743) 

Cerda,  Juan  Luigi  de  la,   162 
Cerretti,  Luigi,  282 
Ceva,  Tommaso,  281 
Chacon,   Pedro  and  Alfonso,   161 
Chalcedon,  inscr.  from,  406 
Chalcidius,  9,  311 
Chalcondyles,    Demetrius,  64  f,    104, 

i  ro,  226  ;  portrait,   58 
Chandler,  Richard,  434 ;  432 
Chapelain,  Jean,  314 
Chapman,  George,  241  f;  237 
Charisius,   35 
Chariton,   454 
Charles  V,  93,  122  ;  (2)  Charles  V  of 

France,     The     Wise,     i6sf;     (3) 

Charles  VIII  of  France,  82,   108 
Chartres,  32 

Chastel,  Pierre  de,  173  n.  2 
Chatham,  William  Pitt,  first  Earl  of, 

433 

Chaucer,  219 

Cheke,  Sir  John,  231  f;  236;  elec- 
trotype of  medallion  portrait, 
ascribed  to  Cavino  of  Padua,  pre- 
sented to  St  J.ohn's  Coll.  Library, 
1907 

Chess,  Vida  on,   177,  250 

Chiabrera,  Gabriel,   281  f 

Chicheley,   Reynold,  222 

Chigi,  Agostino,    107 

Choiseul-Gouffier,  Comte  de,  394 

Chrestien  (Christianus),  Florent  (1541- 
1596),  tutor  and  librarian  to  Henri 
IV;  ed.  'Empedocles'  (1587),  105 

Chrislias,  Vida's,   1 1 7 

Christina,  queen,  286,  293,  317,  322 f, 
327;  iii  339-342 

Chronicon  Paschale,   289 

Chrysostom,    283,    387 ;    ed.    Savile, 

.334.   352 

Ciacccnius,  Petrusand  Alphonsus,  161 
Cicero,  studied  by  Petrarch,  4,  6-8 ; 
pro  Archia  and  ad  Atticum  dis- 
covered by  Petrarch,  7  ;  ad 
Familiares  discovered  by  Salu- 
tati,  1 8  ;  studied  by  Gasparino  da 


Barzizza,  23 ;  pro  Cluentio,  Roscio 
Amerino,  Murena  (T.$f),pro  Cae- 
cina,  de  lege  agraria,  two  speeches 
pro  Rabirio,  pro  Roscio  comoedo 
and  in  Pisonem,  discovered  by 
Poggio,  30  ;  De  Or. ,  Brutus  and 
Orator  discovered  at  Lodi  by 
Landriani,  31,  53;  Brutus  copied 
by  Biondo,  40 

Editiones  principes ;  De  Of.  (f. 
1465),  103  ;  De  Off.,  Paradoxa 
([465),  103;  De  Or.  (1465),  97, 
103;  De  Or.,  Brutus,  Orator 
(1469),  97,  103;  ad Fam.  (1467), 
103  ;  ad  Att.  (1470),  103  ;  Rhe- 
toric a  (1470),  103  ;  Philippics 
(1470),  73,  97,  103  ;  Orationes 
(1471),  103  ;  Opera  (Milan, 
1498-9),  103  ;  Rhet.  and  Brutus 

(15140,   "8 

Editors  etc. ;  Erasmus,  131  ;  Vic- 
torius,  137,  139  ;  Paulus  Manu- 
tius, i  oof;  Nizolius,  146;  Orsini, 
154;  Lambinus,  190;  Guilielmus, 
273;  Graevius,  328;  Gruter,  359; 
Lagomarsini's  collations,  378  ; 
Garatoni,  378  ;  Olivetus,  390 
Ad  Fam. ,  chronology  of,  84 ; 
Guarino's  recension  of  Speeches, 
50 ;  palimpsest  of  Verrine  Speeches, 
73  ;  De  Or.,  Brutus,  Or.  ed. 
Paulus  Manutius,  100  ;  Paulus 
Manutius  on  pro  Archia  and  ad 
Atticum,  too.  Orator  and  De 
Or.  I,  Majoragius,  147  ;  Phil., 
pro  Fonteio,  pro  Flacco,  in 
Pisonem,  Faernus,  147  ;  in  Cat., 
Muretus,  1 50 ;  post  Reditum,  413; 
£pp.,  454;  £pp.  ad  Brittwn, 
413  ;  De  Inv.,  Burman  II,  455  ; 
De  Am.  and  De  Sen.  transl.  into 
Gk  by  Gaza,  62  ;  Academica, 
J.  A.  Capperonnier,  389;  De  Off. 
attacked  by  Calcagnini,  1 16,  147; 
Paradoxa  by  Majoragius,  146  f; 
Tusc.  Disp.  imitated,  82  ;  book  i, 
ed.  Muretus,  1 50 ;  De  Differentiis, 
18;  Fragments  ed.  Sigonius,  143; 
Consolatio,  144 

Ciceronianism,  85,  304  f;  Bembo, 
U3f;  Sadoleto,  116;  Longolius, 
121  f ;  Erasmus  on,  177  ;  Muretus 
on,  isof 

Cinnamus,   287 

Cintio,  Giraldi,    134,    135 

Ciriaco  de'  Pizzicolli  d'  Ancona,  Cyri- 
acus  Anconitanus,  39  f 


CORRIGENDUM. 

In   Index  to  vol.   n,    Chrysoloras,    now  placed  after   Crusim  on   p.   473, 
should  have  been  placed  before  Chrysostom  on  p.   473. 


INDEX. 


473 


Clarke,  Samuel,  413  ;  407 

Classical  curriculum  in  the  school  of 
Vittorino,  53  ;  survey  of  classical 
learning  by  Wowerius,  306  ;  classical 
metres  in  English  literature,  237 

Classics,  influence  of  the,  in  Italian 
literature,  isjf 

Claudian,  studied  by  Petrarch,  6  ;  ed. 
pr.  (Vicenza,  1482),  103  ;  ed. 
Ugoleto  (Parma,  1493) ;  Joannes 
Gamers  (Vienna,  1510);  Pulmannus 
(Ant.  1571),  216;  Dempster  (1607), 
340  ;  N.  Heinsius  (1650),  325  ; 
Barth  (1650),  363';  Burman  (1714), 
443;  Burman  II  (1760),  455 

Clemanges,  Nicolas  de,   167 

Clemens  Alexandrinus,   137,   270 

Clement  VII,  108,  122,  137,  138; 
(2)  Clement  VIII,  153;  (3)  Vincent 
Clement,  221 

Clenardus  (Cleynaerts),  Nicolaus,  158, 

239 

Clericus  (Jean  Le  Clerc),  441  f 
Cluni,    I'oggio  at,  25  f 
Cluverius  (Philipp  Kluwer),  313 
Cobet,  C.  G.,  416;    iii  282  f 
Colet,  John,   128,    129,  229,  239 
Colin,  Jean,    194 
Colocci,    Angelo    or    Angiolo,    153; 

Angelus  Collottius,   105 
Colonna,  Girolamo  (Hieronymus  Co- 

lumna),     of     Naples,     1534-1586, 

Ennii . .  fraginenta  (Neap.   1590) 
Columella,  92  f ;  ed.  pr.  in  Scriptores 

de  Re  Rustica  (Ven.  1472),  103 
Coltithus,  379 

Combe,  Charles,  M.D.,   424 
Comitia,  De  Grouchy  on,   144 
Commelin,  Jerome,   158 
Comparative  Philology,  birth  of,  438 
Complutensian  Polyglott,   105,   157 
Conring,   Hermann,  368 
Constance,  Council  of,    19,   25,   49 
'  Constantine',   '  Donation  of,  66-68 
Constantinople,  fall  of,  73,  74 
Constantinus    Porphyrogenitus,    161, 

272 

Conti,  Maria  Antonio,    147 
Contoblacas,  Andronicus,    256 
Cordier  (Corderius),   Maturin,    173 
Corfu  MSS,   272 
Corippus,    340 
Corneille,  291,   341 
Corsini,  Odoardo,   379 
Cortesi,   Paolo,  85;  Cortesius,    120 
Corvey,  33,   36 
Coryat  on   Latin  pronunciation,   233 


Coryciana,    120,  n.  5 

Cowley,  Abraham,  349 

Cowper,   William,   439 

Crashaw,   Richard,   281 

Cratander,  Andreas  (1532),   105,  262 

Creech,  Thomas,  356 

Crete,  immigrants  from,  98 

Crevier,  Jean  Baptiste  Louis,  436 

Crinitus,  Petrus  (Pietro  Crinito),  154 

n-  3 

Critica,  Ars,  of  Le  Clerc,  441 
Criticism,  Art  of  textual,  Robortelli, 

i4if 

Croke  (Crocus),   Richard,  231,  265  f 
Croll,  George  Christian,  397 
Cruquius  (Jacob  de  Crusque),   2  [7 
Crusius,   Martin,   270 
Chrysoloras,    Manuel,     19-21,    44  f, 

49  f»  55>  97.   I29'  22of 

Cudworth,  Ralph,  354 

Cujas  (Cujacius),  Jacques,  193 ;  192, 
194,  201 

Cunningham,  Alexander,  406 

Curtius,  (i)  Marcus,  Sadoleto's  poem 
on,  116;  (2)  Quintus,  studied  by 
Petrarch,  8  ;  ed.  pr.  (Rome  or  Ven. , 
c.  1471),  102,  103;  93;  ed.  Eras- 
mus (1518  etc.);  Du  Perron  on, 
198 ;  Acidalius  on  (1594),  273  ; 
Freinsheim  (1640),  367;  Loccenius, 
(1637);  Cellarius  (1688);  Snaken- 
burg  (L.  B.  1724) 

Cusanus,  Nicolaus,   34 

Cuspinianus  (Spieshammer),  Johann, 
260 

Cuypers  (Cuperus),  Gisbert,   331 

'  Cyril  and  Philoxenus ',   287,  289 

Dacier,  (i)  Andre,  291  f ;  (2)  his  wife 
Anna  (Lefebvre),  139,  291  f 

Dalberg,  Johann  von,  bp  of  Worms, 
254.  259 

Dalecampius,  Jacques  Dalechamps 
(1513-1588),  Latin  transl.  of  Athe- 
naeus  (1583)  ;  ed.  Plin.  N.  H. 
(1587);  Seneca,  Phil,  et  Rhet. 
(1627) 

Daniel,   Pierre,    191  f 

Daniello,   Bernardo,    133,    135 

Danes,   Pierre,    181,    195 

Dante,  Boccaccio  on,  14;  Landino 
on,  82 

Dares,  292  ;  cd.  pr.  (Col.  1470)  ;  ed. 
Mercier  (1618);  Anne  Dacier  (1680), 
292  ;  Obrecht  (Strassb.  1691) 

Darmarius,    161,    205 

Davies    (Davisius),  John,  412;    406, 


474 


INDEX. 


442 ;  J.  E.  B.  Mayor,  Cambridge 
under  Queen  Anne,  450-6 

Dawes,  Richard,  415/5  427,  431 

Dazzi,   Andrea,    135  n.  5 

Decembrio,  (i)  Angelo,  50;  (2)  Pier(o) 
Candido,  70,  221 ;  (3)  Uberto,  70 

Delfini,  Gentile,  153 

Delos,  inscr.  from,  406 

Delphin  Classics,  the,  292 

Delrio  (Del  'Rio),  Martin  Anton, 
217;  203 

Demetrius  Cydonius,   19 

Demetrius,  De  Elocutione,  cd.  fir.  in 
Rhetores  Graeci  (Yen.  1513),  104; 
ed.  Victorias  (1562),  137 

Demosthenes,  Chrysoloras  on,  21 ; 
MS,  268  ;  transl.  by  Bruni,  46,  69, 
and  Valla,  69 ;  ed.  pr.  (Ven.  1 504), 
98,  104;  ed.  Hervagius  (Bas.  1532, 
1547);  Feliciano  (Ven.  1543);  Guil- 
laume  Morel,  Lambinus,  Benena- 
tus  (Par.  1570)  ;  H.  Wolf  (Bas. 
1572),  268;  Taylor  (1748-57),  414; 
De  Pace,  ed.  Downes,  337  ;  Olyn- 
thiacs,  transl  by  Wilson,  236 

Dempster,  Thomas,   340 

Despauterius,  Johannes  (Jan  van 
Pauteren),  212 

Devarius,  Matthaeus,  78,   105 

Deventer,   127,  211,  253,   331 

De-Vit's  ed.  of  Forcellini,  376  f 

D'Ewes,  Sir  Simonds,  336  f 

'  D'Hancarville  ',  or  Dancarville, 
P.  F.  H.,  434 

Dictys  Cretensis,  ed.  /;-.?  (Col.  14/0); 
(Milan,  1477),  103  ;  ed.  Mercier 
(Par.  1618);  Anne  Dacier  (1680), 
292  ;  Perizonius  (1702),  331 

Didymus,   Homerica,  ed.  pr.  (1517), 

i°5;  ('54i)»   267 

Digamma,  407^,  413,  434 

Dilettanti  Society,  431 

Diodorus  Siculus,  i-v,  transl.  by 
Poggio  (1472),  38,  66;  Filelfo's  MS, 
56;  ed.  pr.  xvi-xx  (Bas.  1539);  i-xx, 
H.  Stephanus(Gen.  1559),  105,  175; 
Rhodomann  (1604),  271 ;  Wesseling 
(Amst.  1746,  Bipont.  1793),  453 

Diogenes  Laertius,  transl.  by  T  raver- 
sari  (ed.  1475  etc.),  44  ;*/./;-.(  1533), 
105;  H.  Stephanus  (Par.  1570); 
Casaubon  (1583,  1594),  208  ;  Tom- 
maso  Aldobrandini  (Rom.  1594); 
J.  Pearson  (Lond.  1664),  351 ;  M. 
Meibomius  (Amst.  1692),  327 ; 
P.  D.  Longolius  (1739,  1759); 
Pierre  Gassendi  on  book  x,  Lugd. 


1649,    1675^)  ;    I.    Bossius    (Rom. 

1788) 
Diogenianus,    Zenobius  and    Suidas, 

proverbs,  ed.  pr.  (Ant.   1612),  305 
Dion  Cassius,  Latin  transl.  by  Niccolo 

Leoniceno  (Ven.   1526);  ed.  pr.  lib. 

36-58,  R.   Stephanus   (Par.   1548), 

IO5>  '73  >  H.  Stephanus,  with  Latin 

transl.    by  Xylander  (Gen.    1591); 

Leunclavius,   with  epitome  of  lib. 

60-80  by  Xiphilinus  ( Frank  f.  1592, 

Hanau,  1606) 
Dion  Chrysostom,  ed.  pr.  (Ven.  1551), 

105;  F.  Morel  (Par.  1604,  1623) 
Dionysius,  (i)   the  Areopagite,  203  ; 

(2)  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  ed. 
pr.,  R.  Stephanus  (Par.  1546),  105, 

1 73  ;  On  Isaeus  and  Dinarchus,  ed. 
Victorius  (1581),  137;  Agostino's 
fragments,  161 ;  ed.  Sylburg  (1586, 
1691),  270;  Hudson  (Oxon  1714); 

(3)  Periegetes,    ed.    pr.    (Ferrara, 
1512),   104;  Aldus  Manutius,  with 
Pindar  etc.  (1513);  H.  Stephanus, 
in  Poetae  Gr.  Principes  (Par.  1560), 
Edward  Thwaites  (Oxon.  1697) 

Diophantus,  Latin  transl.  ed.  Xylander 
(1575);  ed.pr.  (Par.  1621),  105;  ed. 
Fermat  (Toulouse,  1670) 

Dioscorides,  transl.  by  Herm.  Bar- 
baras, 83;  ed.pr.  (Ven.  1499),  IO4! 
J.  A.  Saracenus  (Frankf.  1598) 

Diplomatica,   De   Re,   Mabillon,   295 

Dlugosz,  Johannes,  276 

Dobree,  Peter  Paul,  429 ;  iii  399 ; 
279,  286,  402 

Dodwell,    Henry,  357 

Dolet,  Etienne,    178-181  ;    130,    i94f 

Donati,  Alessandro,  279 

Dondi,  38 

Doneau  (Donellus),  193 

Doni,  Giovanni  Battista,  279 

Dorat  (Auratus),  Jean,  i86f;  149 f, 
195,  199,  352;  portrait,  187 

Dousa,  Janus,  and  his  sons,  Janus  and 
Franciscus,  301 

Downes  (Dunaeus),  Andrew,  336  f 

Dracontius,   35 

Drakenborch,  Arnold,  447 

Drant,  Thomas,  241 

Drummond  of  Hawthornden,   249 

Dryden's  Virgil  etc.,  356 

Du  Cange,  Charles  du  Fresne,  Sieur, 
289;  287,  295;  portrait,  288 

Due,  Fronton  du,  283 

Dlirer,  Albrecht,  i3of,  253 

Duilius,  161 


INDEX. 


475 


Duker,  Karl  Andreas,  447 
Duport,  James,  349  f 

Eck,  Johann,  258 

Editiones  principes,  97,  100,  102-5, 
of  Latin  Authors,  103,  of  Greek 
Authors,  104-5.  *73-  '75 

Education,  Renaissance ;  Vergerio, 
48  f;  Guarino,  49-52;  Vittorino, 
53-55  5  Aeneas  Sylvius,  72;  Eras- 
mus, 130;  Vives,  2141";  Ascham, 
235  ;  Milton,  346  f 

Einsiedeln,  29,  38 

Elegantiae,  Valla's,  68  f,   128 

Eleusinian  Mysteries,  Meursius  on 
the,  3[r,  417 

Elmsley,  Peter,  395,  414;   iii  394 

Elzeviers,  the,  331  f 

Embser,  J.  V.,  397 

'  Empedocles ',  Sphaera,  ed.  pr.  (Par. 
1587),  105 

England,  1370-1600,  219-250;  1600- 
17°°,  333-358;  1700-1800,  401- 
439;  visited  by  Chrysoloras,  20; 
Poggio,  32,  220;  Aeneas  Sylvius, 
220;  Erasmus,  i28f;  Casaubon, 
207  f ;  Isaac  Vossius,  322  f;  Kiister, 
445  f ;  England  and  the  Netherlands, 
i  f,  409  ;  Colleges  and  Schools,  238  f 

English  translations  of  the  Classics, 
,  239-243 

Ennius,  in  Fragm.  Vet.  Poetarum 
Lat.  R.  and  H.  Stephanus  (Par. 
1564);  Ennius,  Fragm., ed.  Hieron. 
Columna  (Neap.  1590;  Amst. 
1707);  Paulus  Merula  (1595),  306; 
Fragm.  Trag.  in  Delrio's  Syntagma 
(Ant.  1593;  Par.  1607,  1619), 
and  in  Scriverius,  Collectanea  vet. 
Tragicorum  (L.  B.  1620) 

Epictetus,  trans.,  66;  Epictetus  and 
Simplicius,  ed.pr.  (Ven.  1528),  105  ; 
ed.  Schweighauser  (1798  f),  396 

Episcopius,  Nicolaus,  262;  105  (1533) 

Epistolae  (i)    Graecae,  ed.  pr.,    [04; 

( 2 )  Obscurer  ii  m      Vit  'orit  »i,     257; 

(3)  Phalaridis,     403,    Euripidis, 
Sofra/ts,    Themistoclis,  404 

Epitaphs,  i  ir,  115,  139,  208,  247, 
422 

Erasmus,  Desiderius,  127-132;  in 
Italy,  91,  98,  128;  Ciceronian  us, 
129;  122,  177,  339;  Dialogus  de 
Pronuntiatione,  232  ;  on  Education, 
130;  Epitome  of  Valla's  Elegantiae, 
69  n.  i  ;  Testamentum  Novitm, 
104;  on  Musurus,  79  n.  8;  at- 


tacked by  Robortelli,  140;  and  by 
the  elder  Scaliger,  177  ;  Letter  to 
Sadoleto,  123;  portraits,  126,  132; 
21,  65,  69,  71,  99,  1 16,  157,  169, 
17 if,  181  f,  212,  228f,  253,  257^ 
262  f,  425  ;  cp.  Bywater,  The  Eras- 
mi  an  Pronunciation  of  Greek,  and 
its  Precursors  (Oxford,  1908) 

Erfurt,  univ.,  257  f,  262 

Ernesti,  Johann  August,  418,  456 

Erskine  (of  Dun),  John,   247 

Escurial,   161  f ;  152 

Estienne  (Stephanus),  (i)  Robert, 
173-5.  374;  portrait,  174;  (2) 
Henri,  175-7  ;  171,  205,  270,  334  ; 
(3)  Charles,  194 

Etaples,  Lefevre  d',   198 

1  Etymologicum  Magnum'1  (Ven.  1499), 
79  f,  104 

Euclid,  Latin  transl.  ed.  pr.  Ven. 
1482  ;  Vicenza,  1491  ;  Ven.  1505, 
1509;  H.  Stephanus  (Par.  1516); 
ed.  Barrow,  350 ;  Greek  text,  ed. 
pr.  Grynaeus  (Bas.  1533)  ;  Briggs 
(Lond.  1620) ;  David  Gregory 
(Oxon.  1703) 

Eugenius  IV,  46 

Euripides,  four  plays,  ed.  pr.  (Flor. 
c.  1495),  79,  97,  104;  eighteen  plays, 
ed.pr.  (Ven.  1503),  98, 104;  Electra, 
ed.  pr.  (1545),  138;  ed.  Barnes, 
358;  Markland,  Suppl.,  Iph.  Aul., 
I  ph.  Taur.,  413;  Musgrave,  418  f; 
Person,  427,  429;  Joddrell  on  Ion, 
Bacchae,  Alcestis,  419  ;  Valckenaer 
on  Phoen.,  Hipp  ,  Fragm.,  456  ; 
Italian  transl.,  155;  Danae?,  271; 
'Letters',  404;  Euripides  ranked 
next  to  Homer  by  Petrarch,  10 

Eusebius,  (i)  Praeparatio  and  Demon- 
stratio  Evangelica,  ed.  pr.  R. 
Stephanus  (Par.  1544-6),  173  ;  with 
Latin  transl.  by  Viger  (1628,  1688); 
(2)  Eccl.  Hist.  ed.  pr.  R.  Stephanus 
(Par.  1549;  1612);  Valesius  (1659, 
1668);  W.  Reading  (Camb.,  1720; 
Turin,  1746-8);  (3)  Chronicon,  ed. 
Scaliger  (L.B.  1606  ;  Amst.  1658) 

Eustathius,  ed.  pr.  (Rome,  1542-50), 
,  78,  105 

Eustratius  of  Nicaea,   10 

Eutropius,  ed.  pr.  (Rome,  1471),  103  ; 
ed.  Egnatius  (Ven.  1516);  Schon- 
hovius  (Bas.  1546,  1562);  Vinetus 
(Pictav.  1554)  ;  Sylburg  in  Script, 
hist.  Rom.  (Erankf.  1588)  ;  P. 
Merula (L.B.  1592);  Hearne  (Oxon. 


476 


INDEX. 


1703);   Havercamp   (L.  B.  1729); 

Gruner     (Coburg,      1752,     1768); 

Verheyk  (L.  B.   1762,  1793) 
Eutyches,  29 
Evelyn,  John,  355;  322  f,  343,  355, 

356,  4°5-  4io 

'  Evening  of  life',  'the',  318 
Exeter,  417 

experimentum  in  anima  vili,    149 
Exter,  Friedrich  Christian,  397 

Faber,    (i)  Basilius,   269,    374,   457 ; 

(2)  Tanaquil  (Tanneguy  Lefebvre), 

291,  321 

Fabretti,  Rafaello,   280 
Fabricius  (i)  Georg  (1516-1571),  268  ; 

(2)    Franz    (1525-1573),    268;    (3) 

Johann  Albert  (1668-1736),  366 
Facciolati,  Jacopo,  374  f ;   146,  378 
Faernus  (Gabrielle  Faerno),  147,  189 
Falkland,  Lucius  Gary,  Viscount,  352 
Farnese,    Cardinal   Alessandro,   120, 

153 

Fasti  Capitolini,  or  Fasti  Consu lares, 
discovered,  153;  ed.  Sigonius,  143; 
ed.  Robortelli,  141  f;  Panvinio, 
145;  384;  F.  Maffeiani,  101 

Fava,  Niccolo,   109 

Fazio  (Facius),  Bartolommeo,   120 

Fea,  Carlo  Domenico  Francesco 
Ignazio,  384;  iii  219,  244 

Felix  Felicianus  of  Verona,  41  f 

Ferrandus  of  Brescia,  102  f 

Ferrara,  49  f,  59,   156,  223 

Ferratius  (Marco  Antonio  Ferracci), 
378 

Festus,  Sextus  Pompeius  (i.e.  the 
epitome  by  Paulus  Diaconus)  dis- 
covered at  St  Gallen,  29 ;  studied 
by  Politian,  84,  and  Pomponius 
Laetus,  93  ;  printed  at  Milan 
(1471)  and  Venice  (1478)  ;  Nonius 
Marcellus,  Festus,  Paulus,  Varro, 
ed.  J.  B.  Pius  and  Conagus,  Milan, 
1510  (Paris,  1511,  1519;  Ven. 
I5'3);  ed.  Perotti,  71;  Antonio 
Agostino(Ven.  1559  0>  I^°>  Scaliger 
(1575),  201  ;  Orsini  (Rom.  1581), 
154;  Dacier  (Par.  1681),  291  ;  Le 
Clerc  (1699),  441 

Ficino,  Marsilio  (Marsilius  Ficinus), 
60,  75,  81  f,  83,  91,  105,  275,  380; 
portrait,  58 

Ficoroni,  Francesco  de',  380 

Filelfo  (Philelphus),    Francesco,    55- 

57  >  37  f.  46,  75.  96 
Fisher,  John,  bp  of  Rochester,  1 29, 230 


Flaminio,  Marcantonio,   1 19  f 

Flemming,  (i)  Abraham,  240;  (2) 
Robert,  dean  of  Lincoln,  51 

Fleury  MSS,  192 

Florence,  Academy  of,  81-89;  60; 
Bruni  on,  47;  Council  of,  59-61; 
48;  Early  Medicean  Age  in,  43  f; 
Libraries,  28,  36  f,  43,  56,  95,  108, 
137;  Printers,  97;  Santa  Croce, 
96;  Villa  Paradisoand  San  Spirito, 

r? 

Florez,  Enrique,   162 

Florus,  studied  by  Petrarch,  8;  ed. 
pr.  (Par.  1471),  103,  168 ;  ed. 
Beroaldo  (1505);  Joannes  Gamers 
(1518);  Elie  Vinet  (Pictav.  1554 
etc.) ;  Jo.  Stadius  (Ant.  1567  etc.) ; 
Gruter  (Heid.  1597)  ;  Gruter  and 
Salmasius(Heid.  1609);  Freinsheim 
(Strassb.  1632  etc.),  367;  Graevius 
(Utr.  1680);  Duker  (L.  B.  1722 
etc.) 

Foggini,  Pier  Francesco,  379 

Folard,  Jean  Charles,  Chevalier  de, 

389 

Fontenelle,  Bern,  le  Bovier  de,  403 
Forcellini,  Aegidio,  374-7  ;  portrait, 

377 

Fortunatianus,  35 
Foscolo,  Ugo,  282 
Fourmont,  Michel,  390 
Fox  (i)  Richard,  bp  of  Winchester, 
128;  (2)  Charles  James  Fox,  430, 

433 

Fracastoro,  Girolamo,  n8f;  135 
France;  1360-1600,  165-210;  1600- 
1700,  283-299 ;  1700-1800,  385- 
398 ;  the  French  period  of  Scholar- 
ship, i ;  introduction  of  printing, 
167;  Greek  in,  168;  literary 
criticism  in,  188;  College  de  France, 
172,  181 

Francesco  da  Bologna,  99 
Francis  I,  78,   172,   181,    194  f 
Francius,   Petrus  (Peter  de  Fransz), 

33°,  443 

Franeker,  univ.,  451,  456 
Frankfurt  on  the  Oder,  445  f 
Free  (Phrea),  John,  51,  76,  223 
Freinsheim,  Johannes  Caspar,  367 
Freising  MSS,  267 
French,  Greek  words  in,  165  ;  French 

translations  of   the   Classics,    165, 

180,  188,   194,   196,   198 
Freret,  Nicolas,  390 
Freyburger,     Gering,     and     Crantz, 

167;   103  (1471) 


INDEX. 


477 


Froben,  (i)  Johannes,  103,  104  (1516- 
20),  262  f;  (2)  Hieronymus,  105 
(1544),  262  f 

Frontinus,  studied  by  Petrarch,  8 ; 
MS,  34  ;  De  aqttaeductibus,  ed.  pr. 
(Rome,  c.  1486),  103  ;  R.  Fabretti's 
dissertationes  tres  (Rom.  1680) 
reprinted  with  text  in  Graevius, 
Thesaurus ;  ed.  Polenus  (Patav. 
1722)  ;  Strategeinaticon  libri  iv, 
ed.  pr.  (Rome,  1487),  103  ;  in 
Veteres  de  Re  Militari  Script  ores, 
ed.  Scriverius  (L.B.  1607);  Ouden- 
dorp  (1731,  1779),  454;  Opera,  ed. 
Keuchen  (Amst.  1661) 

Fugger,  Jakob,  268  f ;  Raymund,  260 

Fulda,  MS  of  Ammianus  Marcellinus, 

3° 

Fulvio,  Andrea,   121 

Gaetano  da  Thiene,   109 

Gaisford,  Thomas,  429;  iii  395  f; 
122,  279;  portrait,  396 

Galbiate,  Giorgio,  35 

Gale,  (i)  Theophilus,  (2)  Thomas, 
354  (cp.  J.  E.  B.  Mayor,  Cambridge 
under  Queen  Anne,  448-450) 

Galen,  Latin  transl.  Ven.  1490  and 
Ven.  1541  etc.  ;  Froben,  Bas. 
1542,  1549,  and,  with  prolegomena 
by  Conrad  Gesner,  1561  ;  (Ven. 
1562);  Greek  text,  ed.  pr.  (Ven. 
1525),  105  ;  ed.  Camerarius  etc. 
(Bas.  1538);  Rene  Chartier  (Par. 
1639-79)  ;  De  Sanitate  Tucnda, 
Methodus  Medendi,  De  Tempera- 
menfisetc,,  Latin  transl.  by  Linacre 
(1517-24),  227 

Gallen,  Poggio  at  St,  25-30 

Gaily,  Henry,  457 

Garamond,  Claude,   175 

Garatoni,  Gasparo,  378 

Garda,  Lago  cli,  antiquarian  excur- 
sion on,  41 

Gardiner,  Stephen,  bp  of  Winchester, 
^232 

Gascoigne,  George,  239 

Gasparino  da  Barzizza  (Gasparinus 
Barzizius),  23;  27,  31,  48,  55,  i67f 

Gataker,  Thomas,  34 if 

Gaza,  Theodorus,  62  ;  54,  56,  66, 
74  f,  129,  131,  253 

Gelenius  (Siegmund  Ghelen),  263 

Gellius,  Aulus,  ed.  pr.  (Rome,  1469), 
62,  97,  103;  ed.  H.  Stephanus 
and  L.  Carrion  (Paris,  1585)  ; 
Lambecius,  Lticubrationes  (1647), 
365;  ed.  J.  F.  Gronovius  (1651, 


1665) ;  Variorum  (L.  B.  1 666,  1 687) ; 

Variorum,     ed.    Jakob    Gronovius 

(L.  B.    1706,  Leipz.  1762) 
Gembloux,  MS  of  Manilius,  29 
Gemistos  Plethon,  Georgios,  60  f 
Gennadios,    patriarch    of    Constanti- 
nople, 6 1 
German  humanists,  three  schools  of, 

258;  Germans  in  Italy,   123 
Germanicus,    Aratea  ;    Salutati,    1 7  ; 

Bon.   1474;  Ven.  1488,   1491;  ed. 

Grotius  (L.  B.    1600) 
Germany ;  1350-1616, 251-273;  1600- 

1700,  359-370  ;  the  German  period 

of  Scholarship,  2 
Gerson,  Jean  Charlier  de,   166 
Gesner,  (i)   Conrad,   269  ;   105,    265 

n.    i  ;   (2)  Johann  Matthias,  413 
Ghirlandaio,  fresco  by,  58,  64  n.  6 
Gibbon,  435-8  ;  427,  438 
Giocondo    (Jucundus,   Joyatx),     Fra 

Giovanni  del,   35,  42,    121 
Giovanni  di  Conversino  da  Ravenna, 

and  Giovanni  Malpaghini,   22 
Giovio,  Paolo   (Paulus  Jovius),   120; 

89.  93,    123 
Giphanius  (Hubert  van  Giflen),  190, 

362 
Giraldi,  Lilio  (Giglio  Gregorio),  120; 

116,  118,  123 
Glareanus     (Heinrich     Loriti,     von 

Glarus),  263 
Glasgow,  Univ.,  247  f 
Gnomagyricus,  liber,  1 70 
Goclenius  (Conrad  Gockelen),   215 
Godefroy,      (i)      Denys      (Dionysius 

Gothofredus),    193  f;    (2)  Jacques, 

193  f 

Goethe  on  England,  432 
Golding,  Arthur,  242  ;  240 
Gori,   Antonio  Francesco,  279,  380 
Gourmont,  Gilles  de,    169  f 
Graeca,     Antkologia      ([494),      104  ; 

Epistolae     Graecae     (1499),      104  ; 

Orationes     Rhelorum     Graecorum 

(1513),   104;   Palaeographia,  390; 

Gracca,  Montfaucon's,  387 ;  Poetae 

Graeci      Principes     (1566),      105  ; 

Rhetores     Graeci    (1508-9),     104; 

Scriptores       Grammatici       Graeci 

(1496),    104,    108,  n.    i 
Graevius  (Johann  Georg  Graeve,  or 

Greffe),  327  f;   1^9,  161,  311,  402, 

408  f 
Grammar,    Greek,    Chrysoloras,    62, 

97,  129  ;  Gaza,  62  ;  Const.  Lascaris, 

Hi  97  >  (-)  Latin,  Leonicenus,  54  ; 

Perotti,   71;  Linacre,   227 


478 


INDEX. 


Grammarians,  ancient  and  mediaeval, 

criticised  by  Valla,  68 
Grammatici  Graeci,  Scriptores  (1496), 

104,  1 08  n.  i ;  Grammatici  Latini, 

ed.  Putschius,  313 
Granville,    John    Cartaret,    Earl    of, 

433 

Gratius,  Ortwin,  257 

Grattius  (or  Gratius)  Faliscus ;  his 
Cynegcticon  discovered  by  San- 
nazaro,  35  ;  ed.  pr.  Aldus  Manutius, 
with  Ovid's  Halieutica  and  Neme- 
sianus  (Ven.  Febr.  1534) ;  (Augsb. 
Jul.  1534);  in  Burman's  Poetae 
Latini  Minor  es  (L.  B.  1731) ;  text, 
with  Engl.  transl.  by  Chr.  Wase 
(Lond.  1654) 

Gravius,  Barthelemy,  213 

Gray,  Thomas,  417 

Gray  (or  Grey),  William,  bp  of  Ely, 
51,  71,  222 

Greek,  decline  of  its  study  in  Italy, 
49,  143;  its  educational  importance, 
51,  116,  452;  English  interest  in, 
223  ;  Erasmus  on,  128  ;  Gibbon  on 
the  Revival  of  Greek  learning, 
4.37;  hellenistic,  456;  Lyric  poets 
(Orsini's  selections),  153 ;  MSS 
brought  to  Italy,  36  f;  mediaeval 
Greek,  289 ;  Muretus  on  the  study 
of  Greek,  151  ;  Greek  words  in 
French,  165  ;  Greek  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  (c.  1519),  230 ;  neglected 
by  Pomponius  Laetus,  92 ;  pro- 
nunciation, 130,  232  f,  272,  447; 
aorist  and  imperfect  in  signatures 
of  Greek  sculptors,  84 ;  Syntax,  62  ; 
Greek  Testament,  Manetti,  45 ; 
Valla, 69;  ed.  Erasmus (1516),  104, 
132  ;  in  Complutensian  Polyglott 
(1514)!,  105;  Greek  type,  175,  334; 
Greek  verses,  Filelfo,  56;  Politian, 
85;  Duport,  350 

Gregorius  Corinthius,  461 

Gregory  XIII,  138,   161 ;   XIV,   153 

Grey,  Lady  Jane,  234 

Grocyn,  William,  228;  83,  226,  229 

Gromatici,  A  uc  tores,   35 

Gronovius,  (i)  Johann  Friedrich, 
319-21;  326,  459,  portrait,  320; 

(2)  Jakob,  329  ;  311, 446, 448,  453 ; 

(3)  Abraham,   329 
Groot,  Gerhard,  211 

Grotius,  Hugo,  315-9;  204,  286, 
306  n.  3,  307,  321,  325,  341,  344  f, 
352,  44* 


Grouchy,  Nicolas  de,   144,   193,   197 
Gruter,  Janus,   359  f;  120,  145,  203, 

207,   273,   285,  445  ;  portrait,  360 
Grynaeus,  Simon,  263  ;  36 
Gryphius    (Sebastian     Greiff),     182  ; 

179 
Guarino,  (i)  da  Favera,  107  ;  (2)  da 

Verona,  49-52  ;  19,  21,  32,  36,  53, 

98,  104,  22 if,  252,  274 f;  portrait, 

52  ;  (3)  Battista,  51 
Gude,   Marquard,  366 
Guerente,  William,   197 
Guidi,  Carlo  Alessandro,  282 
Guilielmus,  Janus,   272,  361 
Guischardt,    Charles   Theophile    (Q. 

Icilius),  436  n.  5 
Gunther's  Ligurinus,  260 
Gunthorp,  John,  dean  of  Wells,  51, 

223 

Gusmano,  Nugno,    157 
Guyet,  Fran9ois,  283,  319 
Guys,  Pierre  Augustin,  394 
Guzman,     Fernan(do),      Nunez      de 

(Nonius  Pincianus),   158 

Hadley,  William,  225 
Hadrian,   Mausoleum  of,  92 
Hadriano,  Marcello,  135 
Hadrianus  Junius,  (i)  216;  (2)  329 
Hahn,  Ulrich,  97,   103  (c.   1470) 
Hales,  John,  352 
Hamilton,  Sir  William,  434 
Hand,  Ferdinand  Gotthelf,  369,  455 
Hardouin,  Jean,  298 ;  292 
Hare,  Dr  Francis,  409 
Harpocration,   ed.    pr.    (Ven.    1503), 

104  ;    (Ven.    1527)  ;    ed.    Maussac 

(Par.     1614),     287  ;     H.    Valesius 

Notae  et  Emendatioiies  (287)  in  ed. 

by    N.    Blancardus   (L.   B.    1683)  ; 

J.  Gronovius  (Harderwyk,   1696) 
Harris,  James,  416 
Harvard  College,  354 
Harvey,  Gabriel,  237 
Havercamp,  Sigbert,  447,  450 
Heath,   Benjamin,   41 7  f 
Hegius,  Alex.,  255,  258 
Heidelberg,   270 f,  285,  359,  361 
Heimburg,  Gregor,  252 
Heinsius,  (i)  Daniel,  313  f;  203,  207, 

319;    portrait,    312;    (2)  Niklaas, 

323-6;  321  f,  409,  443,  445,  452; 

portrait,   324 
Heliodorus,  ed.  pr.  Vincentius  Opso- 

poeus  (Heidnecker),  Bas.  1534  ;  ed. 

Commelin    (Heidelb.     1596)    etc.; 


1  Published  c.  1522. 


INDEX. 


479 


Daniel  Paretis  (Frankf.  1631)  ; 
Amyot's  transl.,  195 

Hellenistifae,  Funus  linguae,  286,  311 

Hemsterhuys,  Tiberius,  447-453  ;  408, 
4'3.  454,  456 f,  4595  portrait,  448 

Heraldus  (Didier  Herault),  287 

Herculaneum,  391 

Heresbach,  Conrad  of,   181 

Hermann,  Gottfried,  427  f ;    iii  89-95 

Hermonymus  of  Sparta,   76,  78,  169 

Herodian,  (i)  grammarian ;  abstract 
by  Const.  Lascaris,  77  n.  6  ;  treatise 
on  numbers  in  Gaza's  Introd. 
Gramm.  (Ven.  1495) ;  three  other 
treatises  in  Scriptores  Grammatici 
(Ven.  1496);  fragments  on  barbarism 
and  solecism  in  Valckenaer's  Am- 
monius  (L.  B.  1739);  (2)  historian, 
transl.  by  Politian,  86 

Herodotus,  transl.  by  Valla  (Ven. 
1474),  69  ;  ed.  pr.  (Ven.  1502),  98, 
104  ;  (Bas.  1541,  1557);  H. 
Stephanus  (Par.  1570,  1592), 
'Apology  for  Herodotus'  (1566 
etc.),  176;  ed.  Jungermann  (Frankf. 
1606,  Gen.  1618,  Lond.  1679)  ; 
Jakob  Gronovius  (L.  B.  1715)  ; 
Wesseling  and  Valckenaer  (Amst. 
1763),  453;  transl.  by  Larcher 
(1786),  394;  ed.  Schweighiiuser, 
with  Lexicon  (Strassb.  1806),  396 

Hersfeld,  30,  33,  265 

Hervagius  (Herwagen),  Johannes, 
262 ;  105 

Hesdin,  Jean  de,   165 

Hesiod,  Politian  on,  84 ;  Opera  et 
Dies,  ed.  pr.  (Milan,  1493),  104  ; 
Opera,  ed,  pr.  (Ven.  1496  N.S.), 
98,  104;  (Flor.  1515,  1540);  ed. 
Trincavelli  with  scholia  (Ven.  1537, 
Col.  1542,  Frankf.  1591);  Schmied 
(1603),  272  ;  D.  Heinsius  (Amst. 
1667),  313;  Le  Clerc  (1701),  441  ; 
Th.  Robinson  (Oxon.  1737) 

Hessus,   Helius  Eobanus,    261  ;    267 

Hesychius,  ed.  pr.  (Ven.  1514),  79, 
104;  (Flor.  1520),  (Hagenau,  1521); 
ed.  Schrevelius  ( 1668) ;  ed.  proposed 
by  Kiister,  446 ;  ed.  Alberti  and 
Ruhnken  (L. B.  1746-66),  450,  457, 

459 

Heusde,  Philipp  Willem  van,  464 
Ileyne,   Christian  Gottlob,  421,  429, 

437,  463  ;    iii  36-44 
Hierocles,   (i)    commentator   on    the 
golden  verses  of  Pythagoras;  transl. 
by    Aurispa    (Patav.     1474,    Rom. 


1475  etc.);  ed. pr.  J.  Curterius  (Par. 
1583),  105;  J.  Pearson  (Lond. 
1654  f);  Needham  (Cantab.  1709), 
413;  Warren  (Lond.  1742),  413 
(Mayor's  Cambridge  under  Queen 
Anne,  256);  (2)  author  of  'Affreta, 
ed.  pr.  Marq.  Freher  (Ladenburg, 
1605);  and  in  Pearson  and  Need- 
ham's  editions,  u.s. 
Hipparchus,  on  the  Phaenomena  of 
Aratus  and  Eudoxus,  ed.  Victorius 

(1567),  137 

Hippocrates,  transl.  by  Fabius  Calvus 
(Rom.  1525);  ed.  pr.  (Ven.  1526), 
105;  ed.  Hieron.  Mercurialis  (Ven. 
1588);  Foes  (Frankf.  1595);  Van  der 
Linden  (L.B.  1665);  Rene  Chartier 
(Par.  1639-79) 

Histonae  Augusfae  Scriptores,  Pe- 
trarch, 8;  ed.  pr.  (Milan,  1475), 
103;  (Ven.  1516,  1519);  ed.  Eras- 
mus (Bas.  1 5 1 8  etc.) ;  Gruter  (Hanov. 
1611),  361  ;  Casaubon  (Par.  1603), 
209  ;  Salmasius  (1620),  285  ; 
Variorum  ed.  (L.B.  1671);  Obrecht 
(Strassb.  1677),  367  f 

Historicis  Graecis  et  Latinis,  G.  J. 
Vossius,  De,  309 

History,  the  first  modern,    143 

Hoeschel,  David,  272  ;  105,  161,  203, 
207 

Holbein,   126,   130 

Holes,   Andrew,  222  n.  4 

Holland,  see  Netherlands 

Holland,   Philemon,   243 

Holstenius  (Holstein),    Lucas,   364 f; 

345 

Homer,  Petrarch's  Ms,  8  f,  Latin 
rendering  by  Leontius  Pilatus,  9; 
Codex  Ven e( its  A  of  the  Iliad, 
36,  398  ;  Scholia,  79,  107,  398  ; 
'  epitaph  '  in  Chios,  40  ;  Gaza's 
two  transcripts  of  the  Iliad,  62  ; 
MS  in  C.C.C.,  Cambridge,  225; 
ed.  pr.  (Flor.  1488),  64,  97,  104  ; 
(Ven.  1504)  ;  (Flor.  1537)  ;  Ba- 
trachomyomachia  (<-.  1474),  102  ; 
(1486),  97,  104;  //.  i  transl.  by 
Marsuppint,  47,  66  ;  i-xvi,  Valla, 
69;  i-v,  x,  Decembrio,  70  ;  Poli- 
tian on,  84  ;  Od.  and  Hymns, 
transl.  (Ven.  1537);  ed.  H. 
Stephanus  in  Poetae  Graeci  (Par. 
1566);  Giphanius  (Strassb.  1572); 
French  transl. by  Madame  Dacier, 
292;  ed.  Barnes  (Cantab.  1711), 
357;  Samuel  Clarke  (1729-40), 


480 


INDEX. 


413;  the  'Grenville  Homer'', 
429 

Homeric  Hymns,  Aurispa's  MS,  37 ; 
included  in  ed.  pr.  (Flor.  1488), 
64,  97,  104 ;  and  in  other  early 
edd.  of  Homer ;  Bernard  Martin, 
Var.  Lect.  (Par.  1605) ;  Hymns 
in  ed.  Barnes  (1711);  D'Orville, 
Critica  Vannus,  1 737,  xn&Journal 
of  Philology,  xxv  250-260 ;  and 
Ruhnken's  Ep.  Critica  (1749), 
457,  and  Hymns  to  Dionysus 
and  Demeter  (1780-2),  460 

Homer  and  Virgil,  the  elder  Scaliger 
on,  178  ;  the  Homeric  Question, 
Bentley,  407  f ;  R.  Wood,  432  f ; 
Payne  Knight,  435  ;  Homer  and 
Art,  391  ;  Homeri  Apotheosis, 

33r 

Homer,  Henry,  423 

Horace,  Petrarch,  5  ;  Landino,  82  ; 
Codex  Blandinius,  217;  ed.  pr. 
{c.  1471),  103;  edd.  Milan,  Ferrara, 
Naples,  1474;  Milan,  1476;  ed. 
with  scholia  of  Acron  and  Por- 
phyrion  (1481);  with  comm.  of 
Landino  (Flor.  1482);  (Ven.  1501), 
99;  Navagero  (Ven.  1519),  118; 
Muretus  (1555  etc.),  150;  Lambinus 
(1561,  1605),  189;  Cruquius  (1578 
etc.),  217  ;  John  Bond  (r6oo),  445  ; 
Laevinus  Torrentius  (1608,  1620); 
Burman  (1699),  443,  445  ;  William 
Baxter  (Lond.  1701,  1725);  Bentley 
(1711),  406;  Ars  Poetica  followed 
by  Vida,  133  ;  paraphrased  by 
Robortelli,  141 ;  Italian  imitators 
of  Horace,  281  f 

Hotman,  Francois,  193 

Hroswitha,  ed.  pr.  (1501),  260 

Hudson,  John,  356 

Huet,  Pierre  Daniel,  292,   297 

Humanitas,  71;  studia  hitmanitatis, 

45* 

Humphrey,  duke  of  Gloucester,  46, 
70,  22of 

Hungary,  72,  273-5 

Hunyady,  Joannes,   274 

Hurd,   Richard,  417 

Hutchinson,  Lucy,  355  ;  Sandys 
Hutchinson,  415 

Hutten,  Ulrich  von,  257,  258 

Hyginus,  Astronomica,  ed.  pr.  Fer- 
rara, 1475  ;  Ven.  1475  etc.;  Fabulae, 
ed.  pr.  Micyllus  (Bas.  153^).  267; 
J.  G.  Scheffer  (Hamb.  1674),  368; 
both  in  the  Mythographi  Lalini  of 


Th.  Muncker  (Amst.  1681)  and  A. 
van  Staveren  (L.  B.  1742) 

lamblichus,  Vita  Pythagoras  and 
Sermones  Protreptici,  ed.  pr. 
(Franeker,  1593)  ;  Vita  Pytha- 
gorae,  ed.  Kiister  (Amst.  1707); 
De  Mysteriis,  transl.  by  Ficinus 
(Ven.  1483;  Rome,  1556);  ed.  pr. 
Thomas  Gale  (Oxon.  1678),  354 

Icilius,  Q.,  436 

Iconography,  Orsini  on,  153 

Ignarra,  Niccolo,  384 

Illustrissimus,   \  50 

Inghirami,  Tommaso,  35 

Innocent  III,  90 

Inscriptions,   38-41,  121,  145,  359 

Isaeus,  ed.  pr.  in  Orationes  Rhet.  Gr. 
(Ven.  1513);  in  Oratores  Gr.  H. 
Stephanus  (Par.  1575);  transl.  by 
Sir  William  Jones  (1779),  438  ;  De 
Menedis  hereditate,  ed.  pr.  Tyrwhitt 
(1785),  419 

Isocrates,  Evagoras  and  Nicocles, 
transl.  by  Guarino,  50  ;  ed.  pr. 
(Milan,  1493),  65,  97,  103 ;  in 
Orationes  Rhet.  Gr.  (Ven.  1513) 
etc.;  ed.  H.  Wolf  (Bas.  1553,  1570 
etc.);  H.  Stephanus  (Par.  1593  etc., 
Lond.  1615,  Cantab.  1686) 

Italian  Latin  poets,  ed.  Gruter  (1608), 
361 ;  Select  a  Poemata  It  alarum,  ed. 
Pope  (1740) ;  Carmina  quinque  il- 
histriumpoetanim  (Bergamo,  1 753) ; 
see  Latin;  Italian  literature,  in- 
fluence of  the  Classics  on,  155  f 

'  Italic '  type,  99 

Italy,  1321-1527,  1-123;  1527-1600, 
133-156  ;  1600-1700,  279-283  ; 
1700-1800,  373-384  ;  Ascham  on 
Italy,  236 

Jager,  Johann  (Crotus  Rubianus),  257 

Jandun,  Jean  de,   109 

Jenson,  Nicolas,  99,    103 

Jerome  (Hieronymus),  Tractalus  et 
Epistolae,  ed.  pr.  (Rome,  1468); 
ed.  1470;  Epp.  Schoefler  (Maintz, 
1470);  ed.  Erasmus  (Bas.  1516  etc.), 
131  ;  Marianus  Victorinus  (Rom. 
1566)  etc.  ;  Benedictine  ed.  (Par. 
1693-1706);  Vallarsi  (Verona,  1734- 
42  ;  Ven.  1766)  ;  transl.  of  the 
Chronicon  of  Eusebius,  ed.  Scaliger 
(L.  B.  1606,  Amst.  1658),  202 

Jesuits,  290 ;  283,  285,  287,  298,  305, 


INDEX. 


481 


339.  34i,  363.  36y,  37»>  381  f,  39°' 
394 

Joddrell,  Richard  Paul,  419 
Joensen,  or  Joensig  (Jonsius),  Johann, 

365 

John  the  Good,   165 
Johnson,    (i)    Christopher,    241 ;    (2) 

Richard,    406 ;   401 ;    (3)    Samuel, 

340,  346,  414,  424;  (4)  Thomas,  418 
Johnston,  Arthur,  248 

Jones,  Sir  William,  438 
Jonson,  Ben,  314,  344,  348 
Josephus,  ed.  pr.   (Bas.  1544),   105  ; 

Hudson  (Oxon.  1720),  356;  Haver- 
camp    (Amst.     1/26);     transl.     by 
Whiston  (Lond.   1737),  413 
Julian,  327,  463 
Julius  Africanus,   202  f 
Julius  II,  90-94,  107,   117;  III,  138 
Junius,   (i)   Franciscus   (Fran9ois   du 
Jon),  309  ;  (2)  Hadrianus  (Adriaan 

de   Jonghe),    216;    (3)    Hadrianus 

Junius,   329 
Justin,  studied  by  Petrarch,  8 ;  ed.  pr. 

(Ven.    1470),    103 ;   ed.   Sabellicus 

(Yen.  1490  etc.);  Aldus  (Ven.  1522); 

Bongars  (Par.  1581),  192;  Graevius 

(L.B.  1683);  Hearne  (Oxon.  1705); 

Abr.  Gronovius  (L.  B.  1719,  1760); 

Burman  (1722),  443 
Justin  Martyr,  ed.  pr.  R.  Stephanus 

(Par.     1551)  ;     Sylburg    (Heidelb. 

1593)  etc.,  270;  Prudentius  Maranus 

(Par.  1742) 
Justinian's  Pandects  studied  by  Poll- 

tian,   84 
Juvenal,    studied     by     Petrarch,     6 ; 

Juvenal  and  Persius,  ed.  pr.  (Ven. 

c.    1470),    102  f;    Jac.    de    Rubeis 

(Ven.  1475);  G.  Valla  (Ven.  1486); 

Mancinellus    (Ven.    1492);    Aldus 

(1501    etc.),    99;    Britannico,    Juv. 

(1501),    87;    Junta    (Flor.    1513); 

Colinaeus  (Par.  1528  etc.);  Gryphius 

(Lugd.    1534  etc.);    R.    Stephanus 

(Par.  1544,  1549);  Pulmannus  (Ant. 

1565,    1585);  Pithoeus  (Par.   1585, 

Heidelb.  1590),  192;  index,  ed.  Par. 

1602;   F.   Grangaeus  (Par.    1614); 

Nic.   Rigaltius  (Par.    1613,   1616); 

Comm.    by    Angelus    Sabinus    and 

Domitius  Calderinus  (Rome,  1474); 

GeorgiusMerula(Ven.  14/8);  Tarvis 

(1478);    Badius    Ascensius    (Lugd. 

1498);    Lubinus  (Rostock,    1602); 

Farnabius    (1612),     Prateus     (Par. 

1684);   Henmnius  (Utrecht,  1685; 

S.     II. 


L.  B.  169.5) ;  Marshall  (Lond. 
1723) ;  Coelius  Curio  in  ed.  Paris, 
1528  and  Bas.  1551;  scholia  in  ed. 
Pithoeus  (Par.  1585);  Engl.  transl. 
by  Holyday  (Oxon.  1673)  anfl 
Stapylton  (Lond.  1660)  ;  Dryden 
etc.  (Lond.  1693) 

Kendall,  Timothy,   241 

Ker,  John,  406 

Kidd,  Thomas,  429 

Kilianus,  Cornelius,  214 

Kinwelmersh,  Francis,  239 

Kircher,   Athanasius,   365 

Knight,  Richard  Payne.   434  ;  433 

Koen,  Gisbert,  461 

Kiister  (Xeocorus),  Ludolf,  445  f; 
397,  408,  448-450;  Mayor,  Cam- 
bridge under  Queen  Anne,  328  f 

Labbe      (Labbaeus),      Charles     and 

Philippe,   287 

La  Boetie,  Estienne  de,    198 
Lactantius,  ed.pr.  (Subiaco,  1467),  103 
Ladislas,   king  of  Bohemia,    72 
Laetus,    Julius     Pomponius     (Giulio 

Pomponio    Leto),    92  f;    97,    103, 

114,   156 

Lafreri,   Antonio,    155 
Lagomarsini,  Girolaino,   378 
Lambeck  (Lambecius),    Peter,   365 
Lambinus,  Dionysius  (Denis  Lambin), 

188-191;   151,   268, -445  ;  portrait, 

1 88 

Lami  (Lam ins),  Giovanni,   379 
Lamola,  Giovanni,  34,   50 
Lancelot,    Dom  Claude,   290 
Landino,  Cristoforo,  8  r  f ;  83  :  portrait, 

58 

Landriani,  Gerardo,   31 
Langen,  Rudolf  von,   255  ;  254,    258 
Langres,   Poggio  at,   30 
Lanzi.   Luigi  don,   384 
Laocoon,  Sadoleto's  poem  on,   1 1 5 
Lapo   da    Castiglionchio    (de  Castel- 

lione),  Jacopo,   59  n.  2,  66,   221 
Larcher,   Pierre  Henri,  394,  459 
Lascaris,   (i)   Constantine,   76  f;   37, 

162  ;  (2)  Janus,  or  Andreas  Joannes, 

78  f;  37,   78  f,  98,   104  f,   169  f 
Lateran  Council  (1512),   in 
Latimer,   William,   228;  226 
Latin,   an  essential   part  of  a  liberal 

education,     48  f;     epistolary,     23, 

1 67  f;  grammar,  41 1  f; lexicography, 

373-7  ;    mediaeval,    289  ;    modern, 

273  ;  metres  of  the  Latin  dramatists, 

31 


482 


INDEX. 


406;  pronunciation,  184,  233,  304; 
prose,  Politian's,  85  (see  also  Cice- 
ronianisni)  ;  Latin  of  silver  age 
studied  by  Politian,  83 ;  Poetae 
Latini  Minores,  443 ;  collections 
of  modern  Latin  verse,  361  n.  4; 
modern  Latin  poets,  Addison, 
410;  Bembo,  ii4f;  Bourne,  439; 
Broukhusius,  329  ;  Buchanan,  243 f; 
Ceva,  281  ;  Cowley,  349  ;  Duport, 
349;  Flaminio,  119;  Fracastoro, 
118;  Francius,  330;  Grotius,  318 f; 
D.  Heinsius,  314 ;  N.  Heinsius, 
325;  Italians,  114-120,  280  f; 
Jesuits,  281,  290;  Johnston,  248; 
Marullus,  87  ;  May,  348 ;  Milton, 
346 ;  Navagero,  1 18 ;  in  the  Nether- 
lands, 465  ;  Owen,  250;  Petrarch, 
5  ;  Politian,  84,  86 ;  Pontano,  90  ; 
Rapin,  291 ;  Sadoleto,  115;  Sainte- 
Marthe,  198;  Sannazaro,  90; 
Scaliger,  199,  203;  Sergardi,  281; 
Strada,  280 ;  Vida,  117;  Latin 
studied  in  the  New  World,  120 

Latium,  Kircher's,  365 

Law,  Edmund,  415 

Lebrixa  (Nebrissensis),  Elio  Antonio, 
157,  162  ;  cp.  Hemeterio  Suana, 
Estudio  Critico-biografico  (Madrid, 
1879),  and  Bywater,  The  Erasmian 
Pronunciation  of  Greek,  and  its 
Precursors  (Oxford,  1908) 

Le  Clerc  (Clericus),  Jean,  441—3 

Lederlin,  Johann  Heinrich,  448  f 

Leibnitz,   146 

Leland,  John,  346 

Lennep,  (i)  Jan  Daniel  van  (1724- 
1771)!  (2)  David  Jacobus  van 
(i774-i853).  461,  464 

Leo  X,  107  f;  33,  78,  93,  113  f, 
116-9,  i*if 

Leonicenus,  (i)  Niccolo  Leoniceno, 
115,226;  (2)  Ognibuono  da  Lonigo, 
Omnibonus  Leonicenus,  54  (Voigt, 
i  429,  ii  391) 

Leonico  Tomeo,   no 

Leptines,  'Aristides'  against,  380 

Le  Roy  (Regius),  Louis,   19 

Lessing,  391,  411;   iii  24-30 

Levesque,  Pierre  Charles,  397 

Lexicography,  (i)  Greek,  H.  Junius, 
216  n.  5;  H.  Estienne,  175  f; 
Scapula,  176;  (2)  Latin,  Calepinus, 
373;  R.  Estienne,  173,  415;  Faber, 
269,  374  ?  C.  Gesner,  269  ;  J.  M. 
Gesner,  374  ;  Forcellini,  374-7  ; 
Ainsworth,  415 


Leyden,  univ.,  300 f;  217,  303,  306  f, 
311,  321,  443,  451,  464;  MSS,  28, 

'89,   323 
Libanius,  ed.  pr.  (Ferrara,  1517),  105; 

ed.  F.  Morel  (Par.   1606-27);  epp. 

ed.  J.  C.  Wolf  (Amst.  1738) 
Lignamine,    Johannes   Philippus  de, 

,97>.  '°3 

Ligorio  (Ligori),  Pirro,  154 

Lily,  William,  229 

Linacre,  Thomas,  225-8;  21,  83,  98, 
229;  Osier  on  ( r 908) ;  portrait,  224 

Lindenbrog  (Tiliobroga),  Heinrich 
and  Friedrich,  364 

Lipsius,  Justus  (Joest  Lips),  301-4  ; 
139,  144,  197,  202,  204,  214,  216, 
306  ;  portrait,  302  (cp.  306) 

Liviam,   Consolatio  ad,  35 

Livy,  studied  by  Boccaccio,  13  ; 
emended  by  Valla,  69 ;  ed.  pr. 
(Rome,  c.  1469),  97,  103  ;  ed. 
Campano  (Rome,  c.  1470) ;  Ven. 
1470 ;  ed.  Sabellicus  (Ven.  1491 
etc.);  Ascensius  (Par.  1510  etc.); 
Navagero  (i-x),  (Ven.  1518),  118  ; 
Aldus  (Ven.  1518-33)  5  vols.  incl. 
Florus,  and  Perotti's  Latin  transl. 
of  Polybius  ;  Lorsch  MS,  263  ; 
xli-xlv,  ed.  pr.,  Grynaeus  and 
Glareanus  (Bas.  1531) ;  Beatus 
Rhenanusand  Gelenius  (Bas.  1535), 
263,  265;  Gryphius,  Lyon,  1542, 
Par.  1543 ;  Sigonius  (Paulus 
Manutius,  Ven.  1555  etc.),  143 ; 
Gruter  (Frankf.  1608  etc.),  359, 
362  ;  J.  F.  Gronovius  (Variorum 
ed.,  Amst.  1665,  1679),  321  ;  Le 
Clerc  (Amst.  1710),  441  ;  Crevier 
(Par.  1735-41),  436;  Drakenborch 
(L.B.  1738-46),  447  ;  French  transl. 
by  Bersuire,  165 ;  Livy  and 
Machiavelli,  88;  Robortelli  (142) 
and  Glareanus  (263)  on  Livy's 
chronology ;  Engl.  transl.  by 
Philemon  Holland,  243  ;  the  lost 
books,  32,  46  ;  Freinsheim's  con- 
tinuation (Holmiae,  1649  etc.), 

36.7 

Lodi,  31 

Loisel,  Antoine,   194 
London,  Chrysoloras  in,  20 ;  Erasmus 

in,  128,  229;  St  Paul's,  Latin  transl. 

of    Thucydides,     220;     St    Paul's 

School,    1 29 ;    Greek    architecture 

in,  432 
'Longinus'      irepi     i/^ow,      ed.    pr., 

Robortelli  (Bas.   1554),    141,   143; 


INDEX. 


483 


105  ;  Paulus  Manutius  (Ven.  1555) ; 
Franciscus  Portus  (Gen.  1569);  G. 
Langbaine  (Oxon.  1636  etc.);  T. 
Faber  (Saumur,  1663)  ;  transl.  by 
Boileau  (Paris,  1674  etc.);  Tollius 
(Utrecht,  1694);  Hudson  (Oxon. 
1710  etc.);  Pearce  (Lond.  1724 
etc.),  412;  N.  Morus  (Leipzig, 
17690;  Toup  (Oxon.  1778,  1789, 
1806),  418  ;  Bodoni  (Parma,  1793). 

Longinus,  Cassius,  459 

Longolius  (Gilbert  de  Longueil),  113, 
121  f,  178 

Longus,   196 

Lonigo,  Ognibene,  or  Ognibuono, 
da  (Omnibonus  Leonicenus),  54 

Lope  de  Vega,   141 

Lorsch,  36,  263 

Lou  vain,  univ.,  212,  217;  Erasmus 
and  the  Collegium  Trilingue,  z28f, 
212;  Lipsius,  301,  303 

Loyola,   Ignatius  de,    182 

Lucan, studied  by  Petrarch,  6;  ed.  pr. 
(Rome,  1469),  97,  103,  156;  Aldus 
(Yen.  1502) ;  Pulmannus  (Ant.  1564 
etc.) ;  Bersmannus  (Leipzig,  1584)  ; 
Grotius  (Ant.  1614,  L.  B.  1626), 
317  ;  Cortius  (Leipzig,  1726) ; 
Oudendorp  (L.  B.  1728),  454; 
Burman  (L.B.  1740),  443;  Bentley 
(1760),  407,  409;  Renouard  (Par. 
1795);  Index  by  Maittaire  (Lond. 
1719);  book  i  transl.  by  Marlowe 
(Lond.  1600)  ;  translated  and  con- 
tinued by  May,  348,  454 

Lucian,  translations  by  Guarino,  50  ; 
ed.  pr.  (Flor.  1496),  79,  97,  104  ; 
Aldus  (Ven.  1503,1522);  Bourdelot 
(Par.  1615;  Saumur,  1619);  Le 
Clerc  (Amst.  1687),  441  ;  Hem- 
sterhuys  and  J.  F.  Reitz  (Amst. 
1743);  Index,  K.  K.  Reitz  (Utrecht, 
1746),  450,  453;  Schmidt  (Mittau, 
1776-80);  ed.  Bipont.  (1789-93); 
Dialogi  Selecti,  Leedes  (Lond. 
1678,  1704,  1710,  1726,  1728), 
Mayor's  Cambridge  under  Queen 
Anne,  2541;  Colloquia  Se/ecta,  ed. 
Hemsterhuys  (1708,  1732);  transl. 
by  Micyllus,  267  ;  Engl.  transl.  by 
Dr  Franklin,  I78of 

Lucilius,  in  Fragmenta  Poetarum 
Vetemtn  Latinoriim,  R.  and  H. 
Stephanus  (Par.  1564)  ;  ed.  Fr. 
Dousa  (L.  B.  1597),  301,  reprinted 
by  the  brothers  Volpi  (Patav.  1735) 
and  the  Havercamps  (L.  B.  1743); 


also  in  Maittaire's  Corpus  '(Lond. 
1713),  in  the  Bipont  Persius  (1785) 
and  in  that  of  Achaintre  (Par. 
1811) 

Lucretius,  known  to  Petrarch  through 
Macrobius,  6 ;  MS  discovered  by 
Poggio,  and  copied  by  Niccoli,  29; 
ed,  pr.  (Brescia,  c.  1473),  103  ; 
studied  by  Politian,  84,  Manillas, 
87,  and  Pontano,  90  n.  i  ;  Verona, 
1486;  ed.  Lycinius,  Ven.  1495; 
ed.  Avancius,  Ven.  1500;  J.  B. 
Pius,  Bol.  1511;  Petrus  Candidus, 
Flor.  1512;  Navagero  (Ven.  1516 
N.S.),  118,  156;  Gryphius,  Lugd. 
1534,  1540  ;  Vossian  MSS,  now  at 
Leyden,  189,  323;  Lambinus  (Par. 
1564,1565,1570),  i89f ;  Giphanius 
(Ant.  1566),  190;  D.  Pareiis,  with 
index  (1631),  362;  Pierre  Gassen- 
di's  Syntagma philosophiae  Epicuri 
(Hag.  i658,etc.);T.  Faber  (Saumur, 
1662),  291  ;  Bentley  and  the  Vossian 
MSS,  323,  407  ;  Creech  (Oxon.  1695), 
356;  Lond.  1712;  Havercamp's 
Variorum  ed.  (L.  B.  1/25),  447  ; 
\Vakefield  (Lond.  1796  with  Bent- 
ley's  notes  in  Glasg.  ed.  1813, 
Lond.  1821),  430;  Bentley 's  notes 
in  new  ed.  of  Creech  (Oxon.  1818) ; 
English  translations,  355  f 

Luder,  Peter,   252 

Luisini,  Francesco,   189 

Lupus,  Rutilius,  ed.  pr.  with  Aquila 
Romanus,  Zoppinus  (Ven.  1519); 
in  Fr.  Pithou's  Antiqui  Rhetores 
Latini  (Par.  1599);  e<^-  Ruhnken 
(L.  B.  1768),  459 

Luther,  258  f,   269,   273,  339 

Luzac,  Joan,  456,  461 

Lycophron,  ed.  pr.  (Ven.  1513),  104; 
ed.  pr.  of  the  scholia  (Bas.  1546), 
265  n.  i  ;  ed.  Potter  (Oxon.  1697, 
1702)  ;  studied  by  Fox,  433 

Lycurgus,  ed.  pr.  in  Orationes  Rhet. 
Gr.  (Ven.  1513);  with  Dem.  Mei- 
dias,  ed.  Taylor  (Cantab.  1743) 

Lydgate,  John,   220 

Lyly's  Euphues,  235 

Lysias,  Filelfo's  translations  from 
(Froben,  Bas.  1522),  55  ;  cd.  pr. 
in  Orationes  Rhet.  Gr.  (Yen.  1513), 
104 ;  H.  Stephanus  in  Oratores 
Gr.  (Par.  1575)  ;  Jodocus  van  der 
Heyclen  (Hanov.  i6i5,Marb.  1683) ; 
Taylor  (Cantab.  1739),  414  ;  Or. 
i,  ed.  Dowries  (1593),  337 

31— 2 


484 


INDEX. 


Mabillon,  Jean,  293-8;  289,  436; 
portrait,  294 

Macault,  transl.  of  Cicero  and 
Diodorus,  i94f 

Machiavelli,  Niccolo,  88 

Macrobius,  Saturnalia  and  Cotnmen- 
tariits,  ed.  pr.  (Ven.  1472),  103  ; 
ed.  Camerarius  (Bas.  1535);  Carrio 
(H.  Stephanus,  Par.  1585)  ;  J.  I. 
Pontanus  (L.  B.  1597,  1625  ;  Jakob 
Gronovius  (L.  B.  1670,  Lond.  1694, 
Patav.  1736,  Leipzig  1774)  ;  De 
Differentiis,  ed.  pr.  H.  Stephanus 
(Par.  1583)  ;  J.  Obsopaeus  (Par. 
1588)  ;  and  in  Putschius,  Gramm. 
Lat.  (Hanov.  1605) 

Madrid,  MSS  of  Janus,  37,  and  Con- 
stantine  Lascaris,  77 ;  Asconius, 
Manilius,  Valerius  Flaccus,  29  n.  4 ; 
Statius,  Silvae,  29  n.  4,  31,  162  ; 
Escurial  (near  Madrid),  i6if 

Maffei,  Scipione,  381 

Maggi  (Madius),  V.,   134,  147 

Magliabecchi,  Antonio,  297 

Maittaire,  Michel,  411 

Majoragio  (Majoragius),  Marcantonio 
(Maria  Antonio  Conti),  147;  146 

Malalas,  Chronicle  of  John,   401 

Malatesta,   Sigismondo,  61 

Maltby,  Edward,  bp  of  Durham,  422 

Manchester,  Rylands  Library,  102 

Manetho,  ed.  pr.  (1689;,  329; 
Perizonius  on,  331 

Manetti,  Giannozzo,  45  ;   37,  47,  95 

Manilius,  MS  discovered  by  Poggio, 
29  n.  4, 162  ;  ed.pr.,  Regiomontanus 
(Norimb.  1472),  103,  252;  L.  Bonin- 
contrius  (Bol.  1474),  Dulcinius 
(Milan,  1489),  Molinius  (Lyon, 
155'.  r556)  J  Scaliger  (Par.  1579, 
1590;  L.  B.  1600),  202;  Bentley 
(Lond.  1739),  408 

Manso,  Giovanni  Battista,  345 

Mantegna,  Andrea,  41 

Mantua,  53  f 

Mantuanus  (Spaguuoli),  Baptista,  243 

Manutius  Romanus,  Aldus  Pius  . 
(Theobaldo  or  Aldo  Manuzio), 
98-100;  79,  91,  97,  102  f,  104, 
226,  portrait,  94;  Paulus  Manutius, 
Aldi  films,  100  ;  i5of ;  Aldus  Ma- 
nutius, Pauli  films,  101 

Maps  in  classical  text-books,  369 

Marburg,  univ.,   262 

Mariette,  Pierre  Jean,  391 

Marini,  Gaetano  Luigi,  382 

Markland,  Jeremiah,  413 


Marliani,  Bartolomeo,   154,   182 

Marlowe,  Christopher,  241 

Marot,  Jean,   194 

Marsham,  Sir  John,  331 

Marsiliers,  Petrus  de,  248 

Marsilius,  Ludovicus  (Luigi  de' 
Marsigli),  10,  17 

Marsuppini,  Carlo,  47 f;  19,  22,  38  f, 
45>  66 

Martens,  Dierik,  213 

Martial,  studied  by  Petrarch,  6 ;  MS 
discovered  by  Boccaccio,  13;  ed.  pr. 
(Venice  or  Rome,  c.  1471),  102  f; 
Ferrara,  1471  ;  Ven.  1475;  Milan, 
1478 ;  ed.  Calderinus  (Ven.  1474 
etc.);  Aldus  (Ven.  1501;  Perotti, 
71;  Aeneas  Sylvius  on,  72;  imitated 
by  Bern  bo,  114,  and  detested  by 
Navagero,  118;  ed.  Junius  (Bas. 
I559)  J  Gruter  (Frankf.  1602)  ; 
Scriverius  (L.B.  1619,  Amst.  1621, 
1629),  307;  Rader  (Maintz,  1627; 
Col.  1628) ;  Schrevelius,  Variorum 
ed.  incl.  the  notes  of  J.  F.  Gronovius 
(L.  B.  1670),  321 

Martianus  Capella,  315;  see  Capella 

Martin,  Jean,  transl.  of  Vitruvius,  194 

Martinius  (Martini),  Matthias,  442 

Marullus,   Michael  Tarchaniota,  87 

Matthaei,  Christian  Friedrich,  460 

Matthias  Corvinus,  275  ;  214,  252,  274 

Maussac,  Philippe  Jacques  de,   287 

Maximianus,  1 7 

Maximus  Tyrius,  ed.  pr.  (Par.  1557), 
105;  ed.  D.  Heinsius  (L.  B.  1607, 
1614)  ;  Davies  (Cantab.  1703,  1740) 

May,  Thomas,  348  ;  326,  454 

Mazzo,   Angelo,  282 

Mazzocchi,  Alessio  Simmacho,  384 

Medici,  (i)  Cosimo  de',  39,  43  f,  60, 
65,  81,  95;  (2)  Lorenzo  de',  81  f ; 
37,  78,  83  f,  86,  88  ;  (3)  Cardinal 
Giovanni,  see  Leo  X ;  (4)  Cardinal 
Ippolito,  93  ;  (5)  Alessandro,  137  ; 
(6)  Cosimo  I,  137  ;  (7)  Francesco, 
138 

Meibomius  (Maybaum),  Marcus,  327 

Meigret,  Louis,   194 

Mela,  Pomponius,  ed.  pr.  (Milan, 
1471),  103;  ed.  Vadianus  (Vienna, 
1518;  Bas.  1522),  260;  Vinetus 
(Par.  1572),  Schott  (Ant.  1582)  ; 
Isaac  Vossius  (Hag.  1658),  323; 
Jac.  Gronovius  (L.B.  1685,  1696); 
Abr.  Gronovius  (L.B.  1722,  1728) 

Melanchthon  (Schwarzerd),  Philipp, 
265  f;  116,  227;  portrait,  264 


INDEX. 


485 


Melville,  Andrew,  247  f 

Memnon,  historian,  272 

Menage,  Gilles  (Aegidius  Menagius), 
290;  291,  299  n.  i,  326,  358.11.  3 

Menander,  Fragm.  ed.  pr.  in  the 
Sententiaeoi  Guillaume  Morel  (Par. 
J553)>  IO5  5  Hertelius  (Bas.  1560) ; 
H.  Stephanus  (Par.  1569)  ;  Nic. 
Rigaltius  (Par.  1613)  ;  Grotius  in 
Excerpta  (Par.  1626)  ;  Winterton 
in  Poet.  Min.  Gr.  (Cantab,  and 
Lond.  1653  etc.) ;  Hemsterhuys 
(1708),  450;  Le  Clerc  (Amst.  1709 
etc.),  441  f;  Bentley  (1710),  409 

Mendoza,  (i)  envoy  of  Charles  V, 
162,  265  n.  i ;  (2)  bishop  of  Burgos, 
162 

Mercier  (Mercerius),  Josias  des 
Bordes,  210 

Merian,  433 

Merula,  (i)  Georgius  (Giorgio  Mer- 
lani),  35,  85  n.  i,  86,  103  ;  (2) 
Paulus  (Paul  van  Merle),  306 

Metrical  blunders  of  notable  scholars, 

455. 

Meursius  (Jan  de  Meurs),  311;  319, 
417  ;  portrait,  310 

Michael  of  Ephesus,   10 

Micyllus  (Jacob  Molsheym),  267  ;  261 

Middleton,  Conyers,  413 

Milan,  printing  at,  97 

Milton,  344-8  ;  his  copies  of  Pindar, 
Euripides,  Lycophron  and  Aratus, 
347  f;  Milton  and  Salmasius,  286; 
Milton  on  education,  346  f ;  on 
Latin  pronunciation,  234 ;  proto- 
types of  Lycidas,  114  n.  7,  346 

Mingarelli,  Giovanni  Luigi,   380 

Minturno,  Ant.  Sebastiano,  135,  188 

Mirandola,  (i)  Giovanni  Pico  clella, 
82,  98,  113,  214;  (2)  Gianfrancesco 
Pico  della,  113 

Mitford,  William,  438 

Modius,   Franz,   217 

Modoin,  bp  of  Autun,  2 

Moliere,  Vadius  in  the  Fewines 
Sarantes  of,  290 

Molyneux,  Adam  de,   220 

Monk,  (i)  General,  326  ;  (2)  James 
Henry,  429 

Montaigne,  197  f;  148;  on  Amyot, 
196  ;  on  Turnebus,  186 

Monte  Cassino,  Boccaccio  at,  13; 
Poggio  at,  34 

Montefeltro,  Guidobaldo  da,    113 

Montepulciano,  Bartolomeo  da,  26, 
27,  28,  29 


Montfaucon  (Montefalco,  Montefal- 
conius),  Bernard  de,  385-9  ;  436, 
457 '  portrait,  386 

Montreuil,  Jean  de,   166 

Morcelli,   Stefano  Antonio,   382,  422 

More,  Sir  Thomas,  229;  128,  178, 
182,  212,  215,  226,  228,  230 

Morel,  Federic,  (i),  105;  (2)  105,  207 

Morell,  Andreas,  447 

Morelli,  Jacopo,  380 

Morhof.  Daniel  Georg,  365  ;  139  n.  7, 

34° 

Moschus,  (i)  translations  by  Politian, 
85 ;   ed.  pr.  of  idyll  i  in  Lascaris, 
Gk  Gr.  ed.  3  (Vicenza,  1489) ;  ed. 
pr.  (Ven.  1496  N.S.),  104;  (2)  De- 
metrius Moschus,  158 
Mosellanus,  Petrus  (Peter  Schade),  265 
Miiller,  Johann  (Regiomontanus),  252 
Munro    on    Stephen   Gardiner,    232 

n.  3;  on  Lambinus,   igof 
Muratori,    Lodovico   Antonio,    381  ; 

'44>  437 
Muretus  (Marc  Antoine  Muret),  148- 

152;    114,    191,   196-8,  201,   204, 

301,  460;  portrait,  148 
Murmellius,  Johannes,  255 
Musaeus,  ed.  pr.  (c.  1494-5),  98, 

]04;ed.Kroinayer(i72i);  Schrader, 

(1742),  455 

Musgrave,   Samuel,  418  ;  457 
Musurus,   Marcus,  79 ;    78,   98,    104, 

107,    129 
Mutianus  Rufus,  2^7  ;  Conrad  Muth, 

258 
Muzio,  Girolamo,    135 

Nanni,      Giovanni      (Annius     Yiter- 

biensis),    154 
Nannius,    Petrus  (Pieter    Nanninck), 

215 

Naples,  Academy  of,   89 
Nardini,   Famiano,  279 
Nash,  Thomas,  240 
Navagero  (Naugerius),  Andrea,  118; 

"9.   '37 

Neander,    Michael,   269;  271 

Nebrissensis,  Antonius  (Elio  Antonio 
Cala  Ilarana  del  Oio,  of  Le  Brixa), 
127  ;  see  Lebrixa 

Needham,  Peter,  413  (Mayor,  Cam- 
bridge under  Queen  Anne,  256) 

Nemesianus,  discovered  by  Sannazaro, 
35;  ed.pr.  (Ven.  1534):  in  Burman's 
Poctae  Lat.  Min.  (L.  B.  1731) 

Neo-Platonism  of  Gemistos  Plethon, 
60 f;  of  Cambridge  Platonists,  354 


486 


INDEX. 


Nepos,  Cornelius,  unknown  to  Pe- 
trarch, 8;  known  at  Milan  to  abp 
Pizzolpasso  and  Pier  Candido 
Decembrio  (Sabbadini,  Spogli  Am- 
brosiani  Latini,  1903,  31 3f);  Lives 
of  Atticus  and  Cato,  discovered  by 
Traversari  (1434),  34;  xx  Lives 
(Aemilii  Probi  de  vita  excellentium], 
ed.  pr.  (Ven.  1471);  Life  of  Atticus 
ascribed  to  Nepos  in  ed.  Strassb. 
1506;  all  the  Lives  ascribed  to 
Nepos  by  Aulo  Giano  Parrasio 
(1470-1584),  and  by  Lambinus  (ed. 
Par.  1569),  190 ;  Schott  (Frankf. 
1609),  Gebhard  (Amst.  1644), 
Boekler  (Strassb.  1648),  J.  A.  Bose 
(Jena,  1675),  Van  Staveren  (L,  B. 
I734,  '55>  '73;  ed.  Bardili.  Stutt- 
gart, 1820) ;  ed.  Ruhnken,  459 

Nerli,  (i)  Bernardo  64,  104  ;  (2) 
Neri,  64 

Netherlands,  1400-1575,  211-218; 
1575-1700,  300-332  ;  1700-1800, 
441-465  ;  Netherlands  and  Eng- 
land, i  f,  464  ;  materials  for  history 
of  scholarship  in,  445 

Nevizanus,  Johannes,   183 

Nicander,  ed.  pr.  (Ven.  1499),  104; 
Ven.  1523;  ed.  Bandini  (1764), 
379 ;  Bentley,  407 

Niccoli,  Niccolo  de',  47  f;  14,  19,  27, 
29,  32,  36  f,  39,  44,  47 

Nicolas  V(Tommaso  Parentucelli),  37, 
.38,  45,  55,  57,  65-67,  71-73,  95  f 

Nicolaus  Cusanus,  211 

Niebuhr,  331,  378;   iii  77  f 

Nieuwland,   Pieter,  464 

Niphus,  Augustinus  (Agostino  Nifo), 

112 

Nizolius  (Mario  Nizzoli),    146;    150, 

378 
Nonius    Marcellus,    ed.    pr.    (1471), 

103 ;  32,  71,  93,  97  ;  ed.  Hadrianus 

Junius  (Ant.    1565),  216;   Mercier 

(Par.  1583,   1614),   210 
Nonius  Pincianus  (Nunez  de  Guzman), 

158 
Nonnus,    Dionysiaca,   ed.   pr.    (Ant. 

1569),  105;  Hanau  1605  ;  L.  B.  1610 

(with  diss.  by  D.  Heinsius  and  em. 

by  Scaliger);  Paraphrasis,  ed.  pr. 

(Ven.  1501);  seven  more  edd.    by 

1566;  ed.  D.  Heinsius  (L.  B.  1627) 
North,  Sir  Thomas,  242 
Nunnesius  (Pedro  Juan  Nufiez),   159 

Oberlin,  Jeremias  Jacob,   396 


Obrecht,   Ulrich,  367 

Obsopaeus.     See  Opsopoeus 

Olesnicky,  Sbignew,  275 

Olivetus  (Olivet)  (Pierre  Joseph  de 
Thoulie),  390 

'  Ols  ',  '  Messer  Andrea ',  identified, 
222,  n.  4 

Omnibonus  Leonicenus  (Ognibuono 
da  Lonigo),  54 

Opera,  origin  of  Italian,  86 

Opitz,  Heinrich  (1642-1712),  314 

Oporinus  (Herbster),  Johannes,  105, 
262 

Oppian,  MS,  265  n.  i  ;  Halieutica, 
ed.  pr.  (Flor.  1515),  104  ;  Halieutica 
and  Cynegetica  (Ven.  1517);  Cyne- 
getica  (Par.  1549) 

Opsopoeus,  (i)  Vincentius  (Heid- 
necker,  d.  1539),  ed.  Diodorus, 
xvi-xx  (Bas.  1539),  105  ;  (2)  Johann 
(d.  1596),  ed.  Macrobius,  De 
Di/erentiis  (Par.  1588),  and  Ora- 
cula,  1 590-9 

Oresme,   Nicole,  165,  195 

Orestes,   tragedy  of,   35 

Orfeo,   Politian's,  86 

Orosius,  studied  by  Petrarch,  8 ;  447 

'Orpheus',  86,  90;  ed.  pr.  (1500), 
104  ;  six  more  edd.  down  to  1606 ; 
ed.  Eschenbach  (Utrecht,  1689) 

Orphic  poem  De  Lapidibus,  419 

Orsini,  Fulvio  (Fulvius  Ursinus), 
i53f;  1 60,  189,  456 

Orville,  Philippe  d',  388, 413,  448,  454 

Osorio,  Jeronymo,  163  ;  Osorius,  339 

Oudendorp,  Franz  van,  454  ;  451,  459 

Ovid's  Ibis,  discovered  by  Boccaccio, 
13  ;  Heroides  and  Halieuticon,  35  ; 
Politian,  84;  ed.  pr.  (Bol.  1741), 
97,  103;  ed.  Rome,  1471;  first 
Aldine  (Ven.  1502);  ed.  Navagero 
(Ven.  1516),  118  ;  Bersmann  (Leip- 
zig, 1582);  D.  Heinsius  (L.B.  1629), 
314;  N.  Heinsius  (Amst.  1652), 
325;  Cnipping's  Variorum  ed. 
(LJJ.  1670);  Delphin  (Lyon,  1689); 
Burman  (Amst.  1727),  409,  443  ; 
imitated  by  Bern  bo,  114,  and 
Francius,  330  ;  French  translations, 
194;  Mercier's  ed.  of  Ibis  (1568), 
210;  Tristia  and  Epp.  ex  Ponto, 
ed.  J.  Pontanus  (Ingolst.  1610); 
Crispin,  with  Index  (Cantab.  1703); 
Met.,  with  Ibis,  ed.  J.  Pontanus 
(Ant.  1618);  Fasti,  ed.  C.  Neapolis 
(Ant.  1639);  Halienticon,  in  Ulitius, 
venatio  novantiqua  (L.  B.  1645) ; 


INDEX. 


487 


Heroides,  ed.  Crispin,  with  Index 
(Lond.  1 702).  English  transl.,  Met., 
Arthur  Golding(  1567),  240;  George 
Sandys  (Lond.  1626),  241 ;  Dryden, 
Addison,  Gay,  Pope  (ed.  Garth, 
Lond.  1717);  Amores,  Marlowe  (c. 
1597),  241  ;  fferoides,  Turberville 
(1567),  241 

Owen  (Audoenus),  John,  250 
Oxford;  Duke  Humphrey,  221  ; 
Erasmus,  128,  229;  Vives,  214; 
Bentley,  401  f;  'Greek  lecturers', 
168  ;  Colleges,  238  f ;  C.C.C.,  230  ; 
Magdalen,  435;  Merton,  227,  333-5, 
419;  Queen's,  28;  University,  439; 
the  Arundel  Marbles,  342  f ;  the 
Clarendon  Press,  418,  463 

Paciaudi,   Paolo  Maria,   382 

Padua,  Aristotelians  of,  10,  109;  110, 

114,  121,  237 
Palaeographica,  Coinmentatio,  Bast's, 

397 

Palaeologus,   Manuel,    19 
Paleario,  Aonio,    155,   330 
Palingenius,   Marcellus,   243 
Palmerius  (Jacques  Le  Paulmier),  287 
Palmieri,  Matteo,  48 
Panciroli,   Guido,    154 
Pandects;  Budaeus,  171;  Politian,  84 
Fanegyrici   Latini,    MS    of,    34  ;    ed. 

Cuspinianus  (1513);  Beatus  Rhena- 

nus   (Bas.    1520);    Lavinaeus  (Ant. 

1599);   Ritterhusius  (Frankf.  1607); 

Cellarius  (Hal.  170:5);  de  la  Baune 

(Yen.    1728) 
Pannonius,  Janus  (JohannvonCisinge), 

274;  51,  76 

Pantagato  (Pacato),   Ottavio,    145 
Panvinio,   Onofrio,    145 
Paolo,  (i)  da  Perugia,  15  ;  (2)  Vineto, 

109 
Parentucelli,  Tommaso,   65,   96  ;    see 

Nicolas   V 

Pareiis  (Johann)    Philipp,    362 
Paris,  university  of,    16;;  ;    Sorbonne, 

167,    181,     184,    210;    College    de 

France,  172,    181  ;   Place  Maubert, 

1 80  ;      Saint  -  Germain  -  des  -  Pres, 

295-8 

Pariitui,  Mannor,   343 
Parr,  Samuel,  421-4;    582,  417,  4^0, 

438. 

Parrasio,   Aulo  Giano,   35 
Pasquier,  Estienne,    198 
Passerat,  Jean,   191 ;  206 
Patin,  Charles,    391 


Patrizi  of  Siena,  Francesco,  bp  of 
Gaeta  1460-94,  his  epitome  of  Quin- 
tilian,  53  n.  2 

Patrizzi  (Patricius),  Francesco  ^529- 

97).   152  f 

Paul   II,   62,   92  ;  III,    116 
Paulus  Diaconus,  29 
Pa  lifer o,    151   n.  2 
Pausanias,    ed.  pr.    (Veil.    1516),    79, 

104  ;    ed.    Xylander    and    Sylburg 

(1583,  1613),  270;  Kiihn  (Leipzig, 

1696);  Person  on,  429 
Pauvv  (Pavo),  Jan  Cornelis  de,  454 
Pazzi,  Alessandro  de',   133  f 
Pearce,   Zachary,   412 
Pearson,  John,  bp  of  Chester,  322  f  ; 

35i,  446 

Pedibtis  ire  in  sentenliam,  69 
Peiresc,    Nicolas   Claude    Fabre   de, 

285;  287,  316,  342  f 
Peletier  (or  Pelletier),  Jacques,    188, 

194 

Peloponnesiaea,  Man.,   382 
Pepys,  Samuel,  405 
Perizonius  (Voorbroek),  Jacob,    330; 

37°.  447 

Perotti,  Niccolo,   71  ;  54,   75 

Perrault,   Charles,   370,  403 

Persius,  studied  by  Petrarch,  6  ; 
Juvenal  and  Persius,  ed.  pr.  (Rome, 
1470),  iO2f;  Fontius  in  ed.  Ven. 

1480  ;      Britannico,     ed.     Brescia, 

1481  ;  scholia  of  '  Cornutus  '  in  ed. 
Ven.    1499  ;    17   other  edd.    before 
1500  ;  ed.  1501,  99  ;  ed.  Casaubon 
(Par.  1605),  209 

Petavius  Dionysius  (Denys  Petau), 
283;  290,  327 

Petit,   Samuel,  370  n.    i 

Petrarch  (Francesco  Petrarca),  3-1  r  ; 
his  study  of  the  Latin  Classics,  4-9; 
his  interest  in  Greek,  9;  his  hand- 
writing, 99  ;  Landino  on,  81  ;  Pe- 
trarch and  the  Averroists,  109  ; 
165-7,  iigf,  251 

Petronius,  MS  at  Cologne,  32  ;  ed.  pr. 
(Ven.  1499);  ed,  Thanner  (Leipzig, 
1500):  Janus  Dousa  (L.  B.  1585); 
ed.pr.oiCena  Tri»ialc/iionis,  Pierre 
Petit  (Patav.  1664;  Par.  1664); 
'  Satyi'ifon  cum  frngmentis  Albae 
Graecae  recuperatis ',  forged  by 
Fraii9ois  Nodot  (Col.  1691,  etc.); 
ed.  Burman  (Utrecht,  1709,  Amst. 
1743),  409,  443;  Carmen  de  Bello 
Civili,  ed.  Busche  (Leipzig,  1500); 
261  ;  Fr.  transl.  of  Carmen  by 


488 


INDEX. 


Bouhier  (1737),  390;  on  the  Trau 

MS,  see  A.  C.  Clark  in   Cl.   Rev. 

Aug.  1908 

Petty,  Sir  William,  342 
Peuerbach,  Georg,  252 
Peutinger,  Conrad,  260 
Phaedrus,    ed.     pr.,    Pierre     Pithou 

(Troyes,     1596),     192  ;     103  ;     ed. 

Freinsheim  (1664),  367;  Variorum 

ed. ,   J.  F.   Gronovius  (1669),  321  ; 

Burman    (Amst.    1698,    etc.),   443  ; 

N.    Heinsius,    notae    (1745)  ;    ed. 

Bentley  (1726),  409 
Phaer,  Thomas,  240 
Phalaris,  Epistles  of,  ed.pr.  1498,  104 ; 

Bentley  on,  403-5 
Phavorinus,  107  n.  3 
Philemon  and  Menander,  406,  409 ; 

see  Menander 
Philips,  Ambrose,  281 
Philoponus,    ed.    pr.    Ven.     (i)    De 

quinque  Dialectis  in  the  Thesaurus 

(1476) ;    (2)    In     Analytica     Post. 

(1504),  104  ;  (3)  De  Gen.  Animal. 

(1526);   (4)   De   Gen.   et    Interim 

(1527);     (5)     De    Anima    (1535); 

(6)  De  Aeternitate  Mundi  (iS35); 

(7)  In     Physica    (1535);     (8)     In 
Meteor.  (1551);  (9)  In  Metaphysica, 
transl.  into  Latin  by  Fr.  Patricius 
(Ferrara,     1583)  ;     (10)     Collectio 
Vocum  quae  pro  diversa  significa- 
tione  Acc'entum  diversum  accipiunt, 
ed.  Erasmus  Schmid  (Witt.  1615) 

Philosophicae,  Jonsen  De  Scriptorilnis 
Historiae,  365 

Philostratus,  Vilae  Sophislarum,  Hero- 
icus  and  Imagines,  ed.  pr.  (Flor. 
1496);  Vita  Apollonii  (Ven.  1504), 
100,  104 ;  Opera,  F.  Morel  (Par. 
1608);  Olearius  (Leipzig,  1709), 
including  conjectures  by  Bentley 

Philoxenus,  Glossary  of,  ed.  H. 
Stephanus  (Par.  1573);  Vulcanius 
(L.  B.  1600) 

Phlegon,  ed.  pr.  (Bas.  1568),  105  ; 
Meursius  (L.  B.  1620) 

Phocylides,  379 

Photius,  Bibliotheca,  ed.  pr.  Hoeschel 
(Augs.  1601),  272  ;  105  ;  ed.  Schott 
(Augs.  1606;  Gen.  1612;  Rouen, 
!653)»  305;  Lexicon,  201;  codex 
Galcanus,  355,  428;  ed.  Hermann 
(1808),  428  n.  3;  Porson  (ed. 
Dobree,  1822),  428 

Phreas,  John,  223 

Phrynichus,  Ecloga,  ed.  Z.  Callierges 


in  ed.  pr.  (Rome,  1517)  and  in  the 
Thesaurus  of  1523;  in  Aldine 
Lexicon  (Ven.  1524),  and  in  Vas- 
cosan's  ed.  (Par.  1532);  ed.  Nun- 
nesius  (Bare.  1586),  159;  Hoeschel 
(Augs.  1601),  272  ;  Pauw  (Utr. 

1739) 
Piccolomini,    Aeneas    Sylvius,    72  f  ; 

see  Sylvius  and  Pins  II 
Piccolomini,  Alessandro,  on  Ar.  Poet., 

'34 

Pichena,  Curzio,  303 
Pierson,  Johann,  461 
Pighius  (Pighe),  (Stephan  Wynants), 

217 
Pilatus,  Leontius,  his  Latin  rendering 

of  Homer,  8  f  ,   15 
Pillans,  James,  422 
Pincianus,  Nonius,   158 
Pindar,  ed.  pr.  (Ven.  1513),  98,  104, 

118,   195;  (Rome,  1515),  80,  107; 

Vatican    MS,     154  ;    ed.    Schmied 

(Witt.    1616),   272  ;  Jo.  Benedictus 

(Saumur,      1620)  ;      Oxon.      1697  ; 

Twining  on,  420  ;  metres  of,  380  ; 

imitators  of,  281  f 
Piranesi,  Gianbattista,  380 
Pirkheimer,   Wilibald,  259 
Pisanello,  Vittore,  54,  70 
Pithou     (Pithoeus),      Pierre,     191  f; 

Phaedrus,^./;-.  (1596),  103;   194, 

205 
Pitt,  (i)  Christopher,  416;  (2)  William, 


. 
Pius  II  (Aeneas  Sylvius  Piccolomini), 

55,  72  f,  90  ;  III,  90 
Pizzolpasso,  Francesco,  35 
Plantin,   Christopher,  213  ;   105 
Planudes,   Maximus,   405 
Platina  (Bartolomeo  de'  Sacchi),  92  f 
Plato,    Petrarch's   MS,  9  f  ;    Republic-, 
transl.  by  Chrysoloras  and   De- 
cembrio,  20,  22  1  ;  Phaedo,  Gargias, 
Crilo,    Apology,    Phaedrus    and 
Letters,  by  Bruni,  46  ;  Laws  and 
Parmenides,  by  Georgius  Trape- 
zuntius  and  Theodoras  Gaza,  63  ; 
Charrnides,  by  Politian,  86  ;  the 
whole,  by  Ficino,  81 
ed.  pr.  (Ven.    1513),  79,  98,  104; 
(Bas.    1534    and    1556)  ;    Lysis, 
ed.  Victorius,    137  ;   Muretus  on 
Rep.  i,  ii,  150  ;  ed.  H.  Stephanus 
(Par.  1578),   175  f;   ed.    Bipont. 
(1781-6);  jr^0//rt(Ruhnken),  460; 
Phaedo,  ed.  Wyttenbach   (1810), 
464 


INDEX. 


489 


Controversy  on  Plato  and  Aristotle, 
74  f;  60,  71  ;  Gemistos  Plethon, 
60 ;    the    Platonic   Academy   of 
Florence,  81 ;  Plato  and  Virgil, 
82;  the  Platonist  Patrizzi,   152; 
the  Cambridge  Platonists,  353 
Plautus,  studied  by  Petrarch,  6;  codex 
Ursinianus,  34,  50  ;  Niccoli's  MS, 
43  ;  ed.  pr.  (Ven.  1472),  103  ;  edd. 
Beroaldo,    Buccardus,    Britannico, 
87  ;  imitated  by   Machiavelli,  88  ; 
performances  in  Italy,  92,  and  the 
Netherlands,     212;     influence     on 
Italian  literature,  i5sf;ed.  Came- 
rarius    (Bas.     1558),     266;     Janus 
Dousa  on,  301  ;  Acidalius  on,  273  ; 
Lipsius    on,    304 ;    ed.    Lambinus 
(Par.      1576),      190  ;      Taubmann 
(Witt.   1605),  362  ;  Pareus  (1610), 
362  ;  J.  F.  Gronovius  (1664),  321  ; 
Bentley  on,  407 ;  ed.  JeanCapperon- 
nier  (1759),  389 
Pleiades,  Burney's,  429 
Plethon,  Georgios  Gemistos,  60 
Pliny,  (i)  the  elder,  studied  by  Pe- 
trarch, 8 ;  text  revised  by  Guarino, 
50,    and    Perotti,    71;    transl.    by 
Landino,  82;  ed.  pr.  (Ven.   1469), 
97,     103;      Cotnm.     by     Beroaldo 
(1476),  86;  Castigationes  by  Her- 
molaus    Barbarus   (1492),    83  ;    ed. 
Erasmus   (152?),  131  ;    em.  Beatus 
Rhenanus  (1526),  263;  ed.  Gelenius 
(i535).  265  ;   Dalecampius  (1587); 
Nonius    Pincianus    in   Commelin's 
ed.     (1593),     158  ;    Salmasius    on 
(1629),  285;  ed.  J.   F.    Gronovius 
(1669),  321 ;  Hardouin  (1685),  298; 
Count  Rezzonico  on  (1/63),   379; 
Engl.  transl.  by  Philemon  Holland 
(1601),  243 

Pliny,  (2)  the  younger,  unknown  to 
Petrarch,  8 ;  a  MS  discovered  by 
Guarino,  50  ;  ed.  pr.  Epp. ,  libri 
viii  (Ven.  1471),  103  ;  Rome,  1474  ; 
ed.  Pomponius  Laetus,  Rome,  1490; 
libri  t'jc,  ed.  Fra  Giocondo  (Ven. 
1508),  42,  99  ;  II.  Stephanus  (Par. 
1591);  Gruter  (1611);  Veenhusen 
(L.  B.  1669)  ;  Cellarius  (Leipzig, 
1693,  1700);  G.  Cortius  (Amst. 
1 734J  5  J-  M-  Gesner  (Leipzig,  1 739, 
1 770) ;  Correspondence  with  Trajan, 
36  ;  Panegyric,  34  ;  ed.  pr.  (c.  1482), 
103;  ed.  Lipsius  (Ant.  i6ooetc.),3O4 
Plotinus,  transl.  by  Ficino  (1492), 
82  ;  ai.  pr.  (Bas.  1580),  105 


Plutarch,  Vitae,  Latin  translations  by 
Bruni,  46,  Guarino,  50,  Filelfo,  55, 
Campano,  73 ;  Latin  transl.  of 
Vitae  (Rome,  1470)  ;  Guarino's 
transl.  of  Plutarch,  On  Education, 
53;  ed.  pr.,  Moralia  (Ven.  1509), 
98,  104;  Vitae  (Flor.  1517),  105; 
Bryan  (Lond.  1729);  Opera  (Gen. 
1572),  105  ;  French  transl.  by 
Amyot  (1559),  195  f,  quoted  by 
Montaigne,  197  ;  Lives,  Engl. 
transl.  by  North  (1612),  242, 
Dryden  (1683  f),  and  the  Lang- 
hornes  (1770);  Moralia,  ed.  Wyt- 
tenbach  (1795-1821),  463 

Poetry,  Italian  criticism  of,  133-5 ; 
the  elder  Scaliger  on,  178;  G.  J. 
Vossius  on,  309  ;  D.  Heinsius  on 
tragic  poetry,  314 

Poggio  Bracciolini,  25-34;  3^  !  '8, 
21  f,  157,  162,  220,  274 

Poland,   275  f 

Politian  (Angelo  Poliziano),  83-86 ; 
3S»  63!",  76,  115,  160,  226;  portrait, 

58 

Pollux,  Filelfo's  MS,  56;  ed.pr.  (Ven. 
1502),  104;  (Flor.  1520),  227; 
ed.  Grynaeus  (Bas.  1536);  Seber 
(Frankf.  1608);  Hemsterhuys(Amst. 
1706),  449 

Polyaenus,  ed.  pr.,  Casaubon  (Lyon, 
1539),  208;  105;  ed.  Maaswyck 
(Leyclen,  1690) ;  Mursinna  (Berl. 
1756) 

Polybius,  noticed  by  Vergerio,  49 ; 
transl.  by  Bruni,  46,  and  Perotti,  71 
(Rome,  1473);  studied  by  Machia- 
velli, 89  ;  ed.  pr.  De  Militia 
Romano,  with  transl.  by  Lascaris 
(Ven.  1529);  ed.  pr.  i-v  (Ilagenau, 
1530),  105;  i-iv  and  Epitome  of 
vii-xvii,  ed.  Arlenius  (Bas.  1549), 
265  n.  i ;  Excerpta  de  Legationibus, 
ed.  Ursinus  (Ant.  1582);  ed. 
Casaubon  (1609),  209  ;  Excerpta 
de  Virtutibus  d  Vitiis,  ed.  Valesius 
(1634),  287  ;  Jakob  Gronovius 
(Amst.  1670;  ed.  Ernesti,  Leipzig, 
1763^,  329;  Schweighauser,  with 
Lexicon  (Leipzig,  1789-95;  Oxon. 
'823),  396:  Thuilliers  French 
transl.,  389;  Thucydides  and  Poly- 
bius, 452 

Pompeius  on  Donatus;  Salutati,  18 
(Keil,  Gr.  Lat.  v) 

Pompeius  (Festus),  Sextus,  ed.  Perotti, 
71,  see  Festus 


490 


INDEX. 


Pomponazzi  (Pomponatius),  Pietro, 
108-112,  118 

Pomponius  Laetus,  92  f ;  see  Laetus 

Pomponius  Mela  ;  see  Mela 

Pontano,  Giovanni  Gioviano,  90 

Pope,  Alexander,  117,  122,  40 7  f, 
4iof 

Porphyrio  on  Horace,  35  ;  in  Horace, 
ed.  1481,  and  in  ed.  G.  Fabricius 
(Bas.  1555) 

Porphyrius,  the  syllogisms  (of  his 
Introduction  to  Aristotle's  Cate- 
gories) denounced  by  Petrarch,  10  ; 
Homerica,  ed.  pr.  (Rome,  1518), 
105,  107 ;  Scholia  on  the  Iliad, 
added  to  Valckenaer's  ed.  (1747) 
of  Ursinus'  Virgil;  De  Abstinetitia, 
ed.  Victorius  (1548),  137 

Porson,  Richard,  424-430;  405,  418, 
422  f,  431 ;  portrait,  426 

Portraits,  ancient,  163 

Port-Royal,  Jansenists  of,  290 

Portugal,  1 62  f 

Portus,  Aemilius,  271  ;  Franciscus, 
271;  205 

Potter,  John,  356;  329 

Pozzo,  Cassiano  and  Antonio  dal,  279 

Premierfait,  Laurent  de,   166 

Priapeia,  Boccaccio's  transcript,   13 

Prideaux,   Humphrey,  343 

Printers  of  classical  works  in  Italy, 
77-80,  95-105;  France,  167-170; 
Netherlands,  2i3f,  331  f;  England, 
227;  Germany,  262  f 

Printing,  Maittaire's  history  of,  411 

Prior,  Matthew,  388 

Priscian,  28,  68  ;  ed.  pr.  (Ven.  1470), 
103;  ed.  Putschius  in  Gramni.  Lat. 
(Hanov.  1605),  313 

Probus,  Aem.  (i.e.  Nepos),  ed.  pr. 
(1471),  103;  see  Nepos 

Probus,  grammarian,  Ars  Minor  or 
Institutio  Artium,  discovered  by 
Poggio,  29 f;  Catholica,  discovered 
by  Merula,  35 ;  Pseudo-Probus  on 
Juvenal,  ed.  pr.,  G.  Valla  (Ven. 
1486),  103 

Proclus,  Chrestornathia,  ed.  Schott 
(Hanov.  1615),  305 

Proclus,  Sphere  of,  trans.  Linacre,  98 

Procopius,  Aurispa's  MS,  36;  transl. 
by  Bruni,  45  (Foligno,  1470;  Ven. 
1471),  and  Grotius  (1655),  3'7: 
part  of  Bellum  Gothicum  in 
Pithoeus,  Codex  Legiim  Wisigo- 
thorum  (Par.  15/9);  ed.  Hoeschel 
(Augs.  1676) ;  Vulcanius  (L.  B. 


1597,  1617);  De  Aedificiis,  ed.  pr. 
(Bas.  1531);  Hist  or ia  Arcana  ed. 
pr.  (Lyon,  1623) 

Propertius  ;  Petrarch,  6,  1 7 ;  Salutati, 
17;  ed.  pr.  (1472),  103,  Politian's 
copy,  84;  ed.  Beroaldo  (1487),  87; 
imitated  by  Valeriano,  122 ;  ed. 
Muretus  (1558),  150;  Scaliger 
(1577),  201;  Broukhusius  (1702), 
330;  N.  Heinsius  on  (1742),  325; 
Volpi  (1755),  379;  Barth  (1778); 
Hemsterhuys,  450,  in  Burman  Il's 
ed.  (1780),  455 

Prosody,  Latin;  Perotti  on,  71 

Prosper,  Chronicon,  MS  of,  73 ; 
Epigram mata,  ed.  1494,  Maintz ; 
ed.  1502,  Ven.,  103 

Prostasius,  bp,   252 

Prudentius,  35, 325  ;  ed.pr.  (Deventer, 
1472);  Weitzius  (Hanov.  1613); 
Chamillard  (Par.  1687);  Cellarius 
(Hal.  1703,  '39);  Teolius  (Parm. 
1788);  Faustinus  Arevalus  (Rome, 
i788f) 

Ptolemy,  (i)  on  Astronomy,  /j.eyd\T] 
tnWa£«,  Almagest,  Latin  epitome 
by  Regiomontanus  (Ven.  1496),  252; 
ed.  pr.  of  Gk  text,  Grynaeus  (Bas. 
'538);  Catalogue  of  stars,  Latin 
transl.  (Col.  1537),  end  of  vol.  iii 
in  Hudson's  Geogr.  Gr.  minores 
(Oxon.  1698-1712);  (2)  Tetrabiblon 
and  Centiloquium,  ed.  Camerarius 
(Norimb.  1535),  and  Melanchthon 
(Bas.  1553);  (3)  De  Apparentiis  et 
Significationibus  inerrantium  stel- 
larum,  in  Petau's  Uranologium 
(Par.  1630) ;  (4)  De  Analemmatc 
(Rome,  1572);  (5)  Planisphaerium 
(1507  f,  and  Veil.  1558);  (6)  Har- 
monica (Ven.  1562),  ed.  Wallis 
(Oxon.  1682,  '89);  (7)  on  Geo- 
graphy, yfwypa<fnK7)  vipriyijffis,  Latin 
transl.  (Rome,  1462  etc.),  Servetus 
(Lyon,  1541);  ed.  pr.  of  Gk  text, 
Erasmus  (Bas.  1533;  Amst.  1605; 
L.  B.  1619;  Ant.  1624),  131  ;  105 

Pufendorf,   311 

Pulmannus  (Theodor  Poelman),  216; 
214 

Punic  War,  First ;  Bruni's  history 
of,  46 

Purple  dye,  Politian  on,  84 

Puteanus,  Erycius  (Hendrik  van  Put), 
3°5»  3i6 

Putschius  (Heliasvan  Putschen),  313; 
105 


INDEX. 


491 


Pythagoras,  golden  verses  of,  379 ; 
Lives  of,  446 

Querolus  (fourth  cent,  imitation  of 
the  Aulularia  of  Plautus),  ed. 
Daniel  (1564),  191 

Quintilian,  imperfect  MS  possessed  by 
Petrarch,  8,  27;  complete  MS  dis- 
covered by  Poggio,  27 ;  first  modern 
introduction,  by  Vergerio,  48 ;  in- 
fluence of,  in  the  Renaissance,  48, 
53  n.  2,  116;  Valla,  67;  Politian, 
83  f ;  Pomponius  Laetus,  93  ;  In- 
stitutio  Oratoria,  ed.  pr.,  Campano 
(Rome,  1470),  73,  103 ;  ed.  2, 
Giov.  Andrea  de'  Bussi  (Rome, 
1470),  97  ;  ed.  3  (Yen.  1471)  ;  ed. 
Navagero  (Ven.  1514),  118;  Cl. 
Capperonnier  (1725),  389;  Inst. 
Orat.  and  Dec/,  ed.  Burman  (1720), 
443  ;  ed.  pr.  of  Dedamationes  Hi 
(Rome,  1475),  xix  (Ven.  1481), 
cxxxviii  (Parma,  1494),  103 

Quintus  Smyrnaeus,  discovered  by 
Bessarion,  37 ;  transcribed  by  Const. 
Lascaris,  77;  ed.  pr.  Aid.  (Ven. 
1504-5) ;  ed.  Rhodomann  (Hanov. 
1604),  271 

quisquis  and  quanqitam,  pronunciation 
of,  184 

Rabelais,  Francois,   182-4 

Rabstein,  Johann  von,   252 

Racine,   290,  314 

Radewyns,  Florentius,  211 

Raimondi,  Cosimo,  31 

Ramus,  Petrus  (Pierre  de  la  Ramee), 
184;  133,  198,  238,  247,  268 

Ranee,  Artnand  de,  297 

Raphael,  90,   115,   12 if 

Rapin,  (i)  Nicolas  (1540-1608),  206; 
(2)  Rene  (1621-1687),  291;  290; 
his  Reflexions  sur  FArt  Poetiqite 
(FAristdte,  translated  by  Thomas 
Rymer  (1674),  cp.  Springarn's 
Critical  Essays  of  the  \-tth  Cent. 
(1908),  ii  163  f 

Ravenna,  John  of,  22 

Regiomontanus,  Johannes  (Johann 
Miiller  of  Konigsberg),  252;  103 

Reichenau,  MSS,  28  f,  296 

Reinesius,  Thomas,  364 

Reitz,  Johann  Friedrich  and  Karl 
Conrad,  453 

Renaissance,  2  f 

Rescius  (Rutger  Ressen),  213 

Resende,  Luis  Andrea  de,  162 


Reuchlin    (Capnion),   Johann,   256  f; 

63  f,  169,  211,  258 
Revett,  Nicholas,  432 
Rezzonico  della  Torre,  Antonio 

Giuseppe  conte,  379 
Rhenanus,  Beatus(BildevonRheinau), 

263;    36,  79  n.  4,  103 
Rhetores  Latini,  389  ;  Graeci,  ed.  pr. 

(Ven.  1508-9)1  98,    104;  Orationes 

Rhetorum  Graecorum,ed.  pr.  (Ven. 


Rhetoric,  G.  J.  Vossius  on,  307 
Rhodomann,  Lorenz,  271 
Riccoboni,  Antonio,  134,   144 
Rienzi,  38 

Riescio  of  Poggibonsi,  Giorgio,   137 
Rigault  (Rigaltius),  Nicolas,  283 
Rinucci,    66  ;     Rinutius,    transl.    of 

Aesop  (c.   14/8),    104 
Rivius,  Johann,  268 
Robortelli,  Francesco,  140-143  ;  105, 

!34>  '39.  '52 

Rollock,  Hercules,  249 

Roman  Antiquites,  121;  Savile  on, 
334;  chronology,  143;  early  his- 
tory criticised  by  Perizonius,  331  ; 
Orsini's  fragments  of  Roman  his- 
torians, 154;  Sigonius  on  legal 
rights  of  Roman  citizens,  143  ; 
Orsini  and  Agostino  on  Roman 
families,  154;  Robortelli  (140  f), 
Sigonius  (143)  and  Panvinio  (145) 
on  Roman  names.  See  also  Fasti 

Rome,  ruins  of,  92  ;  topography  of, 
154,  279;  Academy  of,  90-93,  123; 
printing-press  in  the  palace  of  the 
Massimi,  97  ;  Greek  press  on  the 
Quirinal,  79  (Monte  Caballo,  105, 
107);  Vatican  Library,  34,  66,  90, 
92,  154;  sack  of  (1527),  122  f;  93, 

121,  133  . 
Ronsard,  Pierre  de,   149,   176,  187  f, 

190,   195 

Rosetta  Stone,  425 
Rossfeld  (Rosinus),  Johann,  340 
Rossi,  Roberto  de',   19 
Rubens,  306 
Rubianus,   Crotus  (Johann   Jager   of 

Dornheim),   257 
Rucellai,  Bernardo,  88 
Ruddiman,  Thomas,  411 
Rue,  Charles  de  la,  292 
Ruhnken       (originally       Ruhneken), 

David,   456-460;     151,   304,   389, 

402,    418  f,    429,   431,    443,    45  if, 

454  ;  portrait,  458 
Rustica,  Scriptores  de  Re,   Guarino, 


492 


INDEX. 


84;  ed.  pr.   (1472),   103;  Sylburg, 

270 

Rustic!,  Cencio,  26 
Rutilius  Lupus,  459  ;  see  Lupus 
Rycke,  Theodorus  de,   328 

Sabellicus,  Marcus  Antonius  (Marc- 
antonio  Coccio),  92,  154  n.  3 

Sabinus,  Franciscus  Floridus,   179 

Sadoleto,  Jacopo,  115;  91,  93,  nsf, 
1 1 8,  123,  247 

Sainte-Croix,  Guillaume  Emmanuel 
Joseph,  Baron  de,  397,  459 

Sainte-Marthe,  Scevole  de,  198 

Salel,  Hugues,  194 

Saliat,  Pierre,    195,    197 

Sallust,  studied  by  Petrarch,  8 ;  one 
of  Politian's  models,  85  ;  ed.  pr. 
(Rome,  1470),  103  ;  ed.  Pomponius 
Laetus  (1490),  93;  Muretus  on, 
150;  ed.  Rivius  (1539),  268;  Vic- 
torius  (1576),  137 

Salmasius  (Claude  de  Saumaise),  285, 

309;   207,    210,  307,   316,  318,     322, 

453 ;  portrait,  284 
Salutati,  Coluccio,  17  f;  7,  27,  166, 

276 

Salviati,  Leonardo,   134,   140 
Sambucus,  Johann,  238;  105 
Sanadon,  Noel  Etienne,  390 ;  290 
Sanctius   Brocensis    (Francisco    San- 
chez) ;    Alinerva,    159;    69    n.    r , 

33°.  363 

Sandys,  George,  241 
San  Gallo,  Giuliano  da,  42 
Sannazaro,  Jacopo  (Actius  Sincerus 

Sannazarius),    90;    35,     115,    117, 

J>9>  33° 

Sanok,  Gregor  of,  276 
Sanskrit,  438  1 

Santen,  Laurens  van,  461 ;  450,  455 
Santeul  (Santolius),  Jean  Baptiste,  290 
Savile,  Sir  Henry,  333-6  ;   207  f,  352 
Savonarola,  Girolamo,  87 
Scala,  Bartolomeo,  85,  87 
Scaliger  (della  Scala,  de    L'Escale), 

(1)  Julius  Caesar,  the  elder  Sca- 
liger   (1484-1558),    135;    177  f; 
117,  119,  130,  148,  1 80,  198 

(2)  Joseph    Justus     (1540-1609), 
199-204,  305;  leaves  France  for 
Leyden  (1593),  283  ;  at  Leyden, 
305  f ;    his   pupils   D.    Heinsius 
and  Grotius,  319  ;  his  influence 
on  Cluverius,    313,    Fr.    Dousa, 
301,  and  H.  Lindenbrog,    364  ; 
aids     Gruter,     359,     445,     and 


Wowerius,  306;  is  aided  by 
Casaubon,  207,  emulated  by 
Savile,  336,  visited  by  an  English 
scholar  at  Leyden,  234 ;  his 
style,  lid;  his  table-talk,  344; 
his  portrait,  200 ;  epigram  by 
Grotius  on  his  portrait,  318 ; 
Scaliger  on  Aldus  Manutius  II, 
101,  Budaeus,  171,  Casaubon, 
205,  208,  209,  Dorat,  187, 
Grotius,  315,  Gruter,  361,  Lam- 
binus,  190,  Lipsius,  304,  Muretus, 
151,  Pithou,  192,  Turnebus,  186, 
Victorius,  139,  176,  186,  Vossius' 
Rhetoric,  307 ;  Menage  on  Scali- 
ger's  Greek  verses,  290;  Scaliger 
and  Melville,  247,  Delrio,  203, 
Scioppius,  203,  362  f;  his  chro- 
nology defended  by  Perizonius, 
331  ;  Casaubon,  205,  and  Hem- 
st'erhuys,  452, on  Scaliger;  Scali- 
ger and  Bentley,  409 

Scapula,  Johann,  176,  457 

Scarparia,  (i)  Giacomo  da,  19;  (2) 
Angeli  da,  36 

Schedel,  Hartman,  253;  40 

Scheffer,  Johann,   368;  iii  341 

Schlettstadt,  255 

Schmied.  Erasmus,  272 

Scholarship,  History  of;  its  four 
principal  periods,  i  f 

Schoolmen,  Savile  on  the,  333 

Schott,  Andreas,   305 

Schrader,  Johannes,  455,  459 

Schrevelius  (Kornelis  Schrevel),  374 

Schweighauser,  Johann,  396,  418 

Scioppius  (Schoppe),  Caspar,  362 ; 
203,  281 

Scot,  Alexander,   146 

Scotland,  243-250 

Scriverius,    Petrus  (Peter   Schryver), 

307.  3^6 

Seber,  Wolfgang,  364 
Secundus,    Joannes    (Jan  Everaerts), 

216,  307 
Sedulius,  35  ;  earliest  dated  ed.  (Ven. 

1502),    103;   ed.    Cellarius   (1704, 

'39),      Arntzen     (1761),     Arevalus 

(1794) 

Segni,  Bernardo,    134 
Seguier,   Pierre,  287  ;  Lexica  Segue- 

riana,  287 

Selden,  John,  342-4;  203,  315 
Selling,  William  of,  223-5 
Seneca,  his  Letters  studied  by  Petrarch, 

4,  7  ;  MSS  collated  by  Salutati,  18  ; 

Moralia  et  Epp.>  ed.  pr.  (Naples, 


INDEX. 


493 


!475).  i03.;ed.Erasmus(i5i5),  131; 
ed.  Nonius  Pincianus,  158  ;  quoted 
by  Montaigne,  197;  translated  by  T. 
Lodge  (Lond.  1614);  Opera  omnia 
ed.  Lipsius  (Trag.  1598;  Op. phil. 
1605),  304 ;  both  the  Senecas,  ed. 
Gronovius  (1649-58),  321  ;  De 
Morte  Claudii,  ed.  Beatus  Rhenanus 
(1515),  263;  Seneca's  Tragedies 
studied  by  Petrarch,  6  ;  transcribed 
by  Regiomontanus,  252;  ed.  pr. 
(Ferrara,  c.  1474-84),  103 ;  their 
influence  on  Italian  literature,  155; 
text  corrected  by  Acidalius,  273 

Sepulveda  (Gordulensis),  Genesio,  158 

Sergardi,   281 

Seripando,  Cardinal,   142 

Servius  on  Virgil,  studied  by  Filelfo, 
56,  and  Rabelais,  183 ;  ed.  pr. 
(Flor.  1471-2),  97;  R.  Stephanus 
(Par.  1532)  ;  Daniel  (Par.  1600)  ; 
Maaswyck  (Leeuwarden,  1717)  ; 
and  in  Burman's  Virgil  (Amst. 
1746) 

Seyssel,  Claude  de,   194 

Sforza,  Francesco,  56;  Hippolyta,  77 

Shakespeare,  196,  240,  243 

Shaw,  Thomas,  419 

Sherburne,  Sir  Edward,  351 

Siberch,    John,    Cambridge    printer, 

_227 

Sidney,  Sir  Philip,   304 

Sidonius,  Apollinaris,  ed.  Sirmond, 
283 

Sigeros,   Nicolaus,  8 

Sigonius  (Carlo  Sigone  or  Sigonio), 
143-5 ;  his  feud  with  Robortelli, 
141-3 ;  his  contention,  that  the 
Consolatio  was  the  work  of  Cicero, 
refuted  by  Guilielmus,  273,  Kicco- 
boni,  144,  and  Lipsius,  304 

Silius  Italicus,  MS  discovered  by 
Poggio,  29  f;  ed.  pr.  (Rome,  1471), 
97,  103;  Grotius  (1636),  317; 
Cellarius  (1695)  ;  Drakenborch, 
(1717),  447  ;  N.  Heinsius  on  (1742), 
325 

Simplicius  on  Aristotle's  Categories, 
ed.  pr.  (Ven.  1499),  80,  104  ; 
Simplicius,  with  Epictetus,  ed.  pr. 
(Ven.  1528),  105;  ed.  D.  Heinsius 
(L.B.i6i  i);  Schweighauser(i799f), 

396 

Sirmond,  Jacques,   283 
Sixtus   IV,   90,  92 
Sluiter,  Janus  Otto,  461 
Smetius,   Martin  (d.    15/8),    14; 


Smith,  Sir  Thomas,  231  f 

'  Socrates  ',   Letters  of,  404 

Solinus,  285,  309 

Sophocles,  Laur.  MS,  36f,  137;  ed.pr. 
(Ven.  1502),  98,  104;  ed.  Simon 
Colinaeus  (Par.  1528),  170;  Juntine 
ed.,  Victorius  (Flor.  1547) ;  Turne- 
bus  (Par.  15530;  H.  Stephanus 
(Par.  1568);  W.  Canter  (1579), 
216;  Johnson (1705-46),  4 18;  Heath 
on  (1762),  417;  ed.  Jean  Capperon- 
nier  (1781),  389;  Brunck  (1786-9), 
395;  Musgrave  on  (1800),  418; 
scholia,  ed.  pr.  (1517-8),  79,  107; 
Italian  .trans!.,  155 

Soroe,  univ.,  327 

Spain,   157-162 

Spalding,  Georg  Ludwig,  460 

Spanheim,  Ezechiel,  327;  402 

Spence,  John,  411,  431 

Spenser,  Edmund,   237,  240,  243 

Spira,  Jo.  de,  97,  99,  103 ;  Vinde- 
lin  de,  103 

Spon  and  Wheler,  299 

Stanley,  Thomas,  351,  427 

Stanyhurst,  Richard,   240 

Statesmen,   scholarly,  433 

Statins,  Thebais  and  Achilleis,  studied 
by  Petrarch,  6;  ed.  pr.  c.  1470. 
Silvae  discovered  by  Poggio,  3 1  ; 
Madrid  MS,  162  ;  ed.pr.,  with  Tib., 
Prop.,  Cat.  (Ven.  1472),  103; 
Politian's  copy  of  this  ed.,  84 ;  ed. 
Dom.  Calderinus  (Rome,  1475) ; 
T.  F.  Gronovius  on  (1637),  321  ; 
ed.  Markland  (1728;  ed.  Sillig, 
1827),  413.  ed.pr.  of  Opera  omnia, 
Tliebais,  Achilleis  and  Silvae  (Ven. 
1475-83),  103;  ed.  Bernartius  (Ant. 
1595);  F.  Lindenbrog  (Par.  1600); 
Gev'artius  (L.  B.  1616);  J.  F. 
Gronovius  (Amst.  1653);  Marolles 
(Par.  1658);  Barth  (1664),  363 

Statins,  Achilles,   163,   189 

Stephanus  Byzantinus,  ed.  pr.  (Ven. 
1502),  104;  Flor.  1521;  ed.  Xy- 
lander  (Bas.  1568);  Thomas  de 
Pinedo  (Amst.  1678);  Salmasius, 
Gronovius  and  Berk elius(L.B.  1688, 
1694) 

Stephanus  (Estienne),  Robertus,  173; 
105,  415;  portrait,  174;  Henricus, 
175-7;  IO?;  Carolus,  105 

Stillingfleet,  Edward,  401 

Stobaeus,  Florilegium,  ed.  pr.  Trin- 
caveli  (1535),  105;  ed.  Conrad 
Gesner  (1543  etc.),  269;  transl.  by 


494 


INDEX. 


Grotius,  316;  Eclogae,  ed.  pr.  Canter 
(r575)'  IO5>  Florilegiu wand  Eclogae 
(Gen.  1609) 

Strabo,  transl.  by  Guarino,  50,  66; 
ed.  pr.  (Ven.  1516),  104;  ed.  Xy- 
lander  (Bas.  1571),  270;  Casaubon 
(Gen.  1587,  Par.  1620;  ed.  Alme- 
loveen,  Amst.  1707),  208 

Strada,  Famianus,   280  f;   363 

Strassburg,  255,  263,  267,  296,  367  f, 
395  f 

Strozzi,  Palla,  19,  37,  43,  46,  63,  76 

Stuart,  James,  432 

Sturm,  Johannes,  267  ;  235,  238,  339 

Subiaco,  96 

Suetonius,  studied  by  Petrarch,  8 ;  ed. 
pr.  Campano  (Rome,  1470),  73, 
97,  103;  ed.  Erasmus  (1518),  131; 
Achilles  Statius  on,  163;  ed. 
Casaubon  (Gen.  1595;  Par.  1610), 
209;  Schild  (L.  B.  1647);  Burman 
(Amst.  1736),  443;  Oudendorp 
(L.B.  1751),  454;  transl.  by  Phile- 
mon Holland  (1606),  243;  MS  of 
Suetonius,  de gram,  et  rhet.,  35 

Suidas,  ed.  pr.  (Milan,  1499)  65,  102, 
104;  ed.  Aldus  (Ven.  1514;  Bas. 
1544);  H.  Wolf  (Bas.  1564,  1581), 
268;  Aem.  Portus  (Gen.  1619, 
1630);  Kiister  (Cantab.  1705),  446; 
408 ;  Porson  on,  429 

Sulpicia,  35 

Sweynheym  and  Pannartz,  96,   103 

Swift,  Jonathan,  405 

Sydenham,  Floyer,  417 

Sylburg,  Friedrich,   270;  203 

Sylvester  I,   Valla  on  Pope,  67 

Sylvius  Piccolomini,  Aeneas  (Pius  II), 
72  f;  220,  251  f,  273,  276 

Symmachu's,  Epp.  ed.pr.  (c.  1508-13), 
103;  Strassb.  1510;  Bas.  1549;  Par. 
1580  etc.;  Juretus  (Par.  1604); 
Scioppius  (Maintz,  1608) 

Syncellus,  Georgius,  202 

Synesius,  ed.  pr.  Turnebus  (Par. 
r553);  Petavius  (Par.  1612,  1633, 
1640),  283 

Syrus,  Publius,  Sententiae,  ed.  pr. 
Erasmus  (Strassb.  1516);  Fabricius 
(i  55°)  ;Gruter(r6o4);Velser  (1608); 
Havercamp  (1708,  1727);  Bentley 
(1726),  407 

Tabula  Isiaca,   114 

Tacitus,    unknown    to    Petrarch,    8 ; 

studied   by   Boccaccio,    i3f,    32  f; 

MSS  of  Annals,  i-v,  108  ;  Annals, 


xi-xvi,  and  Hist.,  14,  33,  36; 
Agricola,  Germania  and  Dialogits, 
33  f>  35  ?  *&•  Pr-  °f  Ann.  xi-xvi, 
Hist.,  Germ.,  Dial.  (Ven.  c.  1470), 
103;  Agricola  (c.  1482),  103; 
Opera  Omnia,  ed.  Beroaldo  (Rome, 
1515),  103,  108;  quoted  by  Machia- 
velli,  89;  Muretus  on,  150;  ed. 
Beatus  Rhenanus  (Bas.  1519-33), 
263  ;  Muretus  on,  150  ;  ed.  Lipsius 
(1574  etc.),  303  ;  Boccalini  on,  88  ; 
ed.  Gronovius  (1672),  321;  Brotier 
(Par.  1771),  394;  Germania,  ed. 
Conring  (1652),  368 ;  Annals  and 
Germania,  transl.  by  Grenawey ; 
Histories  and  Agricola  by  Savile, 

333 

Talbot,   Robert,  334 

Tarragona,  Antonio  Agostino,  abp  of, 

1 60,  154 
Tasso,   156 

Taubmann,  Friedrich,  273,  362 
Taylor,  (i)  Jeremy,    352;   (2)  John, 

4H;  337 

Telesio,  Bernardino,  153 

Temple,  Sir  William,  403 

Terentianus  Maurus,  35,  in  Putschius, 
Gram.  Lat. ;  ed.  Santen  and  Van 
Lennep  (Utr.  1825) 

Terence,  studied  by  Petrarch,  6 ; 
Boccaccio's  MS,  12;  Politian,  84; 
Bembo's  MS,  U2,  114,  154  ;  ed.  pr. 
(Milan,  c.  1470),  103 ;  ed.  Britan- 
nico  (1485),  87;  Navagero  (1517), 
118;  Erasmus  (1532),  131  ;  Muretus 
(1555  etc.),  150;  Faernus  (Flor. 
1565),  147;  Victorius  em.  (1565), 
137 ;  F.  Lindenbrog  (Par.  1602 ; 
Frankf.  1623),  364;  Pareiis,  with 
index  (Neustadt,  1619),  362  ; 
Bentley  (Cantab.  1726  etc.),  407; 
Westerhof  (Hag.  1727  etc.);  MS  of 
Donatus  on,  34  f ;  Bembo  on 
Terence,  114;  influence  of  Terence 
on  Italian  literature,  156 

Testi,  Fulvio,  282 

Themistius,  transl.  by  Hermolaus 
Barbarus  (Ven.  1481),  83  ;  MS  of, 
1 58  ;  Paraphrases,  and  8  Orations, 
ed.  pr.  (Ven.  1534);  13  Orations, 
ed.  H.  Stephanus  (1562);  Petavius 
(1613-18);  Hardouin  (1684) 

'  Themistocles ',   Letters  of,  404 

Theocritus,  ed.  pr.,  Id.  i-xviii  (Milan, 
c.  1493),  97,  104;  i-xxx  (Ven.  1496 
N.S.),  98,  104;  (Rome,  1516),  80; 
Latin  verse  transl.  by  Eobanus 


INDEX. 


495 


Hessus  (1531),  26 if;  Casaubon  on, 
209;  ed.  Thomas  Warton  (1770) 
with  scholia ;  Brunck's  Analecta 
(X772).  395  :  Valckenaer  (1779-81), 
456 

Theognis,  ed.  pr.  (Ven.  1496  N.S.), 
104;  Par.  1537,  1543;  Camerarius 
(Bas.  1551);  Melanchthon  (Witt. 
1560);  Seber  (Leipzig,  1603,  1620); 
Sylburg,  PoetaeGnomifi((3tr,  1651, 
1748);  Just  (1710);  Fischern  (1739); 
Bandini  (Flor.  1766),  379  ;  Brunck, 
Poetae  Gnomici  (Strassb.  1784, 
1817) 

Theophrastus,  Hist.  Plant.,  transl.  by 
Gaza,  62,  66;  ed.  pr.  (Ven.  1495-8), 
104;  ed.  D.  Heinsius  (1613);  Ban- 
dini (1770),  380.  Characters,  ed. 
Pirkheimer  (i  527) ;  Casaubon  (i  592, 
1599,  1612),  208  ;  Duport,  349  ; 
Needham  (1712), 413;  Pauw  (1737); 
Fischer  (1763);  Amaduzzi  (1786), 
384 

Thesaurus  Cornucopiae  (Ven.  1496), 
108  n.  i  ;  Thesauri  of  Robert,  173, 
and  Henri  Estienne,  175;  Graevius, 
328,  and  Jakob  Gronovius,  329 

Thomas  Magister,  ed.  pr.  (Rome, 
1517),  80;  in  the  Aldine  Dictiona- 
rium  Gr.  (Ven.  1525);  with  Phry- 
nichus  and  Moschopulus  (Par.  1532); 
ed.  N.  Blancardus  (Franeker,  1690); 
Bos  (Franeker,  1698),  446;  Bernard 
(L.B.  i  757),  451 ;  Orationes  et  Epp. 
ed.  L.  Norrman  (Ups.  1693) 

Thuanus  (Jacques  Auguste  de  Thou), 
199,  20  r,  204  f,  206  f 

Thucydides,  Valla's  transl.,  69  ; 
Bruni's  transl.,  89 ;  Latin  transl. 
at  St  Paul's,  220 ;  Machiavelli, 
88  f;  ed.  pr.  (Ven.  1502),  98,  104  ; 
ed.  H.  Stephanus  (1564);  Hudson 
(1696),  356  ;  Wasse,  412,  and 
Duker  (1731),  447  ;  French  transl. 
by  Seyssel  (1527);  English  transl. 
by  Hobbes  (1629) 

Thuillier,   Vincent,   389 

Tiara,   Petreius,    301 

Tibullus,  excerpts  alone  known  to 
Petrarch,  6  ;  Tibullus,  Properties, 
Catullus,  Statius,  Silvae,  ed.  pr. 
(Ven.  1472),  84,  103  ;  Politian's 
copy,  84;  ed.  2  (Ven.  1475)  ; 
Tibullus,  ed.  Bernardinus  Cyllenius 
Veronensis  (Rome,  1475);  imitated 
by  Bembo,  112,  114;  ed.  Mure- 
tus  (1558),  150;  Achilles  Statius 


(i566f),   163;    Catullus,  Tibullus, 

Prop.,    ed.    Scaliger    (1577,    1582, 

1600),    201  ;    Passerat  (1608),   191 ; 

Broukhusius    (Amst.    1708),     330; 

Volpi    (Patav.    1710,    1749),    379; 

Heyne   (ed.   1777),  420;    cp.  Car- 

tault,  A  propos  du  Corpus  Tibiilli- 

amim  (1906),  i — 74 
Tifernas,     Gregorius     (Gregorio     da 

Citta  di   Castello),   66  n.,    168 
Timaeus,    Platonis,    Lexicon    of,    ed. 

Ruhnken,  450,  457,  463 
Tiptoft,  John,  earl  of  Worcester,  63, 

221 

Tiraqueau,   Andre,    i82f 
Tissard,  Francois,    170 
Titian,   106,   136,    139 
'  Titus  Livius  of  Forli ',  220 
Tolemei,  Claudio,  93 
Torrentius  (van  Beeck),  Hermann,  216 
Tortellius  (Giovanni  Tortelli),  68 
Tooke,  John  Home,  431 
Tory,    Geoffroy,    1 95 
Toup,  Jonathan,  417;  427 
Toussain  (Tusanus),  Jacques,  i8r,  195 
Townley,   Charles,  434 
Trajan's  column,   280 
Trapezuntius,  Georgius,  63  ;  54,  66,  75 
Trappe,  La,  297 
Traversari,      Ambrogio      (Ambrosius 

Camaldulensis),    44  f;    19,   34,    36 
Triclinius,  395 
Trincaveli,     or    Trincavelli,    Vettore 

(1491-1593),  ed.  Arrian's  Epictetus 

(printed  by  J.  F.  Trincavelli,  Ven. 

1535),    105;    ed.   Aristotle's   Poetic 

(>536),    133 

Trissino,   Giovanni  Giorgio,   282 
Trithemius  (of  Trittenheim),  Johannes, 

259;  258,  296 
Tryphiodorus,  379 
Tubingen,    270 
Tunstall,  (i)  Cuthbert,  170;  (2)  James, 

4'3 

Turberville,  George,  241 
Turnebus       (Tournebu,      Tournebus, 

Tournebou),   Adrianus,  i85f;   [39, 

150,    189  f,    193,    197  f,    268,    340; 

portrait,   185 
Tursellinus,  Horatius  (Orazio  Torsel- 

lino),   369 

Twining,  Thomas,  420  f 
Twyne,   Thomas,    240 
Tyrwhitt,   Thomas,  419;  405,  457 

Ulpian,    on    Demosthenes,    ed.    pr. 
(Ven.   1503),    104 


496 


INDEX. 


'Unity  of  Time1,   188;   the  'Three 

Unities',  291 
Urbano  da  Bologna,    109 
Urbino,  Federigo,  duke  of,  54,  95  f 
Urceus,    Codrus     (Antonio     Urceo), 

9i 

Ursinus,  Fulvius  (Fulvio  Orsini),  153  ; 
160,  189,  456 

Vacca,  Flaminio,   155 

Vadianus  (Joachim  von  Watt),  260 

Vagetius  (Heinriclv  Vaget),  De  Stylo 
Latino,  69  n.  i 

Vaillant,  Jean  Fra^ois  Foy,   391 

Valckenaer,  Lodewyk  Kaspar,  456 f; 
402,  451,  457,  461 

Valdarfer,  Christopher,  99,   103 

Valeriano,  Piero,  122 

Valerius  Flaccus,  MS  discovered  by 
Poggio,  27  ;  Poggio's  autograph 
copy,  24,  29,  162  ;  Laur.  MS,  28  ; 
ed.  pr.  (Bol.  14/4),  103 ;  ed.  Jo. 
Bapt.  Pius  (Bologna,  1519);  Lud. 
Carrio  (Ant.  1565^;  N.  Heinsius 
(Amst.  1680),  325  ;  Burman  (Utr. 
1724),  443  ;  409 

Valerius  Maximus,  studied  by  Pe- 
trarch, 8  ;  ed.  pr.  (Strassb.  c.  14/0), 
103;  ed.  1502,  99;  Leonicenus  on, 
54  n.;  ed.  Pighius  (Ant.  1567  etc.), 
217 ;  Lipsius  (Ant.  1585),  304 ; 
Vorst  (Berl.  1672);  A.  Torrenius 
(L.  B.  1726) 

Valerius,  Cornelius  (Kornelis  Wou- 
ters),  216  ;  305 

Valesius,  (i)  Henricus  (Henri  de 
Valois),  287  ;  295,  335  ;  (2)  Hadria- 
nus  (Adrien  de  Valois,  1607-92), 
De  Cena  Trimalehionis,  Par.  1666 

Valla,  Laurentius  (Lorenzo  della 
Valle),  66-70;  128 

Valla,  Georgius  (Giorgio  della  Valle), 

133 

Varchi,  Benedetto,  135 

Varchiese,  Antonio  Francesco,  227 

Varinus  (Guarino  da  Favera),  107 
n.  3 ;  see  Gamers 

Variorum  editions,  445 

Varro,  quoted  by  Boccaccio,  13; 
Filelfo's  MS,  56  ;  De  Lingua 
Latina,  ed.  pr.  (Rome,  1471),  93, 
97,  103;  ed.  Perotti,  71;  Agostino 
(Rome,  1554),  160 ;  Scioppius 
(Ingolst.  1605),  363  ;  De  Re 
Rustic  a,  ed.  pr.  in  Script  ores  de 
Re  Rustica  (Ven.  1472),  103;  ed. 
Victorius  (Lyon,  1541),  r37 


Vavasseur,  Francois  (Franciscus  Va- 
.  vassor),  289 

Vegetius,  studied  by  Petrarch,  8  ;  MS 
discovered  at  St  Gallen,  29;  earliest 
dated  ed.  (Rome,  1487),  103;  ed. 
Scriverius  (Ant.  1585  etc.) ;  N. 
Schwebel  (Norimberg.  1 767) ;  Ou- 
dendorp  and  Bessel  (Strassb.  1806); 
also  in  Veteres  de  Re  mililari  Scrip- 
tores  (Wesel,  1670) 

Veleia  (S.  of  Piacenza),  exploration  of, 

39 ! 

Velius  Longus,  35 

Velleius  Paterculus,  36 ;  ed.  pr.  Beatus 
Rhenanus  (Bas.  1520),  263;  103; 
Acidalius  (Patav.  1590),  273;  Lip- 
sius (L.  B.  1591  etc.),  303  ;  Gruter 
(Frankf.  1607);  G.  F.  Vossius 
(L.  B.  1639);  Boekler  (Strassb. 
1642),  367';  Thysius  (L.  B.  1653); 
N.  Heinsius  (Amst.  1678),  325  ; 
Hudson  (Oxon.  1693) ;  Burman 
(L.  B.  1719),  443  ;  Ruhnken  (L.  B. 

I779).  459 

Velletri  on  Valla,  69  n.  i 
Venice,    Academy   of,   98 ;    printing 

at,  97 
Vercelli,   18 

Vergara,  Francisco,   159 
Vergecio,  Angelo,  175 
Vergerio,  Pietro  Paolo,  48  ;  20,  251, 

274 

Vernet,  Jacob,   299 
Vernias,  Nicoletto,   109  f 
Verona,  MS  of  Cicero  ad  Atlicuin  etc. 

discovered  at,  7 

Verrius  Flaccus,  160,  291;  see  Festus 
Vespasiano  da  Bisticci,  95  f;  221 
Vianello,  Francesco,   144 
Vibius    Sequester,    studied    by    Boc- 
caccio, 1 2 
Victorius,     Petrus     (Piero     Vettori), 

135-140;     105,     176,     186,     380; 

portrait,    136 
Vida,    Marco    Girolamo,    117,    133; 

9L    4r7 

Vienne,  Council  of,   168 
Vigerus  (Francois  Vigier),   287 
Villoison,     Jean     Baptiste     Gaspard 

d'Ansse   de,    397 f;    429,    459 
Vio,  Thomas  de,   109 
Virgil,  Medicean  MS,  379 ;  Bembine 
MS,   154;    Petrarch  and  Virgil,   5; 
Virgil   and    Plato,    82 ;   allegorical 
significance  of  Virgil,  82  ;  Landino, 
82  ;  Politian,  84  ;  ed.  pr.  (Rome  or 
Strassburg,  c.  1469),  97,  102,  103  ; 


INDEX. 


497 


Pomponius  Laetus,  93  ;  Aldine  ed. 
(1501),  99  ;  ed.  Navagero  (1514), 
118;  Cerda  (1608  f),  162;  N. 
Heinsius  (1664),  325  ;  Maaswyck 
(Leeuwarden,  1727)  with  Servius, 
Philargyrius  etc.;  Burman  (1746), 
443  ;  Martyn's  Bucolics  and  Georgics 
(1741-9),  iii  429;  Vida's  imitation 
of  Virgil,  [17;  Virgil,  Vida's  model 
of  epic  verse,  133  ;  Bembo's  apos- 
trophe, 115;  Orsini's  illustrations, 
153  ;  Virgil's  influence  on  Italian 
literature,  156  ;  Aeneid,  transl.  in 
Scottish  verse  by  Gawin  Douglas 
(ed.  1553);  transl.  Dryden  (1697), 
356  ;  Chr.  Pitt  (1740),  416  ;  Bucolics 
and  Georgics,  Jos.  Wart  on  ;  Appen- 
dix Vergiliana,  discovered  by  Boc- 
caccio, 13  ;  Bembo  on  Culex,  114; 
Catalecta,  ed.  Scaliger  (15/3),  201; 
Ciris,  ed.  Barth,  363 

Virgi-lius,  or   Vergilius,  84 

Virgilius,   Marcellus,   89 

Virulus,  Carolus,   212 

Visconti,  Ennio  Quirino  ;  Filippo 
Aurelio  ;  Pietro  ;  Ludovico  Tullio  ; 

383  f 

\itez,  Joannes,  274,  276 

Vitruvius,  28,  42  ;  ed.  pr.  (Rome, 
c.  1486),  103  ;  Era  Giocondo  (Ven. 
1511),  42  ;  study  of,  93,  122 
(Raphael)  ;  transl.  by  Martin,  194 

Vittorino  da  Eeltre,  53-55;  71,  183; 
portrait,  54 

Vives,  Juan  Luis,  2i4f;  158;  cp. 
Bonilla  y  San  Martin,  Luis  Vives  y 
lafilosofia  del  renacitnento,  814  pp. 
(Madrid,  1903),  with  portrait,  re- 
produced in  Revue  Hispanique,  xii 
(I9.05)»  373-412 

Volpi  (Vulpius),  Giannantonio,  379 

Volusenus,    Elorentius,   247 

Vorst,  Johannes,   365 

Vossius,  (i)  Gerardus  Johannes,  307— 
9?  3°r>  3 '6;  portrait,  308;  (2) 
Isaac,  322  ;  355 

Vulcanius  (De  Smet),  Bonaventura, 
301 

Wakefield,   (Gilbert,  430 

Wales,   250 

Warburton,   William,  417,  436 

Warham,  William,    128 

Warton,  Thomas  (1728-1790),  3  ;  ed. 

Theocritus,     with    scholia     (1770), 

418 


Wasse,  Joseph,  412,  447 

Watson,  Thomas,  (r)  bp  of  Lincoln, 

237;  (2)  poet,  of  Oxford?,  241 
Watt  (Vadianus),  Joachim  von,  260 
Webbe,  William,  237,  240 
Wedderburn,  David,  249 
Weingarten,  abbey  of,    29 
Weller  (von  Molsdorff),  Jacob,  364 
Wellesley,  Marquis  (1760-1842),  434 
Welser,  Marcus,  272 
Wessel,  Johann,  211 
Wesseling,   Peter,  453;  413 
Westphalia,  John  of,   213 
Whiston,   William,   412 
Wilson,   Sir  Thomas,  236 
Wimpheling,  Jacob,   255,   258 
Winckelmann,  Johann  Joachim,  279, 

384;  iii'  2  1-24 
Winterton,  Ralph  (1600-1636),  Poetae 

Afinores    Graeci   (Cantab.,    8    edd. 

between    1635  and   1700) 
Wittenberg,   univ.,  265^    272,   456 
Wolf,     (i)    Frieclrich    August,    397  f, 

433,  435,  446,  460,  465  ;  iii  51-60; 

(2)  Hieronymus,  268f;  272  ;  (3)  Jo- 
hann Christian,  210 
Wolfenbiittel  MSS,   21,   35,   366 
Wood,   Robert,  432 
Wotton,  William,   403  f 
Wouters,   Kornelis    (Corn.  Valerius), 

216 
Wowerius,    Johannes    (Jan    van    der 

Wouwer),  306,  365 
Wyttenbach,     Daniel,     461-5  ;    327, 

418,  431,  457,   460;    portrait,   462 

Xenophon,  De  Re  Equestri,  Aurispa's 
MS,  36  ;  f  Heron  and  Hellenica, 
transl.  by  Bruni,  46;  Cyrop.,  Ages., 
Lac.  Resp.,  by  Filelfo,  55  ;  Mem. 
by  Bessarion,  61  ;  Oeconomicits,  by 
Lapo,  66  ;  Hellenica,  ed.  pr.  (Ven. 
1503),  98,  104  ;  Opera,  ed.  Boninus 
(Klor.  1516),  104;  Apologia,  Agesi- 
latts,  Hieroti,  ed.  Reuchlin  (Hage- 
nau,  1520);  Opera  (Ven.  1525), 
105  ;  ed.  Brylinger  (Bas.  1545); 
Ment.  ed.  V'ictorius  (Flor.  1551), 
137  ;  Opera,  II.  Stephanus  (Par. 
1561,  Gen. '8 1 ) ;  Cyrop. ,  Savile  (1615) 

Xenophon  Ephesius,  ed.  pr.  Antonio 
Cocchi  (Lond.  1726);  Hemsterhuys 
on,  450 

Ximenes,  Cardinal,    157  f;    105 

Xylander  (Wilhelm  Holtzmann),  270; 


498  INDEX. 

Young,  (i)  Thomas,  344 ;  (2)  William,  I497)>  104  ;   Vincentius  Opsopoeus 

415  (Hagenau,     1535)  ;     Schott    (Ant. 

1612) 

Zabarella,  Jacopo,   109  Zimara,  Marcantonio,   109 

Zend,  439  Zomino  (Sozomeno)  da  Pistoia,  26,  28 

Zenobius,  proverbs  of,  ed.  fr.  (Flor.       Zonaras,  289 


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